John Ralph P.

Briones MICROBIOLOGY ( LECTURE ) BS BIOLOGY AB-21

CASE STUDY 1

 What subjects are studies by the science of parasitology?

- The study of Parasitology it is scientific discipline concerned with the study of the biology of
parasites and parasitic diseases, it's include, biochemistry, physiology, molecular biology,
ecology, evolution and clinical aspects of parasites.
 What can you conclude about the total number of NTD cases, given that everyone in the
bottom billion has at least one infection.
- Therefore Neglected tropical diseases (NTD), such as dengue, lymphatic filariasis, trachoma,
and leishmaniasis are called neglected because they generally afflict the world's poor and
historically have not received as much attention as other diseases.

CASESTUDY 2

 What is the definition of a vector and how are vectors involved in these diseases?
- Vector, are illnesses that are transmitted by vectors, include mosquitoes, ticks, and fleas.
Vectors can carry infective pathogens such as viruses, bacteria , and protozoa , which can be
transferred from one host to another.
 What are some possible solutions to the problem of neglected diseases?
- The possible solution are Clean water, sanitary food handling, and good hygiene can prevent
diseases such as guinea-worm disease, schistosomiasis, soil-transmitted helminthiasis, and
trachoma.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. Briefly explain how the eukaryotics cell could have evolved from prokaryotic ones.
- Evidence suggests evolution from prokaryotic organisms by symbiosis. Organelles originated
from prokaryotic cells trapped inside them.
2. Which kingdoms of the five kingdom system contain eukaryotic microorganism?
- Protista the single-celled eukaryotes, Fungi, fungus and related organisms, Plantae the
plants, and Animalia the animals.
3. How do unicellular, colonial and multicellular organisms differ from each other? Give example
of each type.
- All protozoa, as well as numerous algae and fungi, are unicellular. Truly multicellular
organisms are found only among plants and animals and some of the fungi and algae.
Unicellular organisms are made up of only one cell that carries out all of the functions needed
by the organism, Multicellular organisms are composed of more than one cell, with groups of
cells differentiating to take on specialized functions.colonial organisms are usually unicellular
organisms that live in large groups to maintain survival.
4. How are flagella and cilia similar? How are they different
 - Flagella and cilia are both protein appendages of motility that work by waving. Flagella are
long and exist as single appendages whereas cilia are shorter but exist in large numbers over
the cell surface the similarity is that both are used for locomotion.
The difference of the two are flagella is thread like cilia is hair like flagella is longer than cilia
flagella usually 1 or 2 but cilia in large number flagella.Their amount is locomotes single cilia
locomote in association with each other.
5. Which eukaryotic cell have a cell wall?
- Fungi and most algae have a thick, rigid cell wall. Protozoa, a few algae, and all animal cells
lack a cell wall and have only a membrane
6. What are the function of the glycocalyx, cell wa and membrane?
- Glycocalyx adherence, protection, and signal reception, Cell wall provides structural support
and shape, and Cell membrane Serves as selectively permeable barrier in transport
7. In what ways does the nucleus function like the "brain" of the cell?
- The cell nucleus acts like the brain of the cell. It helps control eating, movement, and
reproduction. If it happens in a cell, chances are the nucleus knows about it. The nucleus is not
always in the center of the cell.
8. Explain how ribosomes and the nucleolus and relates.
- Nucleolus - dark area for rRNA synthesis and ribosome assembly
9. How does the nucleus communicate with the cytoplasm
- Nucleus is not fully isolated from the cytoplasm. Nuclear membrane has pores on it which
allow transportation of small proteins and RNA. Proteins which have nuclear localization
signal can pass through this channels from cytoplasm to nucleus. Also, RNA and proteins can
exit the nucleus to cytoplasm depending on the signal attached to them. Also, fluid can pass
through these pores- thus making nuclear membrane a semi-permeable barrier.
10. Compare and contrast the smooth ER, the rough ER and the Golgi apparatus in structure and
function.
- Rough ER provides proteins and lipids for the Golgi apparatus. Smooth ER provides vesicles
for the cis-face of the Golgi apparatus. The rough endoplasmic reticulum is mostly associated
with the production, modification, and transfer of proteins.
11. Compare the structures and functions of the mitochondrion and the chloroplast.
- Mitochondria and Chloroplasts are organelles that help to provide energy to living
organisms. Mitochondria are found in both plants and animals. The main function of the
chloroplast is to create and store energy for an organism, while the mitochondria allows the
organism to utilize energy for its metabolic processes.
12. What makes the mitochondrion and chloroplast unique among the organelles?
- Mitochondria are the "powerhouses" of the cell, breaking down fuel molecules and
capturing energy in cellular respiration. Chloroplasts are found in plants and algae. They're
responsible for capturing light energy to make sugars in photosynthesis.
13. Describe some of the ways that organisms use lysosomes.
- Lysosomes -Vesicles containing enzymes that originate from Golgi apparatus, Involved in
intracellular digestion of food particles and in protection against invading microbes.
14. For what reasons would a cell need a "skeleton"?
 - Eukaryotic cells that lack a cell wall for support use an intracellular skeleton, or cytoskeleton,
to maintain their cell shape and support. The cytoskeleton is also used for anchoring
organelles, movement vesicle trafficking, and cellular division.
15. Review the major differences and similarities between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells
- Like a prokaryotic cell, a eukaryotic cell has a plasma membrane, cytoplasm, and ribosomes,
but a eukaryotic cell is typically larger than a prokaryotic cell, has a true nucleus and has other
membrane-bound organelles that allow for compartmentalization of functions.
16. Compare the structures of yeast and hyphae cells and differentiate between yeast and molds.
- Yeasts do not have true hyphae. Instead, they form multicellular structures called pseudo-
hyphae. Molds have microscopic filaments called hyphae. Molds are very colorful and maybe
orange, green, black, brown, pink or purple.
17. Tell how fungi obtain nutrients, and in what habitats one would expect to find them.
- Fungi are heterotropic organisms and acquire nutrients from organic sources or substrates.
Most of the fungi are called saprobes because they depend on dead plants and animals in soil
or in water to obtain nutrients. Some fungi are parasites living on animals or plants.
18. Describe the two main types of asexual fungal spores and how they are formed. Name several
types of conidia.
- All are heterotrophic, Majority are harmless saprobes living off dead plants and animals
Some are parasites, living on the tissues of other organisms, but none are obligate Mycoses
fungal infections, Extremely widespread distribution in many habitats.
19. Describe the three main types of sexual spores and construct a simple diagram to show how
each is formed.
- Examples of fungi with identified sexual reproduction include Zygomycotina, Ascomycotina,
and Basidiomycotina, which produce zoospores, ascospores, and basidiospores, respectively.
20. Explain general features of fungal classification, give examples of the four fungal phyla and
describe their structure and significance.
- Fungi are usually classified in four divisions the Chytridiomycota Zygomycota, Ascomycota,
and the Basidiomycota. Placement into a division is based on the way in which the fungus
reproduces sexually. the kingdom Fungi, which includes the yeasts, rusts, smuts, mildews,
molds, and mushrooms. There are also many funguslike organisms, including slime molds and
oomycetes, that do not belong to kingdom Fungi but are often called fungi.
21. Define the term mycosis and explain the levels of invasion of the body by fungi.
- condition and disease caused by a fungus. Superficial mycoses, Cutaneous mycoses,
Subcutaneous mycoses, Systemic mycoses
Opportunistic mycoses: caused by opportunistic pathogens mode of transmission -inhalation
or normal flora gone bad level of tissue infected systemic infections the common denominator
is that the patient is seriously immunocompromised.
22. What is working definition of a "protist"?
- .The working definition of a protist is any unicellular or colonial organism that lacks true
tissues, such as the Algae and Protozoa.
23. Describe the principal characteristics of algae that separate them from protozoa.
 - The major difference between algae and protozoa is that algae are able to make their own
food, as plants do, while protozoa ingest other organisms or organic molecules, as animals do.
24. How are algae important? Give examples of algae with medical importance.
- Mainly marine algae have been used as food and medicine for many centuries . they are not
only used as food but also used as extracts in food, dairy, cosmetics, and industrial uses. Algae
is used as one of important medical source due to its antioxidant, anticancer, antiviral
properties.
25. Explain the general characteristics of the protozoan life cycle.
- .Exist as trophozoite - motile feeding stage. Many can enter into a dormant resting stage
when conditions are unfavorable for growth and feeding - cyst
26. Describe the protozoan adaptations for feeding.
- Feed by engulfing other microbes and organic matter.
27. Briefly outline the characteristics of the four protozoan group and name important pathogens
in each group.
- 1.Mastigophora - primarily flagellar motility, some flagellar and amoeboid, sexual
reproduction.
2.Sarcodina - primarily amoeba, asexual by fission, most are free-living.
3.Ciliophora - cilia, trophozoites and cysts, most are free-living, harmless.
4.Apicomplexa - motility is absent except male gametes, sexual and asexual reproduction,
complex life cycle - all parasitic.
28. What characteristics set the apicomplexa apart from the other protozoan group?
- no means of motility
29. Discuss the adaptations of parasitics worms to their lifestyles, and explain why these
adaptations are necessary or advantageous to the worms' survival.
- Parasites are adapted so that they receive maximum benefit from the host but do not kill
them. Tapeworms have many adaptations such as strong suckers and hooks for attachment to
the lining of the small intestine. Tapeworms are thin and flattened and have a very large
surface area for absorption of nutrients.
30. outline the basic steps in an infection cycle of a pathogenic protozoan and a helminth.
- Pathogenic protozoa comprise a large number of eukaryotic microorganisms which are the
causative agent of important parasitic diseases. Some affect human and are of high medical
relevance as malaria, toxoplasmosis, leishmaniasis, the Chagas disease, sleepiness disease,
amebiasis, giardiasis, and trichomoniasis.
Helminths form three main life-cycle stages: eggs, larvae and adults. Adult worms infect
definitive hosts whereas larval stages may be free-living or parasitize invertebrate vectors,
intermediate or paratenic hosts.

CLINICAL CONNECTIONS

 Explain how a supposedly harmless, airborne mold could get all the way into the brain and
cause meningitis. Answer available on connect.
 - Bacteria that enter the bloodstream and travel to the brain and spinal cord cause acute
bacterial meningitis. But it can also occur when bacteria directly invade the meninges. This
may be caused by an ear or sinus infection, a skull fracture, or rarely some surgeries.
 What correlation can be made between the geographic location of a parasite and it's vector?
Answer available on Connect.
- An insect that transmits a disease is known as a vector, and the disease is referred to as a
vector-borne disease. Parasites transmitted by insects often circulate in the blood of the host,
with the parasite residing in and damaging organs or other parts of the body.
A vector is an organism that acts as an intermediary host for a parasite. Most importantly the
vector transfers the parasite to the next host. Good examples of vectors are the mosquito in
transmitting malaria and ticks in transferring Lyme disease.

MULTIPLE CHOICE ANSWERS

1. C.
2. B.
3. A.
4. A.
5. B.
6. C.
7. C.
8. B.
9. B.
10. D.
11. A.
12. B.
13. B.
14. C.
15. D.
16. A.
17. B
18. E
19. C
20. H
21. G
22. J
23. I.
24. D.
25. A.
26. F.
CASE STUDY REVIEW

1. Which of these is/are an example(s) of neglected tropical protozoan diseases?

- Hookwork, Chagas disease, leishmaniasis.
2. which is a possible vector of a eukaryotic parasite?
- contaminated drinking water, contaminated food, biting fly, dog tick, biting fly.
3. provide some explanations for why the eukaryotic parasites are so widespread and successful.
- parasite provides some benefits to its host so that there is real incentive to have a parasite -
this is called symbiosis. Immune systems and other unfavorable conditions.

WRITING CHALLENGE

1. Describe the anatomy and functions of each of the major eukaryotic organelles
 Nucleus, The nucleus contains the vast majority of the genetic material of the cell. It is also
the organelle that serves the purpose of controlling the cell’s function. The nucleus also
controls gene expression and mediates the replication of DNA during the cell cycle.
 Vesicles, Vesicle is a small membrane-bound sac which consists fluid surrounded by a lipid
bilayer. Vesicle stores and transports substances throughout the cell. They mostly store,
transport or digest cellular products and cellular waste.
 Chloroplast, Food producers. Convert light energy from sun to sugars that can be used by
cells. The process is called photosynthesis, which depends on the green chlorophyll
molecules in each chloroplasts
 Smooth ER, Regulates and releases calcium ions and processes toxins.
 Rough ER, extensive organelle that is called Rough ER for it’s studded outer surface. The
main function of the Rough ER is the manufacturing of lysosomal enzymes and secreted
proteins.
 Golgi complex, It is a form of packaging organelle. It packages proteins received from the
Rough ER into membrane-bound vesicles inside the cell before the vesicles are sent to
their destination. The golgi is also involved in lipid transportation and lysosome
formation.
 Cytoplasm, It contains all of the materials in a living cell and regulates movement in and
out of the cell.Aids in metabolic activity Gives the cell it’s shape Stores chemicals and
nutrients needed to carry out reactions.Plasma membrane Controls substances that
enters in or out of the cell Allows certain substances in and specific ones out Helps in
maintaining the shape of the cell, thus supporting it Plasma membrane has mostly lipids
which help to give membranes their flexibility, and majority is filled with protein as well
that monitor and maintain the cell's chemical climate and assist in the transfer of
molecules across the membrane.The lipid bilayer is semi-permeable, which allows only
selected molecules to diffuse across the membrane.
 Cell wall, It provides rigidity, and forms the structure and helps protect against mechanical
stress and infection. Made of polysaccharides (cellulose) lying outside the plasma
membrane of the cells of plants, fungi, bacteria.
  Vacuole, Enclosed compartments that store food or any variety of nutrients a cell might
need to survive. They can even store waste so the rest of the cell is protected from
contamination.
 Lysosome, Lysosome contain digestive enzymes that digest excess or worn out organelles,
food particles, and engulfed viruses or bacteria
 Ribosome, cell structure that makes protein that will be used for repairing damage or
directing chemical processes
 Mitochondrion, The mitochondria is the powerhouse of the cell. The biggest roles the
mitochondria have are to produce energy the energy of the cell (ATP) through the process
of respiration and to regulate cellular metabolism.
 Flagellum, They allow cells to move around. Similar to cellia. Whip like structure.
 Microtubules, Microtubules are conveyor belts inside the cell, they move vesicles,
granules, organelles like mitochondria, and chromosomes via special attachment proteins.
They also serve a cytoskeletal role.
 Centrioles, Helps cell division in animal cells. It specifically helps the formation of spindle
fibers which separates the chromosomes during cell division (mitosis)
 Cilla, There are two types: motile and non motile. The motile ones keeps the sensitive
internal passageways free of mucus or foreign particles. The non motile ones are like
antennas, that receive sensory information for the cell

4. A. Fill in the following summary table for defining. comparing and contrasting eukaryotic
cells

B. Briefly describe the manner of nutrition and body plan (unicellular, colonial, filmentatous, or
multicellular) for each group.

-unicellular organisms live in bodies of water and must move around to find food. Most often, they
must obtain nutrients by eating other organisms. Plant-like protists, and some types of bacteria, can
make their own food through photosynthesis

- The colonial body plan involves the aggregation of cell division products by a common extracellular
matrix (or loricas, etc.) ... Symplastic continuity among some or all of the cell division products results
in the multicellular body plan

- Multicellular organisms thus have the competitive advantages of an increase in size without its
limitations. They can have longer lifespans as they can continue living when individual cells die.
Multicellularity also permits increasing complexity by allowing differentiation of cell types within one
organism.

C. Explain some ways that helmiths differ from the protozoan and algae structure and behavior.

- Helminths, A term that designates all parasitic worms.Protozoa, A group of single-celled, eukaryotic
organisms. Algae is critical but do not directly infect human.
CONCEPT MAP

CRITICAL THINKING

1. Explain the ways the mitochondria resemble rickettsias and chloroplast resemble
cyanobacteria.
-The only way these organelles can be replicated is through the same method used by
bacteria: binary fission. Like bacteria, mitochondria and chloroplasts grow in size, duplicate
their DNA and other structures, and then divide into two identical organelles.
2. Give the common name of a eukaryotic microbe that is unicellular walled, nonphotosynthetic
nonmotole and bud-forming.
- Yeasts, Give the common name of a eukaryotic microbe that is unicellular, walled,
nonphotosynthetic, nonmotile, and bud-forming. Yeasts are eukaryotic microbe that is
unicellular, and they are included in the fungus kingdom.
3. How are th eukaryotic ribosomes and cell membranes different from those of prokaryotes?
- Like a prokaryotic cell, a eukaryotic cell has a plasma membrane, cytoplasm, and ribosomes,
but a eukaryotic cell is typically larger than a prokaryotic cell, has a true nucleus, and has
other membrane-bound organelles that allow for compartmentalization of functions.
4. What general type of multicellular parasite is composed primarily of thin sacs of reproductive
organs?
- The general type of multicellular parasite that is composed of primarily of thin sacs of
reproductive organs is parasitic helminths. Examples are the tapeworms, round worms and
flukes. Sexes may be separate or they can be hermaphrodites.
5. Explain what factors could cause opportunistic mycoses to be a growing medical problem.
- Severe burns, Diabetes, Tuberculosis, I.V. drug use, AIDS. Virtually all AIDS patients will have
a fungal infection sometime during the course of disease.

VISUAL CHALLENGE

1. What term is used to describe a single species exhibiting both cell types shown below, and
which types of organism would most likely have this trait?
- Fungi is the term used to describe a single species exhibiting both cell types shown. The
organisms most likely to have these traits are molds and yeasts.