Test #1: Scientific Method, Basic Chemistry & Water

WATER
The 8 Properties of Water:
1) Surface Tension - The tension of the surface film of a liquid caused by the attraction of
the particles in the surface layer by the bulk of the liquid, which tends to minimize surface
area.
2) Adhesion - The sticking together of particles of different substances (in this case, water
is sticking to glass).
3) Capillary Action -- capillary - the tendency of a liquid in a capillary tube or absorbent
material to rise or fall as a result of surface tension.
4) High Specific Heat -- specific heat - the heat required to raise the temperature of the
unit mass of a given substance by a given amount (usually one degree).
5) Cohesion - The sticking together of particles of the same substance (obviously, in this
case, water!).
6) High Heat of Vaporization - Water must absorb a certain amount of additional heat to
change from liquid to gas. The extra heat is called heat vaporization.
7) Floating of Ice on Water (Density) - Ice floats on water because Ice is less dense than
water.
8) Universal Solvent - Water is called the universal solvent because it dissolves more
substances than any other liquid.

Polar Covalent Bond - an uneven sharing of electrons, which makes one element partially
positive and one element partially negative
H2O
● 2 Hydrogen atoms and 1 Oxygen atom
● Each Hydrogen shares 1 valence electron
● Nucleus of Oxygen pulls Hydrogen closer to it
● O = partially negative H = partially positive
Hydrogen Bonds - the intermolecular bond which creates a chain of waters (H2O molecules)
The partially positive Hydrogen is attracted to the partially negative Oxygen

Basics of Chemistry

Periodic Table:
● Metals are on the left side of the periodic table
● Nonmetals are on the right side of the periodic table
● Metalloids are along the “staircase”
Element - an atom on the periodic table of elements
Compound - a substance containing two or more elements
Atomic mass - the number of protons and neutrons
Atomic number - the number of protons

3 Subatomic Particles:
1) Proton - positively charged
2) Electron - negatively charged
3) Neutron - no charge

Isotopes - atoms with the same # of protons, but a different number of neutrons (change in
atomic mass ONLY)
ex. Carbon-12, Carbon-13 & Carbon-14
Valence Shell - the # of electrons in the outermost shell (these electrons bond)

Ionic vs. Covalent Bonds

Ionic Covalent (between nonmetals)

One element takes electrons from another Polar Covalent - uneven distribution of
element electrons

Non-Polar Covalent - even distribution of

electrons
 Ions:
Cation - positively charged element after Anion - negatively charged element after
bond bond
(ex. NaCl)

There are 2 electrons in a pair.

Covalent: 1 pair of electrons

Double Covalent: 2 pairs of electrons
Triple Covalent: 3 pairs of electrons

Scientific Method

Steps in the Scientific Method:

1. Observations - propose questions and conduct background research
2. Hypothesis - develop models and design an experiment
3. Controlled Experiment - analyze data, compare with predictions and check for
reproducibility
4. Conclusions - Does data support or disprove hypothesis?

HYPOTHESIS FORMAT: If, then statements. This statement is the focus of the experiment and
basically guides the whole process

Experimental Group - the group in an experiment that receives “the treatment”

Control Group - the group that does NOT receive “the treatment” (comparisons can be made to
this group)
Independent Variable - the variable that is being manipulated/changed
Dependent Variable - the thing that is being measured/observed

How to improve the reliability of experiments:

● ONLY 1 IV
● As many constants as possible
● If the experiment can be repeated by different people (scientists)

Theory vs. Law:

T: a scientifically accepted general principle L: a set of observed regularities expressed in

that explains observations a concise statement