Assignment

Two Dimension Dynamical system.

List the methods for solving Linear quadratic Equation.

Discrete Model

Boundary Problems & integral Equation

Submitted To
Qasim Javad

Submitted By
Hafsa Qayyum

Roll No
19013323-008

Course
Applied Math

Department of Chemical Engineering & Technology

Faculty of Engineering
University of Gujrat, Hafiz Hayyat Campus
Two Dimension Dynamical System
A two‐dimensional dynamical system is proposed that is described by a pair of nonlinear
ordinary differential equations(ODEs) with a complex parameter. It reduces to Abel’s
nonlinear ODE of the first kind by an appropriate transformation. Using this fact the
properties of solutions are investigated in detail with the aid of numerical computations. It is
found that various types of bifurcation phenomena occur depending on the values of the
parameter. In particular, the solution is shown to blow up in finite time under certain
conditions. In order to visualize the behaviors of dynamical motions the trajectories
of solutions are depicted in the plane. Finally, a discussion is made on some generalizations
of the proposed system.
Boundary Value Problem
In mathematics, in the field of differential equations, a boundary value problem is a
differential equation together with a set of additional constraints, called the boundary
conditions.[1] A solution to a boundary value problem is a solution to the differential
equation which also satisfies the boundary conditions.

Shows a region where a differential equation is valid and the associated boundary values

Boundary value problems arise in several branches of physics as any physical differential
equation will have them. Problems involving the wave equation, such as the determination
of normal modes, are often stated as boundary value problems. A large class of important
boundary value problems are the Sturm–Liouville problems. The analysis of these problems
involves the eigenfunctions of a differential operator.

To be useful in applications, a boundary value problem should be well posed. This means that
given the input to the problem there exists a unique solution, which depends continuously on
the input. Much theoretical work in the field of partial differential equations is devoted to
proving that boundary value problems arising from scientific and engineering applications are
in fact well-posed.

Among the earliest boundary value problems to be studied is the Dirichlet problem, of

finding the harmonic functions (solutions to Laplace's equation); the solution was given by
the Dirichlet's principle.
Integral Equation
In mathematics, integral equations are equations in which an unknown function appears
under an integral sign. There is a close connection between differential and integral
equations, and some problems may be formulated either way. See, for example, Green's
function, Fredholm theory, and Maxwell's equations.

The most basic type of integral equation is called a Fredholm equation of the first type.

The notation follows Arfken. Here φ is an unknown function,  f  is a known function, and K is

another known function of two variables, often called the kernel function. Note that the limits
of integration are constant: this is what characterizes a Fredholm equation.

If the unknown function occurs both inside and outside of the integral, the equation is known
as a Fredholm equation of the second type,

The parameter λ is an unknown factor, which plays the same role as the eigenvalue in linear
algebra.

If one limit of integration is a variable, the equation is called a Volterra equation. The

following are called Volterra equations of the first and second types, respectively,

In all of the above, if the known function  f  is identically zero, the equation is called
a homogeneous integral equation. If  f  is nonzero, it is called an inhomogeneous integral
equation.

Methods of Solving Quadratic Equations:

There are three main methods for solving quadratic equations:

 Factorization
 Completing the square method
 Quadratic Equation Formula

In addition to the three methods discussed here, we also have a graphical method. As you may have
guessed, it involves plotting the given equation for various values of x. The intersection of the curves
thus obtained with the real axis will give us the solutions. Let’s see the others in detail.

Factorization

The first and simplest method of solving quadratic equations is the factorization method.
Certain quadratic equations can be factorised. These factors, if done correctly will give two
linear equations in x. Hence, from these equations, we get the value of x. Let’s see an
example and we will get to know more about it.

Completing the Square Method

Each quadratic equation has a square term. If we could get two square terms on two
sides of the quality sign, we will again get a linear equation.
Quadratic Equation Formula
There are equations that can’t be reduced using the above two methods. For such equations, a
more powerful method is required. A method that will work for every quadratic equation.
This is the general quadratic equation formula. We define it as follows: If ax2 + bx + c = 0 is
a quadratic equation, then the value of x is given by the following formula:

Just plug in the values of a, b and c, and do the calculations. The quantity in the square root is
called the discriminant or D. The below image illustrates the best use of a quadratic equation.

Discrete Model
Discrete mathematics is the study of mathematical structures that are
fundamentally discrete rather than continuous. In contrast to real numbers that have the
property of varying "smoothly", the objects studied in discrete mathematics – such
as integers, graphs, and statements in logic – do not vary smoothly in this way, but have
distinct, separated values. Discrete mathematics therefore excludes topics in "continuous
mathematics" such as calculus or Euclidean geometry. Discrete objects can often
be enumerated by integers. More formally, discrete mathematics has been characterized as
the branch of mathematics dealing with countable sets (finite sets or sets with the
same cardinality as the natural numbers). However, there is no exact definition of the term
"discrete mathematics." Indeed, discrete mathematics is described less by what is included
than by what is excluded: continuously varying quantities and related notions.
The set of objects studied in discrete mathematics can be finite or infinite. The term finite
mathematics is sometimes applied to parts of the field of discrete mathematics that deals with
finite sets, particularly those areas relevant to business.