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Cellular Energy
Energy and matter are not created but change (1st law of thermodynamics), entropy ~ disorder; if
more organized, more free energy and less entropy
Cellular respiration: C6H12O6 + 6O2 -> 6CO2 + 6H2O
- Glycolysis in cytoplasm, anaerobic, makes pyruvate <- inefficient, only 2ATP
- Kreb’s cycle in mitochonddrial matrix, 2x per glucose molecule, further oxidize pyruvate
and release CO2; coenzymes NAD+ and FAD take e- to ETC
- Electron Transport Chain in mitochondria, pumps H+ ions into intermembrane space so
chemiosmosis has ions rush through ATP synthase into matrix, making ATP by oxidative
phosphorylation
Anaerobic fermentation: no oxygen
- Recycles NAD; alcohol and lactic acid fermentation; does NOT make ATP
2
Cell Communication
Cell cycle- favorable SA:Vol ratio better for material exchange so smaller cell better
- Interphase (G1 growth, S DNA synthesis, G2 preparation for mitosis) + cell division
- Mitosis- duplicated chromosomes line up in center, spindle fibers pull apart; Cytokinesis
divides cytoplasm and reforms membrane (animal cell has cleavage, plant cell forms cell
plate to make cell wall); 2 clones from 1 cell (2n-> 2n)
o Prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase, cytokinesis
- Checkpoints by internal enzymes and external growth factors
- Cancer when cell cycle control disrupted
- Meiosis: 2n-> 1n; homologous chromosomes paired (one maternal, one paternal), line up
randomly in center, pulled apart in meiosis I; duplicated chromosomes pulled apart in
meiosis II; crossing over causes variation
o Prophase I, metaphase I, anaphase I, telophase I and cytokinesis, prophase II,
metaphase II, anaphase II, telophase II and cytokinesis
Mendel’s laws
- Law of Dominance- one allele expressed over another
- Law of Segregation – alleles separate during meiosis
- Law of Independent Assortment- alleles separated randomly during meiosis (only if on
different chromosomes)
Probability and Exceptions
- Monohybrid cross (one trait): 3:1 from Aa x Aa; 1:1 when Aa x aa
- Dihybrid cross: 9:3:3:1 from AaBb x AaBb
- Incomplete dominance: both proteins expressed so blend (red x white-> pink)
- Codominance: both proteins equally expressed
- Epistasis: one gene affects another’s expression
- Linked genes: genes inherited together (same chromosome), recombination frequency
calculated by recombinants/total
- Gene/environment interactions: phenotypes can be changed by environment
- Polygenic: continuous variation, many genes affect the phenotype (i.e. height, skin color)
- Humans: 22 pairs of autosomes + 1 pair of sex chromosomes = 46 chromosomes
Heredity
DNA Structure: Avery-MacLeod isolated DNA 1944; Hershey-Chase showed DNA injected by
bacteriophage 1952; Watson-Crick(Wilkens and Franklin)- structure of DNA 1953
- Deoxyribose nucleic acid, double helix of nucleotides (phosphate + deoxyribose sugar +
nitrogen base), antiparallele strands
- Purines (AG, double rings) and Pyrimidines (CUT, single ring); A-T/U: double H, C-G:
triple H
- Replication is semiconservative (original strand copied)
o Helicase unzips strands, DNA pol adds nucleotides bidirectionally to the 3’-> 5’
(new DNA made in 5’->3’ direction)
o Replication bubbles and replication fork, Leading strand continuous (3’->5’),
Lagging strand discontinuous (Okazaki fragments fused by ligase)
o RNA primers to start
References
1. https://medium.com/@biologynotes/cell-membrane-dc52e97b808b
2. http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Biology/celres.html
3. https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/photosynthesis-in-plants/introduction-to-stages-
of-photosynthesis/a/intro-to-photosynthesis
4. http://bio1151.nicerweb.com/Locked/media/ch13/mitosis-meiosis.html
5. https://medium.com/@biologynotes/dna-replication-302203b5c3d8
6. https://www.nationalgeographic.org/photo/marine-food-pyramid-1/
7. https://www.ptbeach.com/cms/lib/NJ01000839/Centricity/Domain/113/ap%20biology%20pages
%20and%20worksheets/AP-Biology-Exam-Review.pdf
8. https://blog.prepscholar.com/ap-biology-study-guide
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