Dynamic Controlled Atmosphere Storage –

A New Technology for the New York

Storage Industry?
5.5 3500
Chris B. Watkins 5.0 O2 3250
Fα
Department of Horticulture 4.5 Fα (air)
3000

Oxygen concentration (%)

Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 4.0 2750
3.5 2500
3.0 2250

Fα
2.5 2000

T
he New York apple industry relies heavily on controlled 2.0 1750
atmosphere (CA) storage in addition to temperature and 1.5 1500
relative humidity control to maintain fruit quality during 1.0 1250
storage and to ensure 0.5 1000
visually appealing, fla- 0.0 750
“ The New York fruit industry is vorful, and healthy ap-
ples are available to the
0 12 24 36 48 60 72 84 96
500

very familiar with the new storage Hours

A grafted tree produced in Geneva, New York, Phil Forsline and Herb Aldwinckle evaluating ap-
from a scion taken from a tree in a Kazakh apple ple varieties from Kazakstan. (Helene Bozzy, SEPPIA)
forest. William Srmack, farm manager at Geneva,
displays the quality fruit of this genotype that has
potential use by breeders. (USDA/ARS)
the Genetic Resources of Grapes, Apples, and Tart Cherries.” In
total, 6,883 diverse apple varieties are maintained at the PGRU.
This includes 2510 apple clones (1,410 Malus x domestica; 329
Malus hybrids; and 771 clones belonging to ~54 Malus species)
all maintained in duplicate field plantings at Geneva. Addition-
ally, 1,565 seed lots of wild Malus species including approximately
950 seed lots of Malus sieversii, the main progenitor species of the
cultivated apple (M. x domestica) from Central Asia are kept in
cold storage at the PGRU with back ups at the USDA-ARS National
Center for Genetic Resources Preservation (NCGRP) in Ft. Collins
CO. About 2,808 seedlings representing 310 of these M. sieversii
seed lots are being grown as trees for field evaluation. Of the 6,883
apple varieties, a core collection of 255 clones has been designed to
represent the diversity of apple. Furthermore, approximately 2,275
clones are backed up in cryogenic storage (liquid Nitrogen) at the
NCGRP and 436 are also in cryogenic storage on-site at PGRU.
Most of the varieties used as parents for breeding new varieties
of apples in the U.S. come from what is known as the “North America
gene pool.” It dates back to seedling orchards planted when settlers
first arrived here between the 17th and 19th centuries. This source is
often referred to as the “Johnny Appleseed gene pool.” This alludes to
John Chapman, who during America’s infancy spent nearly 50 years
planting apple seeds throughout the wilderness of Pennsylvania,
Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois. Many common varieties—including
Red Delicious, Golden Delicious, Jonathan, and McIntosh—were
discovered as chance seedlings from this pool. Apple breeders have
made great strides already using them to produce new ones that are
now in the world marketplace. But the fact is that this gene pool is
very narrow compared to what can be found by tracing further back,
through Western Europe, to Central Asia where it is thought apples
originated. Indeed, the mother lode of apple genes is in Central Asia
—Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan in particular—which is likely the center
of origin or ancestral home of familiar domestic apples (Malus x
domestica) such as Red Delicious, Golden Delicious, and McIntosh.
Technician Greg Noden characterizes morpho-
logical traits of M. sieversii fruit and cuts the fruit
in preparation for taking a digital image for the
website www.ars-grin.gov/gen (USDA/ARS)
Widening a Narrow Base—Collection Expeditions to
Central Asia, the Apple’s Ancestral Home
Silk Road traders and their predecessors started the spread of
apples from Central Asia to other parts of the world. But the seeds
they carried likely represented a narrow genetic sampling. That’s
probably why today’s American domestic apples have a fairly narrow
genetic base that makes them susceptible to many diseases.
From 1989 to 1996, the USDA sponsored expeditions to Central
Asia to collect seeds and tree samples (scions) from unique apples
trees growing in natural forests. Seven expeditions were completed
from 1989 to 1999. Four of them were to Central Asia to collect the
wild apple Malus sieversii, the main progenitor of the commercial
apple, M. x domestica.
The Experiment Station’s Herb Aldwinckle was a participant
on the first trip to Central Asia in 1989. Philip Forsline, who is the
curator of the national apple collection, was a member of seven of
the trips, including four to central Asia to collect apple material,
conserve it, and, after evaluation, distribute it to breeders and ge-
neticists worldwide. Other trips were to China (Sichuan), Russian,
and Turkish sectors of the Caucasus region, and Germany. He recalls
the expeditions as hard work. Herb joined Phil also on the trips to
China and Turkey. Often, the only way of getting to remote mountain
areas was by helicopter, long hikes, or half-day-long jeep rides down
bumpy, dusty roads. What we collected made possible our re-creation
of Kazakhstan, China and the Caucasus region here in Geneva. All
that effort is now bearing fruit, literally and scientifically. We tapped
millions of years of adaptations to improve today’s apple.
The trips resulted in at least a doubling of the known genetic
diversity of apples. In all, the scientists returned from Central Asia
with 949 apple tree accessions. Most of the specimens were brought
here as seed, but 50 were cataloged as “elite clones”—grafts of the
original trees. The seeds gathered on the trips increased PGRU’s
apple collection by 1,140 samples, to over 3,900. The visits to Ka-
zakhstan and Kyrgyzstan alone added 949 accessions of M. sieversii.
technology based on SmartFresh . TM consumer. In addition,
SmartFresh technol-
However, another fruit storage Figure 1. An example of the Fα fluorescence signal detected in ‘Summer-
ogy, which is based on land McIntosh’ apples held at 20°C in air (open circle) and in a progressively
technology has become available
the ethylene inhibitor diminished oxygen environment (dark circle). The spike in Fα begins as the
within the last several years. The 1-methylcyclopropene chamber oxygen levels fall below 1% at 72 h and continues upward until the
technology, known as Dynamic (1-MCP), is now used oxygen concentration is increased at 84 h (Prange et al., 2003; Reproduced
Controlled Atmosphere (DCA) with permission of Dr. R.K. Prange).
extensively by New
storage, which is commercially York storage opera-
available as HarvestWatchTM detects tors. The advantage of The most successful strategy to date is based on real-time sensing
the responses of fruit to low O2 SmartFresh is that it of fluorescence changes using a Fluorescence interactive response
in the storage atmosphere. Using helps maintain quality monitor (FIRM; Satlantic inc., NS, Canada). This technology is pat-
DCA it is possible to maintain O2 at not only during stor- ented and it has been marketed under the name HarvestWatchTM
age, but also during since 2002 (DeLong et al., 2004a). There are about 120 apple storage
lower levels and better maintain
product quality compared with the entire marketing facilities using HarvestWatch technology worldwide, and this num-
chain as it prevents ber is increasing; most are in Northern Italy but units are operating
‘safer’ atmospheres necessary for
softening at warmer in Germany, the Netherlands and Washington State (R. Prange,
standard or ultra low O2 CA storage.”
temperatures. personal communication).
Initially, CA stor- Chlorophyll fluorescence can be used to measure stress in the
age technology was apple fruit. As the O2 level in the storage environment decreases
restricted to standard or traditional CA storage in which O2 levels over time, a point is reached when the fluorescence signal increases
were maintained at about 2-3%. However, improvements in gas (Figure 1). The increase is a signal that the fruit is under low O2 stress.
monitoring equipment and storage room structure have resulted in In response, the O2 level around the fruit can be raised. Relief from
the development of several additional CA-based methods to improve stress is reflected in a decrease of the fluorescence signal.
quality maintenance. One of these methods is ultra low oxygen (ULO) Depending on the storage operation, a number of HarvestWatch
CA storage, which maintains O2 levels near 1%. ULO has become systems, each containing six fruit (Figure 2), are used to monitor
routine for some industries, but it has not been successfully used in responses of fruit to the storage environment. These monitors
New York because of our varieties and climate. Fruit stored at low O2 are connected to a computer control system so that the storage
levels can accumulate alcoholic off-flavors that result from anaerobic operator can adjust O2 levels in response to any fluctuations in the
respiration. fluorescence signals. These changes may occur not only because of
deliberately applied low O2 stress, but also because of changes in
Dynamic Controlled Atmosphere (DCA) Storage fruit condition over time. Therefore, HarvestWatch can be used to
Dynamic Controlled Atmosphere (DCA) uses technologies monitor changes either resulting from natural fruit senescence or
that allow sensing of fruit responses to low O2. Therefore, instead those that may result from problems with equipment malfunction.
of maintaining the “safe” 2-3% O2 levels which are higher than In practice, a buffer of about 0.2% O2 is added to the level at which
optimum to obtain maximum benefits, it is possible to lower the a fluorescence response to detected in order to provide a safety
O2 levels over time in response to changes in fruit metabolism. By margin.
lowering the O2 levels in the storage atmosphere to the lowest pos- An important feature of DCA is that it is a chemical-free tech-
sible before anaerobic respiration produces ethanol, ripening can be nology that meets the requirements for organic produce. Although
delayed more effectively than in standard or ULO CA storage. 1-MCP has a non-toxic mode of action, negligible residue, and is
Responses of fruit to low O2 can be detected by measuring active at very low concentrations, it is not a naturally occurring
ethanol production, fruit respiration, and chlorophyll fluorescence. post-harvest chemical.

6 NEW YORK STATE HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY NEW YORK FRUIT QUARTERLY . VOLUME 16 . NUMBER 1 . SPRING 2008 23
Requirements for DCA and Suitability for the
New York Industry
The Apple Collection in Geneva, NY:
The software and hardware required for DCA is reliable,
relatively inexpensive and easily installed within existing CA fa- A Resource for The Apple Industry
cilities. However, a feature of DCA that makes it less suitable for
many New York storage operations may be that DCA is limited
to those operations that have high quality storage rooms with
Today and for Generations to Come
sufficient air-tightness and gas control to maintain O2 regimes Gennaro Fazio1, Phil Forsline1, Herb Aldwinckle2, and Luis Pons3
below 1%. Although there is a general rule that CO2 should be 1
Plant Genetics Resources Unit, USDA-ARS, Geneva, NY
reduced whenever O2 is reduced, there have been no reports of 2
Dept. of Plant Patholgy, NYSAES, Cornell University, Geneva, NY
an increase in CO2-induced disorders when using DCA commer- 3
USDA-ARS, Beltsville, MD
cially or experimentally (R. Prange, personal communication).
The physiological explanation may be that DCA is placing the
O2 concentration at the Anaerobic Concentration Point, which
The National

L
means that the internal CO2 production is at its lowest (see Fig- ocated at the New York State Agricultural Experiment Station
ure 3). The initial recommended CO2 concentration is 1%. With Figure 2. The HarvestWatch™ fluorescence system showing the fluorescence at Geneva, NY is a little known great public resource—the Apple Collection
interactive response monitor (FIRM) unit affixed in an upper sampling kennel
experience, this has been increased to higher values, e.g. 2.5% in largest apple collection in the world. Also little appreciated The National
(center), apples in the bottom kennel (right) and a central hub (left). Before
different commercial and research locations, without induction storage, apples are placed in the bottom kennel over which the upper kennel is how critical this collection of apples
of any CO2 disorders. The rate of fruit cooling and rate of low O2 housing the FIRM unit is securely fastened. In storage, the FIRM units are wired colle ction is for was assembled and
establishment for DCA is the same as for rapid CA. The benefits to the hub which controls the interaction of electronic signals from a central
computer to each attached FIRM device. (Reproduced with permission of Dr.
“ The national collection of apples at the future of the is maintained by the
provided using the low O2 levels used in DCA can be achieved in Geneva, which was assembled and is industry. More and Plant Genetic Re-
R.K. Prange).
both new and existing individual CA rooms of various sizes or a more of the new sources Unit (PGRU)
large number of CA rooms. It depends on the air-tightness of each
maintained by Agricultural Research apple and apple located on the cam-
room and the ability of the storage operator to control O2. DCA Service of the USDA, has thousands rootstock varieties pus of Cornell Uni-
uses a computer to generate and display the fluorescence signals of varieties. But the varieties of Malus that we have today versity’s New York
Effect of Oxygen Concentration on
24/7 used by the storage operator to adjust the O2 concentration sieversii, the main progenitor of the come from breeding State Agricultural Ex-
O2 Consumption and CO2 Production
in each room, either manually or via computer 200 programs that periment Station. The
commercial apple collected from the wild
DCA also requires more training than operating a traditional have utilized the PGRU is part of a net- Plant geneticist Gennaro Fazio (left) and horti-
Anaerobic apple forests of Central Asia (Kazakhstan
CA in order to interpret the information provided in the chloro- Compenstion CO2 Production genetic resources work of germplasm culturist Phil Forsline observe fruit diversity from
phyll fluorescence measurement. While this may be perceived to Point in particular) have genetic resistance seedling trees of M. sieversii. (USDA/ARS)
150
being maintained repositories that be-
be a negative thing by some storage operators, it is likely to result to diseases that may help apple breeders and characterized long to the National Plant Germplasm System (NPGS) of the United
in earlier recognition of problems with the fruit or malfunctioning breed new varieties and rootstocks that in these apple States Department of Agriculture (USDA) Agricultural Research Ser-
CA equipment. For example, drift of the Fα signal (up or down) O2 Consumption collections. vice (ARS). The PGRU is tasked with “Conservation and Utilization of
over weeks or months can serve as a warning to the storage opera- 100 do a better job of defending themselves
tor that the fruit have changed and that a visual check is warranted against diseases. This genetic makeup
(R. Prange, personal communication). Unusual changes in the DCA CO2 Production (fermentation) may revolutionize the nation’s—and
signal, e.g. sudden spikes, without an associated drop in the level of 50 perhaps the world’s—apple industry.”
O2 concentration have warned commercial operators of equipment Fermentation threshold
failures that would ruin the fruit, eg frozen or leaky O2 sample lines,
if it had not been detected by the DCA system. 0
DCA requires the use of representative fruit, because a relatively 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
small number of fruit—six fruit for each FIRM sensor—is used to Oxygen concentration (Pressure, kPa)
monitor the condition of all the fruit in the CA storage. In commer-
cial storages, the DCA recommendation is at least one sensor for Figure 3. Effect of oxygen concentration on O2 consumption and CO2 produc-
every 250 bins of fruit. Evidence to date from commercial storages tion (from Prange, Bishop and DeLong, 2003).
and research results is that there are major differences in the mini-
mal acceptable low O2 level between cultivars and growing season. however, because the maximum storage period tested was only six
There has been insufficient work in New York to show whether the months, a short period of time for scald control.
variability among orchard blocks typical of our growing region will Although scald was eliminated in ‘Cortland’ and ‘Delicious’
permit safe adoption of DCA technology. However, it is somewhat after nine months of DCA storage plus a seven-day shelf life in a
reassuring that commercial DCA experience indicates that the low O2 Canadian study (DeLong et al., 2004a), subsequent research showed
threshold within the same cultivar in the same DCA room is similar that DCA-stored fruit with no scald at removal can develop vary-
with the only differences being in the height of the fluorescence spike ing amounts of scald at shelf temperature (DeLong et al., 2007).
amongst the sensors. We have not carried out research in New York, and therefore no
research that directly compares DCA and 1-MCP treated apples
Effects of DCA on Quality is available.
Storage disorders. As was first thought with 1-MCP, it has been In Nova Scotia, two studies show that scald control with either
suggested that DCA can control superficial scald, and therefore use of technology is limited. Scald development in ‘Cortland’ and ‘Deli-
the post harvest antioxidant diphenylamine (DPA) could be avoided. cious’ apples was markedly reduced by DCA compared with stan-
In Italy, for example, research has shown that scald was completely dard controlled atmosphere (SCA) (Table 1). However, the benefits
controlled in ‘Granny Smith’ by DCA or 1-MCP treatment in contrast of DCA for Cortland apples were still not acceptable from a com- Portion of National Apple Collection with varieties from natural forests of Central Asia. (Helene Bozzy, SEPPIA)
to scald development in ULO-stored fruit. This work was limited mercial perspective, only after four months of storage. Control of
24 NEW YORK STATE HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY NEW YORK FRUIT QUARTERLY . VOLUME 16 . NUMBER 1 . SPRING 2008 5
 NYSHS
scald can also be lost in SmartFresh-treated Table 1. Superficial scald incidence in ‘Cortland’ Table 2. Superficial scald incidence in ‘Redcort
apples. In another Canadian study, ‘Redcort and ‘Delicious’ apples stored in standard con- Cortland’ apples either untreated or treated with
trolled atmosphere (SCA) and dynamic controlled SmartFresh (0.9 ppm 1-MCP) and stored in stan-
Cortland’ apples were either untreated or
atmosphere (DCA) storage for 4 and 8 months plus dard controlled atmosphere storage for 3, 6 and
New York State Horticultural Society treated with SmartFresh and stored in CA a 7-day day shelf life (modified from DeLong et al., 9 months plus a 7 day shelf life (modified from De-
for up to nine months. The results show that 2007). Long et al., 2004b).
Yearly membership includes HortSense Newsletter, very good control of scald was obtained for
Hort Flash Updates, and the New York Fruit Quarterly. six months of storage, but by nine months, Storage ‘Cortland’ ‘Delicious’ Storage time Superficial scald (%)
commercially unacceptable levels of scald time Superficial scald (%) (months) Untreated SmartFresh
Founded in 1855, the mission of the New York State Horticultural Society were present (Table 2). (months) SCA DCA SCA DCA
3 10 4
is to foster the growth, development and profitability of The marketplace is extremely sensitive 4 68 18 10 5 6 67 2
the fruit industry in New York State. about scald and any signs of the disorder 8 90 43 23 10 9 68 33
It accomplishes this by: can result in rejection of loads. DCA is ap-
• Supporting educational opportunities for members parently no more effective than SmartFresh
• Promoting the industry in controlling scald in some varieties. While
scald can be controlled by SmartFresh in
• Representing the industry in matters of public policy
varieties such as ‘Cortland’, we have found that this control can be be essential to avoid risk of scald development in highly susceptible
variable. Loss of scald control is associated with release of fruit varieties such as ‘Cortland’.
Contact Us: NYSHS from inhibition of ethylene production. Fruit firmness. Firmness is a critical factor in marketing of
630 W. North Street Another interesting feature of DCA is that, unlike 1-MCP, it apples. Control of softening, not only during storage but through
Hedrick Hall Ph 315-787-2404 appears to not significantly increase the risk of external CO2 injury. the entire marketing chain, has been a major reason for the rapid
Geneva, NY 14456 Fx 315-787-2216 Increased risk of CO2 injury is a feature of 1-MCP treatment, es- uptake of SmartFresh technology. The same two Canadian studies
www.NYSHS.org wilsonk36@hotmail.com pecially with ‘Empire’ as reported in an earlier NY Fruit Quarterly have been used to compare the effects of DCA and SmartFresh. It

www.NYSHS.org
article (Razafimbelo et al., 2006). CO2 injury is also controlled by should be recognized that while one variety ‘Cortland’ is in common,
DPA when it is applied to inhibit scald development (Watkins there are limitations to direct comparisons of studies carried out in
and Nock, 2007). Because some of our New York ‘Empire’ blocks different years.
produce fruit that are highly sensitive to CO2 injury, a cautious Table 3 shows a comparison of standard CA and DCA on firm-
MEMBERSHIP APPLICATION FORM approach may be warranted, with at least a proportion of fruit in ness of ‘Cortland’ and ‘Delicious’ apples before and after a shelf life
the rooms being DPA-treated. The bottom line is that DCA cannot period. ‘Cortland’ apples remained much firmer in DCA than in SCA
Yes! I will support the NYSHS and its mission to Educate, Promote and be recommended as a non-chemical scald control method in New storage, especially at the longest storage period of eight months.
Protect the New York Fruit Industry
York without further research. DPA treatment of fruit would still However, the fruit softened markedly during the shelf life period of
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4 NEW YORK STATE HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY NEW YORK FRUIT QUARTERLY . VOLUME 16 . NUMBER 1 . SPRING 2008 25
seven days, and were Table 3. Firmness (lb) of ‘Cortland’ and ‘Delicious’ Acknowledgements
firmer in the DCA- apples stored in standard controlled atmosphere I would like to thank Dr. Robert Prange of Agriculture and Agri-
(SCA) and dynamic controlled atmosphere (DCA)
stored fruit than in Food Canada for permission to reproduce the figures used in this
storage for 4 and 8 months plus 0 or 7 days of shelf
the SCA only af- life (modified from DeLong et al., 2007). article, and for his valuable personal observations.
ter eight months.
B enefits of D C A Storage ‘Cortland’ ‘Delicious’ References
on firmness, both time Firmness (lb) DeLong, J.M., Prange, R.K., Leyte, J.C., and Harrison, P.A. 2004a.
immediately after (months) SCA DCA SCA DCA A new technology that determines low-oxygen thresholds
storage and after a in controlled-atmosphere-stored apples. HortTechnology
4 + 0d 14.7 15.5 18.2 18.6
seven-day shelf life 4 + 7d 11.4 11.6 17.3 18.5 14:262-266.
were much greater 8 + 0d 11.9 14.1 15.9 17.1 DeLong, J.M., Prange, R.K. and Harrison, P.A. 2004b. The influence of
for ‘Delicious’ ap- 8 + 7d 10.2 11.8 15.4 17.0 1-methylcyclopropene on ‘Cortland’ and ‘McIntosh’ apple qual-
ples. ity following long-term storage. HortScience 39:1062-1065.
In the case of DeLong, J.M., Prange, R.K., and Harrison, P.A. 2007. Chlorophyll
SmartFresh-treated Table 4. Firmness (lb) of ‘Redcort Cortland’ apples fluorescence-based low-O2 CA storage of organic ‘Cortland’
‘Cortland’ apples, either untreated or treated with SmartFresh (0.9 and ‘Delicious’ apples. Acta Hort. 737:31-37.
no data about the ppm 1-MCP) and stored in standard controlled Prange, R.K., DeLong, J.M., Harrison, P.A., Leyte, J.C. and McLean,
s h elf l ife p e r io d atmosphere storage for 3, 6 and 9 months plus a S.D. 2003. Oxygen concentration affects chlorophyll fluorescence
7 day shelf life (estimated from graphical data De-
effects were pro- Long et al., 2004b). in chlorophyll-containing fruit and vegetables. J. Amer. Soc. Hort.
vided (Table 4), but Sci. 128:603-607.
SmartFresh-treated Storage time Firmness (lb) Razafimbelo, F., Nock, J., Watkins, C. 2006. Managing external carbon
apples were much (months) Untreated SmartFresh dioxide injury with and without SmartFreshTM (1-MCP). New
firmer, even at nine York Fruit Quarterly 14(3): 7-10.
0 17.3 17.3
months storage plus 3 12.6 15.5
Watkins, C., Nock, J. 2007. Managing external carbon dioxide in-
a seven-day shelf 6 10.1 15.5 jury during storage: A sequel. New York Fruit Quarterly 15(2):
life, than shown for 9 9.7 15.7 9-12.
DCA-stored fruit in
Table 3. Chris Watkins is a research and extension professor of Postharvest Science and
The take home message from these comparisons is that the leads Cornell’s postharvest and storage program for fruit crops. He also serves as
variety effects on the benefits of DCA technology are probably the the associate director of Cornell Cooperative Extension.
most important factor in its success compared with SmartFresh.
Control of softening by SmartFresh was more persistent than
DCA for ‘Cortland’, while post-storage softening of ‘Delicious’
was well controlled by DCA storage. Other studies indicate that
post-storage softening of DCA-stored fruit may be lower than for
standard CA-stored fruit of ‘Granny Smith’ and other varieties.
However, the paucity of published information about other variet-
ies and factors such as fruit maturity on the effectiveness of DCA
needs to be addressed in order for the New York storage industry
to make good decisions about the value of the technology.

Conclusions
An advantage of DCA is that it is a non-chemical treatment that
meets requirements for organic produce or when post-harvest
chemical use is not permitted. However, DCA storage requires
high quality CA rooms and electronic atmosphere control, and
is less flexible than 1-MCP, which can be applied in rooms, tents,
and containers. DCA- and 1-MCP-based technologies slow soften-
ing, including during shelf life periods, resulting in better quality
produce for the consumer. Both technologies inhibit development
of superficial scald, but their effects on softening and scald are
affected by variety. Limited scald control by either technology,
at least for the limited number of varieties tested, suggests that
neither provides a risk-free replacement for DPA for highly scald-
susceptible varieties.
In summary, DCA technology is an important addition to
the arsenal of the storage operator, but like SmartFresh, it has its
strengths and weaknesses. More research on DCA for the New
York industry is warranted.

26 NEW YORK STATE HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY NEW YORK FRUIT QUARTERLY . VOLUME 16 . NUMBER 1 . SPRING 2008 3