Basics To Engineering

page i
Implementation
Products, Robotics, and Other Useful Things
Hugh Jack
Copyright, 2006
page 1
1. INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1
1.1 Introduction 1.1
1.2 Bloom’s Taxonomy 1.1
1.3 Examples 1.2
1.4 Summary 1.2
1.5 References and Bibliography 1.2
1.6 Problems 1.2
1.7 Challenge Problems 1.2
2. DRAFTING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3
2.1 CONVENTIONAL DRAFTING 2.3
2.1.1 Manual Drafting 2.4
2.1.2 Turning Three Dimensions Into Two (Multi View Drawings)2.5
The Glass Box 2.5
2.1.3 Lines 2.8
2.1.4 Holes 2.10
2.1.5 Special Cases 2.11
Aligned Features 2.11
Incomplete Views 2.14
2.1.6 Section Views 2.16
Full Sections 2.16
Offset Section 2.17
Half Section 2.18
Cut Away Sections 2.19
Revolved Section 2.20
Removed Section 2.20
Auxiliary Section 2.22
Thin Wall Section 2.23
Assembly Section 2.23
Special Cases 2.24
Fill Patterns 2.26
2.1.7 Auxiliary Views 2.26
Secondary Auxiliary Views 2.30
Partial Auxiliary Views 2.30
2.1.8 Descriptive Geometry 2.30
2.1.9 Isometric Views 2.31
2.1.10 Special Techniques 2.31
2.2 NOTATIONS 2.32
2.2.1 Basic Dimensions and Tolerances 2.33
2.2.2 Geometric Dimensioning and Tolerancing (GD & T) 2.33
Feature Control Symbols 2.34
Symbols and Meaning 2.35
Datums 2.40
Modifiers 2.41
2.3 WORKING DRAWINGS 2.42
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2.3.1 Drawing Elements 2.42

Title Blocks 2.42
Drawing Checking 2.43
Drawing Revisions 2.43
Bill of Materials (BOM) 2.44
2.3.2 Drawing Types 2.44
Assembly Drawings 2.44
Subassembly Drawings 2.45
Exploded Assembly Drawings 2.45
Detailed Drawings 2.45
2.4 PRACTICE PROBLEMS 2.46
2.5 REFERENCES 2.46
3. METROLOGY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.47
3.1.1 The Role of Metrology 3.47
3.2 DEFINITIONS 3.48
3.3 STANDARDS 3.49
3.3.1 Scales 3.49
3.3.2 Calipers 3.50
3.3.3 Transfer Gauges 3.50
3.4 Instruments 3.51
3.4.1 Vernier Scales 3.51
3.4.2 Micrometer Scales 3.52
The Principle of Magnification 3.53
The Principle of Alignment 3.54
3.4.3 Dial Indicators 3.55
3.4.4 The Tool Makers Microscope 3.57
3.4.5 Metrology Summary 3.58
3.5 Surfaces 3.59
3.5.1 Measures of Roughness 3.60
3.6 Measuring Surface Roughness 3.63
3.6.1 Observation Methods 3.63
3.6.2 Stylus Equipment 3.63
3.6.3 Specifications on Drawings 3.68
3.6.4 Other Systems 3.69
3.6.5 Roundness Testing 3.72
Intrinsic Roundness Testing 3.73
Extrinsic Roundness Testing 3.76
3.7 Gage Blocks 3.78
3.7.1 Manufacturing Gauge Blocks 3.82
3.7.2 Compensating for Temperature Variations 3.85
3.7.3 Testing For Known Dimensions With Standards 3.85
3.7.4 Odd Topics 3.86
3.7.5 Limit (GO & NO GO) Gauges 3.87
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Basic Concepts 3.87

GO & NO GO Gauges Using Gauge Blocks 3.89
Taylor’s Theory for Limit Gauge Design 3.90
Gauge Maker’s Tolerances 3.91
3.7.6 Sine Bars 3.93
Sine Bar Limitations 3.95
3.7.7 Comparators 3.96
Mechanical Comparators 3.97
Mechanical and Optical Comparators 3.98
Optical Comparators 3.99
Pneumatic Comparators 3.99
3.8 Measuring Aparatus 3.101
3.8.1 Reference Planes 3.101
Granite Surface Plates 3.102
Cast Iron Surface Plates 3.102
3.8.2 Squares 3.103
3.9 Practice Problems 3.106
4. CUTTING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.119
4.1 Drilling 4.119
4.1.1 Drill Bits 4.122
4.1.2 Reamers 4.125
4.1.3 Boring 4.126
4.1.4 Taps 4.127
4.1.5 Process Parameters 4.128
4.1.6 The mrr For Drilling 4.130
4.2 Milling 4.131
4.2.1 Types of Milling Operations 4.131
Arbor Milling 4.133
4.2.2 Milling Cutters 4.133
4.2.3 Milling Cutting Mechanism 4.133
Up-Cut Milling 4.134
Down-Cut Milling 4.135
4.3 Feeds and Speeds 4.136
4.3.1 The mrr for Milling 4.139
4.3.2 Process Planning for Prismatic Parts 4.139
4.3.3 Indexing 4.139
4.4 Lathes 4.142
4.4.1 Machine tools 4.145
Production Machines 4.146
4.4.2 Toolbits 4.147
4.4.3 Thread Cutting On A Lathe 4.150
4.4.4 Cutting Tapers 4.152
4.4.5 Turning Tapers on Lathes 4.153
4.4.6 Feeds and Speeds 4.155
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4.4.7 The mrr for Turning 4.156

4.4.8 Process Planning for Turning 4.157
4.5 Cutting Speeds, Feeds, Tools, and Times 4.158
4.6 Cutting Power 4.159
4.7 Examples 4.164
4.8 Summary 4.164
4.10 Problems 4.164
4.12 Practice Problems 4.165
5. JOINING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.182
5.2 ADHESIVE BONDING 5.183
5.3 ARC WELDING 5.184
5.4 GAS WELDING 5.186
5.5 SOLDERING AND BRAZING 5.187
5.6 PLASTIC WELDING 5.188
5.7 Examples 5.193
5.8 Summary 5.193
5.10 Problems 5.193
6. ROTATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.195
6.2 Rotational Masses and Inertia 6.195
6.3 Motor Models 6.203
6.3.1 Basic Brushed DC Motors 6.203
6.4 Tachometers 6.210
6.4.1 Angular Displacement 6.210
Potentiometers 6.210
6.4.2 Encoders 6.211
Tachometers 6.215
6.5 Examples 6.216
6.6 Summary 6.216
6.8 Problems 6.216
7. FEEDBACK CONTROL REVIEW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.217

7.2 OpAmps 7.221
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7.3 Examples 7.225

7.4 Summary 7.225
7.6 Problems 7.225
8. MECHANICAL POWER TRANSMISSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.226

8.1 Mechanisms 8.226
8.1.1 Locking/Engaging 8.227
8.1.2 Motion Transmission/Transformation 8.230
8.1.3 Four Bar Linkages 8.230
8.1.4 Reciprocating 8.232
8.1.5 Six Bar Linkages 8.234
8.2 Mechanical Advantage 8.236
8.3 Gears 8.238
8.3.1 Spur Gears 8.238
8.3.2 Involute Profiles 8.243
8.3.3 Design of Gears 8.245
8.3.4 Design Issues 8.248
Undercutting and Contact Ratios 8.248
Changing the Center Distance 8.250
8.3.5 Helical Gears 8.250
Design of Helical Gears 8.251
Perpendicular Helical Gears 8.254
8.3.6 Bevel Gears 8.255
Design of Bevel Gears 8.257
8.3.7 Other Bevelled Gears 8.258
8.3.8 Worm Gears 8.258
8.3.9 Harmonic Drives 8.261
8.3.10 Design With Gears 8.261
Gear Trains 8.262
Examples - Fixed Axis Gears 8.263
Examples - Moving Axis Gears 8.267
Epicyclic Gear Trains 8.267
Differentials 8.270
8.3.11 Gear Forces and Torques 8.272
8.4 Cams 8.274
8.4.1 Using Cams in Mechanisms 8.287
8.5 Examples 8.287
8.6 Summary 8.287
8.8 Problems 8.287
9. MECHANICAL ISSUES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.291

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9.2 Friction 9.291
9.3 Friction 9.293
9.4 Contact Points And Joints 9.294
9.4.1 Switching 9.295
9.4.2 Deadband 9.296
9.4.3 Saturation and Clipping 9.299
9.4.4 Hysteresis and Slip 9.299
9.4.5 Delays and Lags 9.300
9.5 Wheeled Vehicles 9.301
9.6 Examples 9.301
9.7 Summary 9.301
9.9 Problems 9.301
10. SENSORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.302

10.1 INTRODUCTION 10.302
10.2 SENSOR WIRING 10.302
10.2.1 Switches 10.303
10.2.2 Transistor Transistor Logic (TTL) 10.303
10.2.3 Sinking/Sourcing 10.304
10.2.4 Solid State Relays 10.311
10.3 PRESENCE DETECTION 10.312
10.3.1 Contact Switches 10.312
10.3.2 Reed Switches 10.312
10.3.3 Optical (Photoelectric) Sensors 10.313
10.3.4 Capacitive Sensors 10.320
10.3.5 Inductive Sensors 10.324
10.3.6 Ultrasonic 10.326
10.3.7 Hall Effect 10.326
10.3.8 Fluid Flow 10.326
10.4 SUMMARY 10.327
10.6 PRACTICE PROBLEM SOLUTIONS 10.331
10.7 ASSIGNMENT PROBLEMS 10.337
11. ACTUATORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.339

11.2 SOLENOIDS 11.339
11.3 VALVES 11.340
11.4 CYLINDERS 11.342
11.5 HYDRAULICS 11.344
11.6 PNEUMATICS 11.346
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11.7 MOTORS 11.347

11.8 COMPUTERS 11.348
11.9 OTHERS 11.348
11.10 SUMMARY 11.348
12. PROJECT MANAGEMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.351

12.2 An Academic View of Design Revisited 12.351
12.3 Project Management 12.355
12.3.1 Timeline - Tentative 12.355
12.3.2 Teams 12.355
12.3.3 Conceptual Design 12.356
12.3.4 Progress Reports 12.356
12.3.5 Design Proposal 12.357
12.3.6 The Final Report 12.358
12.3.7 Gantt Charts 12.359
12.3.8 Drawings 12.359
12.3.9 Budgets and Bills of Material 12.359
12.3.10 Calculations 12.360
12.4 Examples 12.360
12.5 Summary 12.360
12.7 Problems 12.361
12.9 Forms 12.361
13. MOTION CONTROL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.363

13.2 MOTION PROFILES 1.364
13.2.1 Velocity Profiles 1.364
13.2.2 Position Profiles 1.373
13.3 MULTI AXIS MOTION 1.376
13.3.1 Slew Motion 1.377
Interpolated Motion 1.378
1.3.2 Motion Scheduling 1.379
1.4 PATH PLANNING 1.381
1.5 CASE STUDIES 1.383
1.6 SUMMARY 1.385
page 1
1. INTRODUCTION
Topics:
•
Objectives:
•
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Bloom’s Taxonomy
1. Knowledge: remembering of previously learned material; recall (facts or whole theories);

bringing to mind.
Terms: defines, describes, identifies, lists, matches, names.
2. Comprehension: grasping the meaning of material; interpreting (explaining or summarizing);

predicting outcome and effects (estimating future trends).
Terms: convert, defend, distinguish, estimate, explain, generalize, rewrite.
3. Application: ability to use learned material in a new situation; apply rules, laws, methods, theo-
ries.
Terms: changes, computes, demonstrates, operates, shows, uses, solves.

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4. Analysis: breaking down into parts; understanding organization, clarifying, concluding.
Identify parts: See Related Order; Relationships; Clarify.
Terms: distinguish, diagrams, outlines, relates, breaks down, discriminates, subdivides.
5. Synthesis: ability to put parts together to form a new whole; unique communication; set of
abstract relations.
Terms: combines, complies, composes, creates, designs, rearranges.
6. Evaluation: ability to judge value for purpose; base on criteria; support judgment with reason.
(No guessing).
Terms: appraises, criticizes, compares, supports, concludes, discriminates, contrasts, summa-

rizes, explains.
1.3 Examples
1.4 Summary
1.5 References and Bibliography
1.6 Problems
1.7 Challenge Problems

page 3
2. DRAFTING
• Drafting was previously a set of techniques (using compasses, angles, T-squares, etc.) for creat-
ing drawings that could be understood and used in manufacturing.
• More recently drafting is focusing less on techniques and more on conventions, because of CAD
systems.
• The conventions of drafting are very important because they allow us to define parts in a way
that they will be understood by any engineer, machinist, technologist, etc.
2.1 CONVENTIONAL DRAFTING
• The purpose of drafting is to present technical ideas in precise and concise forms.
• A properly drafted drawing should be understood by any engineer.
• A sample of a drafted drawing is given below.

page 4
Ø0.25 Ø0.006 M
1.750 A
Ø2.00
Ø1.62
A
0.25
2.50
Ø1.0005/0.9995
section A-A
2
Notes:
part: bushing
1. Break sharp edges to 0.01 max.
date:
2 Drill Ø0.985 ream to spec. etc....
2.1.1 Manual Drafting
• This is the use of drafting boards, pencils, pens, and a number of specialized tools for drafting.
While this method is still very popular, the techniques used in manual drafting are quickly
being displaced by CAD (Computer Aided Design) systems.
• I will not cover some of the manual drawing topics list below, but more information on them
appears in a large number of drafting books.
- lettering
- hand sketching
- drawing ellipses
- etc
page 5
2.1.2 Turning Three Dimensions Into Two (Multi View Drawings)
• The problem with drafting is that the paper is flat, while the object drawn is not.
• To get around this we can develop a number of views to work with.

- Front View
- Top View (Plan View)
- Right Side View
- Left Side View
• This method of developing views is known as Orthographic projection
• This method eliminates the perspective distortion in real vision, thus making it easier for techni-
cal depiction.
• In this method, object faces that are parallel to the viewing plane are shown as actual size, but
objects that are not parallel are foreshortened.
• The number of views used is a function of the geometry. For a simple object such as a washer,
only one view is needed. A more complicated object, such as a piston, would require at least
two views.
2.1.2.1 - The Glass Box
• The views are developed as if a glass box was placed over the object. The view from each direc-
tion was frozen, and when the box is unfolded, the resulting views are seen.
• Imaging the case below of a small tetrahedron (a three pointed triangle),

page 6
freeze the view

cover with through each
a glass box side of the glass
box
the part
Unfold the sides to get

a set of views
• The drawings are layed out with certain conventions. The example above is continued below for
illustration, In the figure extra construction lines are added to show how the drawings in the
different views are related.Note that the top view is related to the side view using a 45° line.
These properties are a result of the ‘glass box’ concept. The folding lines are often shown on
drawings (they have two dashes and one long). Also note that in the figure shown below, the
points in the top view will be the same distance from the folding line as they are in the side
view.
page 7
T
F
F R-S
• The layout of the drawings is done by convention. In this drawing the right side view is to the
right of the front view. If this drawing observed european standards, the right side view would
be on the left hand side.
• A useful method for keeping the large number of points in a drawing sorted is to number them.
For example,
page 8
3 2
T
F
1
1
F R-S
2,3
3 4 2 4
• The view that is selected as the front is arbitrary, but it should

- be a natural front to the object.
- be the most important view
- appear stable
- chosen to minimize hidden lines in other views
- contain most of the detail
2.1.3 Lines
• The number of lines on drawings will become confusing, therefore this calls for some method
for differentiating between lines.
• Hidden lines are dashed lines used to show lines that not visible.
page 9
• Centre lines are used to show the axis of rotation for an object surface. These lines have long/
short dashes.
• Construction lines are drawn on to help locate final drawing lines. These lines are so light that
they are often not even erased when the drawing is complete.
construction line
centre line
hidden line
phantom line
drawing line
break line
dimension line
leader
cutting plane
• Some objects have disproportionate dimensions. As a result, it may be necessary to ‘break’ them
to show any reasonable level of detail. There are three types of breaks commonly used,
- S breaks - for round objects
- Z breaks - for thin long/wide objects
- freehand breaks - for long rectangular objects
page 10
S break
Z break
freehand break
2.1.4 Holes
• There are a number of holes commonly depicted in drawings,

page 11
Through Holes - these are cut all the

way through an object
Blind Holes - these holes stop part way

through an object
Tapered Holes -
Counterbored Holes -
2.1.5 Special Cases
2.1.5.1 - Aligned Features
• Aligned features - in some cases, features are revolved, and shown at a consistent radial dis-
tance, but not necessarily in the correct position.
• Holes are commonly rotated to simplify views

page 12
preferred
• Ribs and wings are commonly rotated to simplify views
Preferred
page 13
• Large features on parts may be rotated to simplify views. small features, such as slots may also
be rotated between views for clarity.
Part is imagined in this

position, but drawn
correctly in the top view
But the part can be drawn, and

correctly dimensioned in the front
view with the bend artificially
removed
• Sheet metal parts start out flat, but are deformed to new useful shapes. Therefore it is common to
draw sheet metal parts in the deformed, and the undeformed state.
page 14
2.1.5.2 - Incomplete Views
• Incomplete views - certain details can be omitted to simplify the view. This method produces
drawings that are not correct, but they are commonly used in practice.
• Some views will end up having an excessive number of hidden lines. To combat this problem,
we may sometimes just leave them out.
page 15
• Large radial/cylindrical parts are often cropped to save space. But, enough is shown to make the
remainder of the geometry obvious.
use half circles or use a break

page 16
2.1.6 Section Views
• when there are complicated internal features, they may be hard to identify in normal views with
hidden lines. A view with some of the part “cut away” can make the internal features very easy
to see, these are called section views.
• In these views hidden lines are generally not used, except for clarity in some cases.
• The cutting plane for the section is,

- shown with thick black dashed lines.
- has arrows at the end of the line to indicate the view direction
- has letters placed beside the arrow heads. These will identify the section
- does not have to be a straight line
• sections can be lined to indicate,

- when the section plane slices through material
- two methods for representing materials. First, use 45° lines, and refer to material in title
block. If there are multiple materials, lines at 30° and 60° may be used for exam-
ple. Second, use a conventional set of fill lines to represent the different types of
materials.
2.1.6.1 - Full Sections
• Full sections - generally a straight section line cuts through a part to give a complete view of the
inside. This section typically replaces one of the views that is confusing.
page 17
A A A section view
can clarify a view
appreciably
SECTION A-A
2.1.6.2 - Offset Section
• Full sections will experience difficulties when the features do not lie along a single line.
page 18
• We can use a section line that is turned to cut through features. This view can be used to replace
one of the principle views.
A A
SECTION A-A
2.1.6.3 - Half Section
• In some cases it is better to illustrate internal features with both a section, and a full view. In this
case we can cut away only part (a quarter) of the object, and draw a view that is half normal,
half section.
• this method is well suited to symmetrical parts, with the section starting at the axis of symmetry
• Take note that the section line here only has one arrow head, but the direction must be observed
page 19
Section A
2.1.6.4 - Cut Away Sections
• Instead of doing large scale sections, we can cut away a very specific region of interest.
• In this case a break line is used, and the cutting plane lines used in other cases are not applicable.
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2.1.6.5 - Revolved Section
• When we have transition pieces, such as ribs, or airplane wings, we will want to show the shape,
but this is not easy with conventional views, In this case we can break out a section.
• The basic procedure is to

1. select a characteristic section, and draw cut lines to either side.
2. in between the breaks, draw a section that is rotated 90° so that it is obvious on the
drawing.
• This method is useful when space is at a premium
• The cutting plane line is not used with this technique
2.1.6.6 - Removed Section
• this is a more exact alternative to the revolved section method.
• With this method a break is not used, but a cutting plane line is. The sections are then drawn at
some other location on the page.
• The only features shown are the features of the section.

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• labels such as A-A, B-B, etc are used to avoid ambiguity.
• these views are often placed at a distance and arranged in the same order as the sections.
A B
SECTION A-A SECTION B-B

A B
• These section may also be shown using lines extended from the object
page 22
• modified scales may also be used with appropriate notation
2.1.6.7 - Auxiliary Section
• A section can be done that does not lie in one of the primary planes.
• This done as a normal section

page 23
-A
A
A
N
IO
CT
SE
A
2.1.6.8 - Thin Wall Section
• This method is used for assemblies of thin materials, such as sheet metal.
• This illustrates how the pieces butt up against each other.
• The sections are filled with black, but a small space is left between the piece to indicate the
assembled faces (operations such as crimping, spot welding, etc are used for these)
2.1.6.9 - Assembly Section
• When placing parts together we want to verify that they will match, and that they can be assem-
bled. We also want to provide assistance to the assembler. To do this a cut away assembly
drawing can be used.
• There are a number of elements present in these diagrams,

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- two or more parts

- a parts list with numbered items
- generally section views are used, and oriented along the main assembly axis
3
2
1
4
4 piston M8765 1
3 rod M87101 1
2 chamber M8734 1
1 o-rings P8703 3
ref # description part # qty.
2.1.6.10 - Special Cases
• Because sections are to clarify confusing features on diagrams, they are sometimes not theoreti-
cally correct.
• A few of the cases that are considered when working with sections are,
1. cutting lines may intersect ribs, but they may be drawn offset somewhat to clarify the
rib geometry.
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A
Preferred
2. sections may be aligned to clarify the views
A
page 26
3. If a cutting plane cuts through intersecting features, the less important feature may be
omitted for clarity, or to save time. For example, two rounds that intersect at an
angle other than 90° would have an unusual shape, if one is not drawn, the section
becomes much easier to do.
2.1.6.11 - Fill Patterns
• Sections can be filled with a number of patterns to indicate different materials
• This was a common technique in the past. Some examples are given below.
cast iron and steel and bronze, brass zinc, lead,

malleable iron wrought iron copper alloys
aluminum and
magnesium and
their alloys
2.1.7 Auxiliary Views
• The glass box can also be folded at odd angles. This technique produces views known as Auxil-
iary views.
• These views are useful when we want to draw a view of a surface that is not normal to one of the
primary viewing planes.
• common terms used for this method are true size, and true shape. keep in mind that if a feature
does not lie parallel to one of the primary viewing planes, it will appear distorted in every view.
• These views can be constructed from any view in a drawing. typical names for these identify the
view that they are drawn from,
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- front auxiliary view

- top auxiliary view
- side auxiliary view
• We can also use auxiliary views to project other views for geometric purposes
• hidden lines are typically not used in auxiliary views, unless needed for clarity. Also, a number
of surfaces are not included because they are distorted, and of little value.
• typically steps followed to construct an auxiliary view,

1. select the face that is to be drawn as i) a true surface, ii) a true length line, iii) an end
view of a line.
2. draw construction lines perpendicular to the surface/line/point of interest. This line
should go in a direction, and far enough that leaves enough space for the view.
3. draw a folding line at an appropriate distance. This will act as a reference plane.
4. transfer distances from another view. This view will typically be the view adjoining the
view that the auxiliary is drawn from.
5. Complete the view.
• an example is given below, and all faces are drawn for illustration, but normally only the angled
face would be drawn. Because this is the first auxiliary from the drawing, it is called the pri-
mary auxiliary view.
Step 1: decide to draw the angled

face of the block,
using the front view,
because an edge view
is available.
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Step 2: draw construction lines

perpendicular to the face,
the view will be drawn
in the open space in the
upper right opening.
Step 3: draw the fold line in for

reference. Just as a visual
check, each of the construction
lines should be perpendicular
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6
7
8
6,10 7 8,9
1
Step 4: Transfer distances to find 9
points in the auxiliary view. d2 2 10
Here the points are numbered d2
for the readers benefit. We can 5
d1
transfer the distances either
from the top or side view. 1,5 2 3,4 3
4
d1
1,6
2,7 2,1 7,6
d2
3 8
3,8
d1 9,10
5,10 4,9 4,5
true
surface
Step 5: the view is completed

page 30
• There are special drafting techniques for rounded, or curved surfaces, these can be found in any
drafting textbook.
2.1.7.1 - Secondary Auxiliary Views
• sometimes it is necessary to make an auxiliary view, using an auxiliary view. When this is done,
the first auxiliary is constructed as normal. The second auxiliary is made from the first, but the
distances can only be transferred from the first auxiliary for the second auxiliary.
• These views can be needed for a number of purposes, but generally they will be needed when
the object does not lie perpendicular, or parallel to any of the viewing planes.
2.1.7.2 - Partial Auxiliary Views
• It is not necessary to draw entire auxiliary views, they can be draw in part, and break lines use.
• This technique allows simplified illustrations of features of interest, without full development of
an auxiliary view.
2.1.8 Descriptive Geometry
• The use of drafting to determine geometric properties, such as shortest distances between points
and lines.
• These methods can also be used to solve statics (vector) problems, etc.
• These methods use extensions to the methods of auxiliary views that allow curved surface to be
considered.
• the basic steps in these methods are,

1. find the true lengths of a line
2. find the end view of a line
3. find the edge view of the surface
4. find the true shape of the surface
• These steps will allow determination of a number of properties,

- points can be projected into other views
- lines can be projected into other views
page 31
- the true length of a line can be determined

- a point view of a line can be found
- distances between points and lines can be found
- distances between lines can be found
- distance between a point and plane
- angle between two planes
- edge view of a plane
2.1.9 Isometric Views
• These views are done as a way of realistically drawing objects. This is not correct, as a perspec-
tive drawing would be, but it is very good for engineering problems.
• The viewing directions are skewed so that up is still up, but straight back now goes to the left
and back, and right goes to the right and back. Both of the moved axis are drawn at 30° to the
horizontal.
• The values measured off these views will be accurate when measured along the axis.
2.1.10 Special Techniques
• There are a number of special techniques of interest when doing manual drafting, but of declin-
ing interest in view of modern CAD systems. A list of these techniques are given below, and
are described in good detail in most drafting books,
- drawing ellipses
- drawing with circles
- drawing with revolution
- drawing with four centres
- isometric drawing
- using 30°/60° angles
- using special paper
- Oblique views
- cavalier (45°, with full depth size)
- cabinet (0-90°, with half depth size)
- general (0-90°, with between half and full depth size)
page 32
a unit cube is shown for

illustration
angle
distance
2.2 NOTATIONS
• Typically these are a number of notations added to drawings to describe features, or explain
operations.
• Some abbreviated terms are given below,
Abrev. Description
CBORE counterbore
CSK countersink
DIA diameter
HDN case harden
L lead
LH left hand
NC national course
NF national fine
P pitch
R radius
Rc Rockwell C hardness
RH right hand
THD thread(s)
TIR total indicated runout
TPI threads per inch
UNC unified national course
UNF unified national fine
page 33
2.2.1 Basic Dimensions and Tolerances
• The size of an object, and the required accuracy can have a significant bearing on the cost
• Unilateral Tolerances
• Bilateral Tolerances
• Limits can be used to exactly define the size boundaries of a feature.
1.505”
1.495”
• Tolerances use a nominal dimension and differences.
+0.005”
1.500” -0.005”
2.2.2 Geometric Dimensioning and Tolerancing (GD & T)
• Specified in standard ANSI Y14.5 (1983).
• Combines rules and independent symbols in addition to the normal tolerancing symbols
• Allows old style tolerances, but adds new methods that cover geometrical forms.
• Allows easy specifications of datums, etc.

page 34
• Advantages of this method are,

- makes drawings clearer and more ambiguous
- allows separated features to be related
- uses symbols instead of words to reduce language translation problems
- the method helps specify manufacturing and metrology methods
• The main purpose of GD&T is to ensure,

size - the overall dimensions are as specified
form - the shapes specified must have the correct geometrical form
fit - two parts must mate as specified
function - the product conforms to performance specification
2.2.2.1 - Feature Control Symbols
• The basic of GD&T is the feature control symbol.
• This indicates what the tolerance is, its value, the reference datums, and any modifiers needed.
• An example of a feature control is given below,
0.001 M A B C
datums to be used in this case the

part is placed against A, then B, then
C. This forms a reference
coordinate frame.
The maximum metal modifier
the basic tolerance value
the zone identifier
the type of feature control (parallelism)
• not all of these symbols/categories will be used on a regular basis, but they provide the designer
added flexibility in how they specify tolerances.
page 35
2.2.2.2 - Symbols and Meaning
• The basic symbols are shown below,
tolerance type characteristic symbol
straightness
flatness
individual form
features circularity
cylindricity
for individual profile of a line

or related profile
features profile of a surface
angularity
orientation perpendicularity
parallelism
position
related location
features concentricity
circular runout
runout
total runout
• Flatness - basically, all the surface elements are constrained to lie within two parallel surface
places, separated by the tolerance
page 36
0.001
tolerance
parallel zone
planes
means
<0.001
• Straightness - basically, one the surface elements is constrained to lie within two parallel surface
places, separated by the tolerance. In effect, this means that if any line across the surface is
within two parallel lines, the part is acceptable. This can be tested by running a comparator
across the surface (using a reference plane)
0.001
tolerance
parallel
zone
lines
means
<0.001
• Circularity - all of the points on a cylindrical surface are constrained to lie within two circles.
This can be tested with a talyrond.
page 37
0.01
0.01
tolerance
zone
means
• Cylindricity - an extension to circularity that specifies the tolerance along the cylinder.
0.01
0.01
tolerance
zone
means
and
0.01
tolerance
zone
• Concentricity -
• Angularity - requires that all points on a specified feature must form an angle with a datum. This
could be measured with a sine bar and a height comparator.
page 38
0.02 tolerance
0.02 A zone
40°
40°
-A-
• Perpendicularity - this has the same meaning as angularity, but it is specifically applied to 90•
angles. This could be measured with squares and reference plates.
• Symmetry -
• Parallelism - all points on a surface are to be parallel to a given datum, within a specified toler-
ance
0.5±0.1
0.01 A
-A-
0.01 tolerance zone
05.
• Line Profile - the amount of deviation that is allowed (typically for irregular lines)
page 39
0.01
• Surface Profile - the amount of deviation that is allowed for a surface
0.01
0.01
This means over the entire

surface
• Circular Runout - when dealing with a surface of revolution, this determines the amount of devi-
ation allowed from the central axis. This specifically refers to a specific point
page 40
0.01 A
-A-
0.01
tolerance
zone
this means that at any point
along the axis, the cross
section of the part will
result in the specified
tolerance
• Total Runout - similar to circular runout, but this applies to the entire part. In effect, circular
runout uses two circles, whereas total runout uses two surface planes.
2.2.2.3 - Datums
• These are reference features, that other features are to be measured against.
• These can be used when setting up parts, for manufacturing or production
• Typical features used are,

- axes
- cylinders
- planes
- lines
- points
• A datum reference frame can be constructed with,

- three perpendicular planes
- 3 contact points in the primary plane, 2 in the secondary plane, and 1 in the tertiary
• A datum is specified with a boxed letter with two dashes,

page 41
-B-
-A-
2.2.2.4 - Modifiers
• to overcome shortcomings in symbols, modifiers can be added to change their meanings.
• in particular,
Maximum material condition - the tolerance is at the extreme that would

M result if too little material was cut off, and the maximum material
remains.
Least (Minimum) material condition - the tolerance is at the extreme that

L would result if too much material was cut off, and the minimum mate-
rial remains.
Regardless of features size (RFS) - this indicates that the tolerance must
S be maintained, regardless of variations in this size of the object.
Projected tolerance zone - a tolerance zone can be extended beyond a sur-

P face. To do this the basic surface must be specified as a datum.
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************ Include an example of tolerances using GD&T
2.3 WORKING DRAWINGS
• The basic skills/topics discussed below lead up to preparing, and understanding a complete set
of drawings.
• The purpose of working drawings is to,

- describe the exact geometry of parts
- indicate other details associated with drawings (for example, material)
- show how parts are assembled
- indicate manufacturing preferences
• generally, the drawing package will include a number of items,

- a drawing (one a separate sheet with a separate title block) for each part
- a bill of materials
- an assembly drawing
• a typical working drawing package will contain,

- a design layout
- assembly drawings (and a Bill of Materials)
- subassembly drawings
- detailed drawing
- purchased parts
- modified purchased parts
2.3.1 Drawing Elements
2.3.1.1 - Title Blocks
• Most of the important details are put in this block. Each block is individualized to a company,
but generally they include,
- company name, and division if applicable
- machine or department name
- part name
- drawing number
- part number
- the number of parts required
- the scale
page 43
- drafter name/date
- drawing checker name/date
- material
- tolerances
- finishing details
- units of drawing
• The block is typically located in the bottom right hand corner of the drawing
• The drawing title, and drawing number are commonly printed in large fonts
2.3.1.2 - Drawing Checking
• this is a process whereby a drawing is reviewed for completeness, accuracy, etc.
• modern CAD systems, especially solid modeler should reduce the emphasis on checking the
drawings. Some of the main features checked for in manual drawings are,
- appearance - this can be a large issue for hand drawn work
- within standards - legal and corporate
- clarity - all description, dimensions, etc should be well understood
- completeness - sufficient dimensions, etc should be present for production
- redundancy - redundant information should be eliminated unless essential
- manufacturability - the cost and feasibility of production should be considered. are toler-
ances sufficient/excessive, are other steps sufficient for product life.
-
2.3.1.3 - Drawing Revisions
• When a drawing has reached production, it is considered final, but changes are frequently made.
• It is very important that drawing changes are dealt with properly. This means,
- all changes are recorded on the drawing, and new drawings made
- all old drawing must be collected, or marked void (failure to do this can lead to very
expensive mistakes)
- when a drawing has been changed a number of times, it should be redrafted.
• Computer CAD systems still do not sufficiently deal with problems such as these, and often rely
on the previous manual drafting systems to process these updates. But, software is available,
and is being developed for product information management (PIM) that will deal with these
changes in a manner suitable for CAD.
page 44
2.3.1.4 - Bill of Materials (BOM)
• An important list on most drawings is a Bill of Materials, this is a list of all required materials/
parts required to make to part depicted in the drawing.
• This list contains,

- all part numbers
- all part names
- quantity of parts required
- materials required
- source
• This is sometimes given on separate sheets, or on the drawing itself
• The typical (but not the only) order for listing parts on a BOM is,
1. produced in-house
2. specialty purchase (e.g. roller bearings)
3. standard purchased hardware (e.g., washers)
4. bulk items (e.g. lubricants)
2.3.2 Drawing Types
2.3.2.1 - Assembly Drawings
• These are used to specify an assembly with,

- a drawing of the assembled part
• Hidden lines are typically omitted from these drawings. Details may also be omitted if they have
no bearing on the product
• assembly instructions may also be included in these drawings to guide workers
• full section assembly drawings are often used
• dimensions not included unless essential
• Small blow-up bubbles are often used to emphasize details
• The parts can be identified using,

page 45
- numbers with arrows and a block list of parts including,

- quantity
- part name
- part source
- part number
- reference number
- drawing number
- arrows and descriptions
- quantity
- part name
- part source
- part number
- drawing number
2.3.2.2 - Subassembly Drawings
• these are basically the same as assembly drawings, except that there are components that have
already been assembled.
• Modern equipment is complex and is assembled in stages. The final assembly might be some-
thing like an automotive body welding shop, whereas a sub-assembly might be the car radio.
2.3.2.3 - Exploded Assembly Drawings
• these are drawings that show each piece separated, and indicates their assembly paths. This can
help when determining,
- which part goes where
- the orientation of the part
- the part of approach
- the order of assembly
2.3.2.4 - Detailed Drawings
• These drawings use the techniques discussed earlier in this section to depict, and dimension
parts.
************************* INCLUDE A COMPLETE DRAWING PACKAGE TO ILLUS-

TRATE
page 46
2.4 PRACTICE PROBLEMS
2.5 REFERENCES
Ullman, D.G., The Mechanical Design Process, McGraw-Hill, 1997.

page 47
3. METROLOGY
Topics:
•
Objectives:
•
3.1 Introduction
3.1.1 The Role of Metrology
• modern manufacturing can produce features that are more accurate than we can measure by
hand, therefore we need tools to assist us.
• These tools allow us to quantitatively evaluate physical properties of objects.
• EVERY industry uses these tools to some extent, for example,

- machine shops
- tailors
- dentists
- automotive manufacturers
- etc.
page 48
3.2 DEFINITIONS
Accuracy - The expected ability for a system to discriminate between two settings.
Assembly - the connection of two or more separate parts to make a new single part.
Basic Dimension - The target dimension for a part. This typically has an associated tolerance.
Dimension - A size of a feature, either measured, or specified.
Dimensional Metrology - The use of instruments to determine object sizes shapes, form, etc.
English System - See Imperial.
Error - a discrepency between expected, and actual values.
Imperial System - An older system of measurement, still in use in some places, but generally
replaced by the metric system.
Limits - These typically define a dimensional range that a measurement can be expected to fall
within.
Machine Tool - Generally use to refer to a machine that performs a manufacturing operation. This
is sometimes confused with the actual cutting tools, such as a drill bit, that do the cutting.
Measurement - The determination of an unknown dimension. This requires that known standards
be used directly, or indirectly for comparison.
Metric System - A measurement system that has been standardized globally, and is commonly
used in all modern engineering projects.
Metrology - The science of measurement. The purpose of this discipline it to establish means of
determining physical quantities, such as dimensions, temperature, force, etc.
Precision - Implies a high degree of accuracy.
Repeatability - Imperfections in mechanical systems can mean that during a Mechanical cycle, a
process does not stop at the same location, or move through the same spot each time. The vari-
ation range is refered to as repeatability.
Standards - a known set of dimensions, or ideals to compare others against.
Standard Sizes - a component, or a dimension that is chosen from a table of standard sizes/forms.
Tolerance - The allowable variation in a basic dimension before a part is considered unacceptable
page 49
3.3 STANDARDS
• Standards are the basis for all modern accuracy. As new methods are found to make more accu-
rate standards, the level of accuracy possible in copies of the standard increase, and so on.
• A well known metric standard is the metric 1m rod.
• Many standards are available for measuring, and many techniques are available for comparison.
3.3.1 Scales
• The most common tool for crude measurements is the scale (also known as rules, or rulers)
• Although plastic, wood and other materials are used for common scales, precision scales use
tempered steel alloys, with graduations scribed onto the surface.
• These are limited by the human eye. Basically they are used to compare two dimensions.
• The metric scales use decimal divisions, and the imperial scales use fractional divisions.
metric
10 20 30 40 (mm)
1 2
imperial
8 16 24 32 40 48 56 8 16 24 32 40 48 56
(inches 1/64)
• Some scales only use the fine scale divisions at one end of the scale.
page 50
• It is advised that the end of the scale not be used for measurement. This is because as they
become worn with use, the end of the scale will no longer be at a ‘zero’ position. Instead the
internal divisions of the scale should be used.
• Parallax error can be a factor when making measurements with a scale.
If the instrument is not measured directly on,

then there may be some error. Note: this would
10 not occur if the scale was perfectly thin.
20
30
40
3.3.2 Calipers
• A tool used to transfer measurements from a part to a scale, or other instrument.
• calipers may be difficult to use, and they require that the operator follow a few basic rules,
- do not force them, they will bend easily, and invalidate measurements made
- try to get a feel, or personal technique for using these instruments.
- if measurements are made using calipers for comparison, one operator should make all of
the measurements (this keeps the feel factor a minimal error source).
• These instruments are very useful when dealing with hard to reach locations that normal measur-
ing instruments cannot reach.
• Obviously the added step in the measurement will significantly decrease the accuracy
3.3.3 Transfer Gauges
• Small hole gauges can be inserted into a hole, as an adjustment knob is turned, the head expands
page 51
to the size of the hole. The gauge can be removed and measured to determine the diameter of
the hole. The end of this gauge appears as if a sphere with a shaft in it has been split into two
halves.
• Telescope gauges have two plungers that are springy, until locked in place. This can be put in
holes or hard to reach locations, and used to transfer measurements to other measurement
devices.
3.4 Instruments
3.4.1 Vernier Scales
• Vernier scales have normal scale components, but also incorporate a small secondary scale that
subdivides major increments.
• This secondary scale is based on a second scale that is one increment shorter than a main scale.
If the secondary scale is compared to the main scale, it will indicate relative distance between
two offsets.
Main scale 0.4

+0.08
=0.48
0 1 2
0 .2
Vernier scale
• The scale pictured above would normally be on an instrument, and the main and vernier scales
would slide relative to each other. The ‘0’ on the vernier scale would be used to take the read-
ing from the main scale. In this example the main scale would read a value that is between 0.4
and 0.6. (Note: it is not considered good practice to round this to 0.5)
• The vernier scale can then be used to find the internal division, by looking for where the divi-
sions in the top and bottom scales align. In this case the second internal division aligns with 1.
Using the values on the vernier scale, we can see that the value for this division would be 0.08.
The value from the vernier scale is added directly to the main scale value to get the more accu-
rate results. 0.4+0.08 = 0.48.
page 52
• On imperial sliding vernier scales the main scale divisions are 0.050” apart, and on the vernier
scale they are 0.049”, giving a reading of 0.001” per graduation.
• On metric sliding vernier scales the main scale divisions are 1mm apart, and the vernier scale
they are 0.98 mm, giving a reading of 0.02mm per graduation.
• Angular vernier scales are used on protractors, and are identical in use to linear vernier scales.
The major protractor scales have divisions of 1 degree, and the vernier scale is divided into 5
minute intervals. One interesting note is that the vernier scale has two halves, one in the posi-
tive direction, and one in the negative direction. If reading from the left division, on the main
scale, the right vernier scale should be used. And, when measuring from the right hand division
on the major scale, the left vernier scale should be used.
3.4.2 Micrometer Scales
• This is a very common method for measuring instruments, and is based on the thread principle.
• In effect, as a thread is turned, a large motion on the outside of the thread will result in a very
small advance in the position of the thread.
0.459
12
11
0 1 2 3 4 5 Imperial (Inches)
10
9
8
7
6
13.1
40
0 5 10 15 35
Metric
30
25
• The micrometers pictured above have major scales, as well as minor scales. The major scales are
read first, and the micrometer scales are read second and the readings added on.
• The metric micrometer above reads 13.5 = 13.5mm on the major scale, and 31 = .31mm on the
thimble, for a total of 13.81mm
page 53
• The Imperial scale above shows a micrometer reading of 4.5 = .45” on the main scale, and 9 =
.009” on the thimble, for a total of .459
• On imperial micrometers the divisions are typically .025” on the sleeve, and 0.001” on the thim-
ble. The thread used has 40 T.P.I. = a pitch of 0.025”
• Metric micrometers typically have 1 and 0.5 mm divisions on the sleeve, and 0.01mm divisions
on the thimble. The thread has a pitch of 0.5mm.
• A vernier micrometer has the scales as pictured above, but also a vernier scale is included to pro-
vide another place of accuracy.
• Depth micrometers have an anvil that protrudes, out the end, and as a result the scales are
reversed to measure extension, instead of retraction.
3.4.2.1 - The Principle of Magnification
• The operation of micrometers is based on magnification using threads.
• A large movement on the outside of the micrometer thimble will result in a small motion of the
anvil.
• There are two factors in this magnification. First, the difference in radius between the thread,
and the thimble will give a change in sensitivity relative to the difference in radii. Second, the
pitch of the thread will provide a reduction in motion.
• The basic relationship can be seen below,

page 54
C πD
M = ---- ------------- where,
D pitch
M = magnification from the moving head to the hand motion
C = measuring diameter of the instrument
D = diameter of the thread
pitch = the number of threads per unit length
C
Radial Arm Principle of Magnification = ----
D
Inclined Plane Principle of Magnification πD

= -------------
pitch
D
C
NOTE: magnification
40
can result in greater
0 5 10 15 35
sensitivity of an 30
insrument to control, 25
and reading by a
user.
pitch
3.4.2.2 - The Principle of Alignment
• Basically, the line of the physical measurement should be such that it is coincident with the mea-
surement axis of the instrument.
• If the measurement is out of line, it may lead to misreadings caused by deflections in the instru-
ment.
page 55
40
0 5 10 15 35
30
25
misalignment is
slight, but may still
cause errors.
• micrometers are generally better than sliding vernier calipers when considering this principle.
3.4.3 Dial Indicators
• Converts a linear displacement into a radial movement to measure over a small range of move-
ment for the plunger.
page 56
0
90
10
indicator dial
80
20
gears
70
rack 30
60
40
50 pinion
plunger
• The radial arm magnification principle is used here.
• these indicators are prone to errors caused by errors that are magnified through the gear train.
Springs can be used to take up any play/backlash in the rack and pinion to reduce these errors.
• The gears are small, but friction can result in sticking, thus reducing accuracy
• A spring is used on the rack to return the plunger after depression.
• The problems mentioned earlier will result in errors in these instruments. If the dial indicator is
used to approach a dimension from two different sides, it will experience a form of mechanical
page 57
hysteresis that will bias the readings. An example of this effect is given below.
+ve errors
as height is increased
as height is decreased
-ve errors
maximum variance
• In the graph shown, as the dial indicator is raised in height (taking care not to change direction),
the errors are traced by the top curve. As the height of the dial indicator is decreased, the bot-
tom curve is traced. This can be observed using gauge blocks as the known heights to compare
the readings against.
• The causes of this hysteresis are bending strain, inertia, friction, and play in the instrument.
• Applications include,
- centering workpices to machine tool spindles
- offsetting lathe tail stocks
- aligning a vise on a milling machine
- checking dimensions
• These indicators can be somewhat crude for accurate measurements, comparators have a higher
degree of sensitivity.
3.4.4 The Tool Makers Microscope
• Quite basically this is a microscope. But, it has lines added to the optics for visual reference, and
micrometer dials, and angular verniers added to the stage to measure distances.
• Parts are put on the stage, and the microscope is focused. The stage can then be rotated, and
translated precise distances to allow visually referenced measurements
• Such a microscope might have two micrometer heads for x-y translation of the stage. In addi-
tion, the stage can be rotated, and angular positions measures.
page 58
3.4.5 Metrology Summary
• We can discuss various instruments, and what they are used for.
Table 1: Fill in more later
Feature SizeRange Accuracy Instrument Comments
Angle 90° yes/no square

85°-95° -- cylindrical
square
outside dis-
tance
depth
page 59
3.5 Surfaces
• No surface is perfectly smooth, but the better the surface quality, the longer a product generally
lasts, and the better is performs.
• Surface texture can be difficult to analyze quantitatively. Two surfaces may be entirely different,
yet still provide the same CLA (Ra) value.
• Recent developments in production technique, and metrology equipment have made it possible
to specify and measure surface quality.
• There are standards, such as the CSA B95 1962.
• Surface Quality can be important when dealing with,

- lubrication - small indentations can hold lubricant
- resistant to wear - smoother surfaces wear less
- tool life - rough surfaces will correlate to shorter tool life
- fatigue/stress raisers -
- corrosion - smoother surfaces easier to clean, less surface area to erode
- noise reduction - smooth surfaces make less noise when rubbing, for example meshing
gears.
- fit - pressure seals could leak through pits
• Surface geometry can be quantified a few different ways.
Flat and Smooth
Smooth (not flat) - waviness
Rough (flat)
• Real surfaces are rarely so flat, or smooth, but most commonly a combination of the two.
page 60
• Some other terms of interest in surface measurement,

- Surface texture - all of the details that make up a surface, including roughness, waviness,
scratches, etc.
- Lay - the direction of the roughness on a newly manufactured surface. The roughest pro-
file will be perpendicular to the lay.
- Flaws - small scratches, cracks, inclusions, etc.
- Cutoff - a value selected to be less than the waviness, but greater than the roughness
length. This is controlled using electrical or digital filters. Typical values might be;
0.010”, 0.030”, 0.100”
3.5.1 Measures of Roughness
• A simple measure of roughness is the average area per unit length that is off the centre line
(mean). We will call this the Centre Line Average (CLA), or Arithmetic Average (Ra), the units
are µinches.
• To calculate the roughness using samples at evenly spaced positions,

page 61
h2 h3 h4 hn
h1
l (and n samples)
CLA = R a =
∑ h
---------
h1 + h2 + … + hn
- = ----------------------------------------
-
n l
• The roughness can also be calculated by area,
Area A1 A3
mean line
A2 An
∑ A A1 + A2 + … + An
CLA = R a = ---------- = -------------------------------------------
l l
• In both cases the mean line is located so the sum of areas above the line is equal to the sum of
areas bellow the line.
• As an example we can examine a surface that has a triangular profile,

page 62
1 2 1 mean line
1 2 1
1
We can find the surface roughness using heights,
∑h 1 + 2 + 1 + 0 + 1 + 2 + 1 + 0
CLA = R a = ---------- = -------------------------------------------------------------------- = 1
n 8
We can also find the surface areas using areas,
∑A 4 + 4
CLA = R a = ---------- = ------------ = 1
l 8
Note the results are the same with both methods. These numbers may vary
significantly if the height method does not take enough samples for a rougher
surface texture.
A secondary measure of interest is,

Full Texture Height is 2 - (-2) = 4
Full Texture Height/Ra ratio is 4:1
• One of the instruments that we will use is the Surfcom. If we were to have obtained the graph
above from this device, we would have to use the following formula to determine the true val-
ues,
–6
CLA = R a =
∑ A × 10
-------------------------------------------------------------- µin.
l × vertical magnification
measured on trace
page 63
3.6 Measuring Surface Roughness
• There are a number of useful techniques for measuring surface roughness,

- observation and touch - the human finger is very perceptive to surface roughness
- stylus based equipment - very common
- interferometry - uses light wave interference patterns (discussed later)
3.6.1 Observation Methods
• Human perception is highly relative. In other words, without something to compare to, you will
not be certain about what you are feeling.
• To give the human tester a reference for what they are touching, commercial sets of standards
are available.
• Comparison should be made against matched identical processes.
• One method of note is the finger nail assessment of roughness and touch method used for draw
dies in the auto industry.
3.6.2 Stylus Equipment
• One example of this is the Brown & Sharpe Surfcom unit.
• Basically this technique uses a stylus that tracks small changes in surface height, and a skid that
follows large changes in surface height. The use of the two together reduces the effects of non-
flat surfaces on the surface roughness measurement. The relative motion between the skid and
the stylus is measured with a magnetic circuit and induction coils.
page 64
direction of travel over surface
magnetic core
induction coils
pivot
stylus
skid/shoe
work surface
• The actual apparatus uses the apparatus hooked to other instrumentation. The induction coils
drive amplifiers, and other signal conditioning hardware. The then amplified signal is used to
drive a recorder that shows stylus position, and a digital readout that displays the CLA/Ra
value.
• The paper chart that is recorded is magnified in height by 100000:1, and in length by 82:1 to
make the scale suitable to the human eye.
• The datum that the stylus position should be compared to can be one of three,
- Skid - can be used for regular frequency roughness
- Shoe - can be used for irregular frequency roughness
- Independent - can use an optical flat
page 65
Skid - used for regular frequencies, and very common.
the height of the skid varies

slightly, but effectively gives
a datum
skid moves this way

Skid
Flat Shoe: Used for surfaces with irregular frequencies
shoe
page 66
Independent Datum - a separate datum is used for the reference datum.

This may be a good application for a laboratory.
optical flat
work piece
• Where the scan is stopped might influence the Ra value. This is especially true if the surface tex-
ture varies within a very small section of the surface. For example,
CASE 1: Measurement of l1, or l2 would yield the same Ra values,

or very close.
l1
l2
page 67
CASE 2: The datum changes when the longer sample is taken, thus changing the
mean line, and the Ra value also.
l2
mean line for l2
l1
mean line for l1
CASE 3: The surface frequency.amplitude changes over the length of the surface
l1
l2
• In both cases 2 and 3 above, Ra would be higher over the longer sample (l2) than over the shorter
sample (l1).
• The bearing surface that the skid/shoe runs on might also have an effected on the measurement.
Both of the two surface profiles shown below would result in the same Ra
values
page 68
3.6.3 Specifications on Drawings
• The following specification symbol can be used on drawings to specify surface textures desired
on a completed part,
Maximum Waviness height
Maximum waviness width

0.002 0.2
Maximum Ra
63 0.030 Cutoff
Minimum Ra
32 0.015 Maximum roughness width
Lay direction
Waviness height - the distance from a peak to a valley

Waviness width - the distance between peaks or valleys
Roughness width cutoff - a value greater than the maximum roughness width that is the
largest separation of surface irregularities included in the measurements. Typical
values are (0.003”, 0.010”, 0.030”, 0.100”, 0.300”)
Lay - the direction the roughness pattern should follow
• The example below shows an upper limit of 40 micro in. roughness
40
page 69
• The symbol below can specify how the roughness is to lay,
From this end use this symbol
From the side use this symbol
Other Symbols are,
across both multi(bumpy) radial to centre circular to centre
X M R C
• Standards CLA/Ra values used on drawings are: 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 63, 125, 250, 500 and 1000
µin.
• Stylus travel is perpendicular to the lay specified.
• These symbols can be related to the newer GD&T symbols
3.6.4 Other Systems
• The Root Means Squared (RMS) System (also known as Rq) is not commonly used in Canada,
page 70
h5 h6 hn Mean line
h1 h2 h3 h4
2 2 2 2
h1 + h2 + h3 + … + hn
RMS = R q = ----------------------------------------------------
-
n
**Note: This value is typically 11% higher than CLA or Ra
• The Peak to Valley method cuts the peaks off the wave, and then uses the band between to deter-
mine the roughness. This method is not commonly used in Canada.
p1 p2 p3 p4
L1
L2
v1 v2 v3 v4
l
The two parallel lines L1 and L2 are positioned such that they cut off the
peaks and valleys, given the mathematical constraints,
∑P = 0.05l ∑V = 0.10l
h is the measure of peak to valley height

page 71
• A simple table that basically outlines the process capabilities of a number of processes is, [ANSI
B46.1-1962]
Roughness Height (µin.)

process
2000
1000
500
250
125
0.5
63
32
16
8
4
2
1
sand casting -700
hot rolling
% increase in cost with surface finish designed by the curve

forging
perm. mold casting
-600
investment casting
extruding
cold rolling, drawing
die casting
-500
flame cutting
snagging
sawing
planing. shaping -400
drilling
chemical milling
electrical discharge machining
milling -300
broaching
reaming
boring, turning
barrel finishing -200
electrolytic grinding
roller burnishing
grinding
honing -100
polishing
lapping
superfinishing
Average usage of operation

less common usage
• A table of roughness measurements is given below [Krar],

page 72
Tool Opera Material spee feed tool cuto Ran surf

tion d ff ge ace
cutoff 2.5” dia. 10 RMS
saw sawin Al 320 pitch 0.03 100 300
g ’/min 0.00 saw 0” 0 -400
shape machine 5”
r shapi steel 100 3/64” 0.03 300 225
ng flat ’/min rad. HSS 0” -250
surf. 0.01
vertic machine 5” 1/16” 300
al mill fly steel 820 rad. 0.03 125
cutting rpm stellit 0” -150
2.5 e 100
horiz cast Al “/min
ontal slab 225 4” dia 0.03 300 40-
mill milling 2.5” dia. rpm 0.01 HSS 0” 50
lathe Al. 0” slab 100
turnin 500 cutter 0.03 100
g 2.5” dia. rpm 0.00 R3/ 0” 300 -200
Al. 7” 64” HSS
turnin 500 0.03 100 50-
g 2” dia. rpm 0.01 R5/ 0” 60
Al. 0” 64” HSS 100
facing 600 0.03 200
2” dia. rpm 0.00 R1/ 0” 30 -225
facing Al. 5” 32” HSS
800 0.03 100 30-
3.6.5 Roundness Testing
• Roundness is of particular importance when designing components for fit and function.
• Most of the methods considered so far are suited to measuring with single points, but a round
shape is a collection of points, with each point having significant influence if out of tolerance.
• Precise roundness measurement equipment is expensive

page 73
• Two fundamental methods for measuring roundness are,

- Intrinsic - uses points on the round surface to measure from
- Extrinsic - uses a separate round surface for a reference (e.g. a precision bearing)
3.6.5.1 - Intrinsic Roundness Testing
• Three methods for Intrinsic roundness testing are shown below,
0
90 10
80
20
Dial Indicator
70
30
60
40
50
Diametrical Intrinsic Method
A dial indicator is positioned over the surface
to a reference height. The part is then rolled
underneath. The peak height can then be
Rolled this way
compared to other readings.
dia.
Datum Point
page 74
0
90 10
80
20
Dial Indicator
70
30
60
40
50
Vee Support Intrinsic Method
A dial indicator is positioned over the surface
to a reference height. The part is then rolled
underneath. The peak height can then be
Rolled this way
compared to other readings. The Vee support
reduces the effect of a single datum point.
Datum Point
0
90 10 Between Centres
80 A dial indicator is positioned over the surface
20 to a reference height. The part is then rotated
on centres. The variations in the readings are
70
30 then used to evaluate the part. Location of
60
the centre may lead to problems.
40
50
• All three of the intrinsic methods are inexpensive

page 75
• The Intrinsic methods all have an important limitation. In particular, if the deformation of the
round is small, the methods will deal with it reasonably, but if the deformation is large enough
to make the shape non-cylindrical, then the results will err significantly.
With this test the two readings shown would

indicate roundness, when in fact this is not true
This test would exaggerate the roundness error such

that it would be greater than the actual error
• When using The Flat Plane, or the Centre to intrinsically measure roundness, the diameters can
be directly obtained, but when using the Vee block, some additional calculations are required.
page 76
indicator reading (IR)
A
B
h1
h0
θ θ
IR = change in centre height + change in radii

A B
∴ = ( h 1 – h 0 ) + ( A – B ) = ----------- – ----------- + ( A – B )
sin θ sin θ
∴ = A – B ( csc θ ) + ( A – B )
∴IR = A – B ( 1 + csc θ )
where,
θ = 1/2 vee block angle
• The vee block method has particular disadvantages,

- a number of angles are required (the standard angle is 90°)
- only suitable for regular odd lobed figures
• The centre support method also has disadvantages,

- The part may be bowed, or warped
- off centre or degraded centre holes will decrease reading quality
- the centres themselves can also affect readings
3.6.5.2 - Extrinsic Roundness Testing
• The features of this methods are,

1. the reference datum is not points on the object, but a separate precision bearing
2. The axis of the part being measured is aligned with the machine bearing axis
page 77
3. A stylus is moved in to contact the part, and then it moves about in a circular path
4. The deflection of the stylus is amplified onto a polar plot to be used in evaluation of the
part
• We can measure the out of roundness value as the minimum distance between two concentric
circles that enclose/envelope the trace profile. This distance must obviously be divided by the
magnification.
• Only roundness deviations are amplified. This creates distortions in the trace.
• The Talyrond machine also uses a low pass electronic filter to reduce the roughness that is
shown on the plot. But this still shows the lobing.
• Eccentricity - the talyrond can also be used to detect concentricity. A simple example is a bear-
ing race shown below.
the stylus measures the profile for

both the inside and outside, and then
these can be compared to determine
concentricityXXXXXXX
stylus
inside dia.
outside dia.
• An example of the part discussed above, is now shown in a trace from the Talyrond
page 78
Inside circumference
specimen
magn filter
C C
X10000 B
talyrond
centres of spheres
Outside circumference
Y–X 1 C
ECCENTRICITY = ------------- × -------------- = --------------
2 magn magn
3.7 Gage Blocks
• The purpose of gauge blocks are to provide linear dimensions known to within a given toler-
ance.
page 79
• The requirements of gauge blocks are,

- the actual size must be known
- the faces must be parallel
- the surface must have a smooth finish
- the surfaces must be flat
• most gauge blocks are made by normal techniques, but the high accuracy is obtained by a pro-
cess called lapping (discussed later)
• The materials gauge blocks are made from are selected for,
- hardness
- temperature stability
- corrosion resistance
- high quality finish
• type of gauge blocks

- rectangular
- hoke (square)
• there are four grades of blocks,

- reference (AAA) - high tolerance (± 0.00005mm or 0.000002”)
- calibration (AA) (tolerance +0.00010mm to -0.00005mm)
- inspection (A) (tolerance +0.00015mm to -0.0005mm)
- workshop (B) - low tolerance (tolerance +0.00025mm to -0.00015mm)
• Original gauge block sets had lower tolerances and had a total of 91 pieces with values,
0.010” to 0.100” in 0.001” steps
• An 81 piece set of gauge block was developed by Johansson(s??) and is capable of covering
wider ranges of dimensions.
0.1001” to 0.1009” in 0.0001” steps
0.1010” to 0.1490” in 0.0010” steps
0.0500” to 0.9500” in 0.0500” steps
1.0000”, 2.0000”, 3.0000”, 4.0000” blocks
(2 wear blocks at 0.0500”)
• An 83 piece set has also been developed and it has the values (in inches),
page 80
<0.001” divisions
0.1001 0.1002 0.1003 0.1004 0.1005 0.1006 0.1007 0.1008 0.1009
0.001” divisions
0.101 0.102 0.103 0.104 0.105 0.106 0.107 0.108 0.109 0.110
0.111 0.112 0.113 0.114 0.115 0.116 0.117 0.118 0.119 0.120
0.121 0.122 0.123 0.124 0.125 0.126 0.127 0.128 0.129 0.130
0.131 0.132 0.133 0.134 0.135 0.136 0.137 0.138 0.139 0.140
0.141 0.142 0.143 0.144 0.145 0.146 0.147 0.148 0.149
0.05” divisions
0.050 0.100 0.150 0.200 0.250 0.300 0.350 0.400 0.450 0.500
0.550 0.600 0.650 0.700 0.750 0.800 0.850 0.900 0.950
1” divisions
1.000 2.000 3.000 4.000
two 0.050” wear blocks
• The metric set has 88 gauge blocks (in mm),

page 81
<0.01mm divisions
1.001 1.002 1.003 1.004 1.005 1.006 1.007 1.008 1.009
0.01mm divisions
1.01 1.02 1.03 1.04 1.05 1.06 1.07 1.08 1.09 1.10
1.11 1.12 1.13 1.14 1.15 1.16 1.17 1.18 1.19 1.20
1.21 1.22 1.23 1.24 1.25 1.26 1.27 1.28 1.29 1.30
1.31 1.32 1.33 1.34 1.35 1.36 1.37 1.38 1.39 1.40
1.41 1.42 1.43 1.44 1.45 1.46 1.47 1.48 1.49
0.5mm divisions
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0
5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0 7.5 8.0 8.5 9.0 9.5
1cm divisions
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
two 2mm wear blocks
• Most gauge block sets include thin wear blocks that should be included at the ends of a gauge
block stack to protect the other gauge blocks.
• How to select gauge blocks for an application

page 82
from the 81 piece set above, build a stack that is 2.5744”

2.5744”
-0.1004”
2.4740”
-0.1000”
2.3740” therefore the gauge blocks are,
-0.1240” 0.1004”
2.2500” 2 wear blocks @ 0.0500”
-0.2500” 0.1240”
0.2500”
2.0000” 2.0000”
-2.0000”
0”
• To assemble a gauge block stack,

1. remove the gauge blocks required from the protective case
2. clean of the oil that they have been coated in using a special cleaner. It is acceptable to
handle the blocks, in fact the oil from your hands will help them stick together.
3. one at a time, hold the blocks so that the faces just overlap, push the blocks together,
and slide them until the faces overlap together. This will create a vacuum between
the blocks that makes them stick together (this process is known as wringing).
4. Make required measurements with the gauge blocks, being careful not to damage the
faces
5. take the blocks apart, and apply the protective coating oil, and return them to their box.
• When using gauge blocks, minimze the number used. Each block will have tolerance errors, and
as the stack of blocks becomes larger, so does the error.
• Do not leave gauge blocks wrung together for long periods of time.
3.7.1 Manufacturing Gauge Blocks
• The basic sequence of operations is,

1. machine to basic size
2. harden blocks and stress relieve
3. grind to size
4. lap (8 blocks at a time) to obtain tight tolerance
• Johansson’s procedure to make the first set (????)

page 83
1. make a block with a 100mm length

2. Make two 50mm blocks
3. Determine the actual size of the 50mm blocks by comparing the difference in height
0.0004mm
B
100mm 50mm
0.0002mm
A 50mm B A
A + B = 100 - 0.0004 = 99.9996mm

A - B = -0.0002mm
2A + B - B = 99.9996 - 0.0002 = 99.9994mm
A = 49.9947mm
B = 49.9949mm
• Lapping is basically,
1. a porous pad is charged with a find grit powder. the excess powder is removed.
2. the parts to be lapped are secured to a surface plate magnetically (The positions are as
shown below.
3. the lapping plate is placed on the block, and moved about, wearing down the blocks.
4. the lapping plate is removed, and the blocks are repositioned on the surface plate (as
shown below) and the process is repeated.
5. The blocks are removed from the surface plate, and now are generally the same height.
page 84
A A
In the first lap, there are 8 blocks magnetically
1 3 5 7 attached to the surface plate. The result is that
the blocks take on a slight angle as shown below
for a few of the blocks.
2 4 6 8 lapping plate
misaligned by alpha
9 11 13 15
1 3 5 7
10 12 14 16
section A-A
lower magnetic plate
B B
The blocks are rearranged, and the lapping
1 16 9 8 process begins again. The figure below shows
how rearranging the blocks in the manner
shown will wear down the peaks.
2 15 10 7 lapping plate
misaligned by θ
5 12 13 4
1 16 9 8
6 11 14 3
section B-B
lower magnetic plate
• As each stage of lapping is done, the blocks become more even in size, and the lapping plate
become more parallel with the lower plate.
page 85
• Next, knowing the gauge blocks are all very close in size, the stack of 8 blocks are wrung
together into one pile, and compared to the master block using a comparator. The difference in
heights, divided by eight, is the error in each block.
3.7.2 Compensating for Temperature Variations
• As gauge blocks change temperature, they also change size. The metals chosen for gauge blocks
do resist this dimensional change, but will generally undergo some.
• The gauge block sets will carry dimensional readings, as well as rated temperatures. It is advised
that all readings be taken at these temperatures, but if this is not possible, then some estimate
of the dimensional change can be done.
• Basically this is done by using the difference between specified measurement temperature, and
actual measurement temperature. This difference is multiplied by the coefficient of linear ther-
mal expansion to give the change in size. This is obviously for small changes in temperature.
• Typical coefficients of linear thermal expansion is,

Steel 9.9 - 13.0 * 10-6 in./(in.°C) (typical is 11.5)
Bronze 16.7 * 10-6 in./(in.°C)
Aluminum 23.0 * 10-6 in./(in.°C)
Chrome carbide 8.4 *
Tungsten carbide 4 *
Cervit (?) -0.2 *
• Note the units are also ppm/°K
3.7.3 Testing For Known Dimensions With Standards
• When a dimension is well known, it can be measured by comparison to standards, using high
precision, but limited range comparison instruments.
• Most gage blocks are steel which has a non-trivial coefficient of thermal expansion. But, consid-
ering that many parts are made of steel, these blocks will expand at approximately the same
rate as the parts, and therefore no temperature compensation is required.
• If the gage blocks are made of the same material as the parts temperture compensation is less
significant.
page 86
• For high accuracy measurements we want to allow temperatures of gages and parts to stabilize.
• The ISO 1 and ANSI Y14.5 standards speify a typical dimensional ambient temperature as
20°C.
• Materials may vary widely from the listed coefficient of thermal expansion. As a result it is best
to take them to 20±0.1°C for high precision measurements, and 20±0.01°C for critical mea-
surements.
3.7.4 Odd Topics
• There are also a number of angular gauge blocks for the measurement of angles. The two com-
mon sets are,
16 piece set
degrees 45°, 30°, 15°, 5°, 3°, 1°
minutes 30’, 20’, 5’, 3’, 1’
second 30”, 20”, 5”, 3”, 1”
13 piece set
degrees 1°, 3°, 9°, 27°, 41°, 90°
minutes 1’, 3’, 9’, 27’, 0.1’, 0.3’, 0.5’
tool room accuracy ±1 second

laboratory accuracy ± 0.25 seconds
• The selection of angular gauge blocks is similar to the selection of linear gauge blocks, except
that subtration may also be required. (When the blocks are stacked, then angles are simply
reversed.
page 87
For the angle 12°37’13”, find the angular gauge block stack using the 16 piece set.
12°37’13”
-3”
12°37’10” -3”
+30”
12°37’40”
+20” +30”
12°38’ -30’ +20”
-30’ -5’
12°8’
-3’
-5’
12°3’
-3’
12° -15° +3°
+3°
15°
-15°
0
3.7.5 Limit (GO & NO GO) Gauges
• These gauges are made for simple pass/fail inspection
• Basically there are two separate, or combined gauges for each feature to be measured.
• One gauge must fit inside the feature, and the second must not. In other words the GO gauge
must fit inside/outside the feature, the NO GO gauge must not. If the GO gauge does not fit,
the tolerance is above the maximum metal tolerance. If the NO GO gauge goes, the feature is
below the minimum metal tolerance.
• This method is best suited to unskilled operators testing many parts, although more modern
quality methods suggest this procedure should be replaced with Statistical Process Control
(SPC).
• This method can also be used for inspection rooms, and limited runs using gauge blocks.
3.7.5.1 - Basic Concepts
• The GO gauge is made near the maximum metal condition. The GO gauge must be able to slip
page 88
inside/over the feature without obstruction.
• The NO GO gauge is made near the minimum metal condition. The NO GO gauge must not be
able to slip inside/over the feature.
• The terms minimum metal condition, and maximum metal condition are used to describe the tol-
erance state of a workpiece. If we assume (at least for now) that all parts are made by removing
metal from larger pieces, then we are trying to remove a certain amount. If we are drilling a
hole the maximum metal condition will be when the hole is small, and extra metal is ‘left
behind’. The minimum metal condition would be when the hole has been overdrilled and as lit-
tle metal as possible is left behind. The tolerances often set the acceptable maximum and mini-
mum metal conditions. If features are external, the maximum metal condition is their largest
size, and minimum metal condition is their smallest size.
Maximum Material Hole

Minimum Material Bottom 0.5”
As Specified
1”±0.5”
2.75”
Minimum Material Hole

Maximum Material Bottom
1.5”
3”±0.25”
3.25”
• A basic set of shapes these typically deal with are,

- plug
- ring
- taper
- snap
- threads
page 89
• These are good for work tolerances down to about 0.002” (anything less should use compara-
tors)
3.7.5.2 - GO & NO GO Gauges Using Gauge Blocks
• Simple GO & NO GO gauges for internal features can be made from gauge blocks.
• The basic procedure is,

1. Determine the dimension and tolerance of the feature to be tested.
2. Check the temperature of the measurement environment.
3. Determine the upper/lower dimensional limits
4. If the gauge blocks are not being used at the rated temperature, adjust the dimensions.
5. Determine the gauge block stacks for both the GO and NO GO gauges.
6. Test.
page 90
+.003”
5.000”
-.001”
Given:
If the Part is aluminum the coefficient of linear thermal expansion is
C = 0.0000127°F in./in.
Assume the coefficient for the gauge blocks is C = 0.0000061°F in./in.
The temperature in the measurement room is 76°F.
The rated temperature for the gauge blocks is 64°F.
The maximum metal dimension is 5.000-0.001 = 4.999” for the GO gauge.
The minimum metal dimension is 5.000+0.003 = 5.003” for the NOGO gauge.
Find the needed change in the gauge block size as a result of the temperature difference.
∆L = ( ∆T ) ( ∆C ) ( L )
∴∆L = ( 76 – 64 ) ( 0.0000127 – 0.0000061 ) ( 5.000in. )
∴∆L = 0.0005in.
The new size for the GO gauge is 4.999”+0.0005” = 4.9995”
The new size for the NO GO gauge is 5.003”+0.0005” = 5.0035”
Make up the gauge block stacks. (Note when two stacks are taken from the same set,
some planning will be required not to use the same block twice.)
3.7.5.3 - Taylor’s Theory for Limit Gauge Design
1. GO gauges should check all features for maximum metal condition at one time
2. NO GO gauges should check only one feature at a time for minimum metal condition
• The example below should illustrate the two points,

page 91
The square hole is to be checked

for height and width
A GO gauge is designed that must fit

inside the hole
If either of the dimensions are too

small, the gauge will not GO, and
thus the part will fail inspection.
These gauges could be split into two
different gauges without any effect on
accuracy, but they would require more
time for measurement.
Option A: The correct method with two separate gauges each measuring
one of the dimensions. If either of the gauges goes into the hole, then the
part will fail inspection.
Option B: This INCORRECT method uses two NO GO gauges joined, this

results in a gauge as pictured below.
It is possible for one of the gauge dimensions to be stuck (passes inspection),

while the other dimension is not stuck (fails inspection), but because one of the
dimensions is stuck, the gauge does not go, and the part falsely passes inspection.
3.7.5.4 - Gauge Maker’s Tolerances
• Because gauges have to be manufactured themselves, they must also have tolerances asigned.
page 92
• The Unilateral System is very popular,

1. A general tolerance is applied to both GO & NO GO gauges of 10% of the work toler-
ances
2. If work tolerances are above 0.0035”, a wear allowance of 5% of the work tolerance is
added to the GO gauge only
3. All gauge tolerances are made to fall within the work tolerance zones. The effect is that
the gauges will always be between the maximum tolerance limits, and no bad parts
should be accepted. The only downside is that some good parts will also be
rejected.
• An example of the Unilateral Tolerance System applied to GO & NO GO gauges is given below,
as applied to a shaft (here we are measuring external features). The gauge shown is a gap and
ring gauge.
D2±T2/2
D3±T3/2
D1±T1/2
Shaft (the work)

A GO & NO GO gauge combination
(Note: a good part will fit inside the
first hole, but not the second)
D1, T1 = The shaft diameter, and tolerance specified by the designer

D2, T2 = The GO gauge diameter and tolerance
D3, T3 = the NO GO gauge diameter and tolerance
GO gauge
D1+T1/2
10% T1 = T2
5% T1
wear allowance
T1
NO GO gauge
D1-T1/2 10% T1 = T3
• We can also look at an example of a hole that is to be measured with GO & NO GO gauges (an
page 93
internal feature). The gauge shown is a Plug Gauge.
D1±T1/2
D3±T3/2
D2±T2/2
GO & NO GO gauge combination.

If the smaller shaft (the GO gauge)
fits inside the hole the part is good, A Hole (the work)
if the second NO GO shaft fits in, the
part is rejected.
D1, T1 = The hole diameter, and tolerance specified by the designer

D2, T2 = The GO gauge diameter and tolerance
D3, T3 = the NO GO gauge diameter and tolerance
NO GO gauge
D1+T1/2
10% T1 = T3
T1
5% T1
wear allowance GO gauge
10% T1 = T2
D1-T1/2
3.7.6 Sine Bars
• When a reference for a non-square angle is required, a sine bar can be used.
• Basically a sine bar is a bar of known length. When gauge blocks are placed under one end, the
sine bar will tilt to a specific angle.
• The figure below shows a sine bar from the side,

page 94
hardened and ground bar
gauge blocks h
surface plate
hardened and ground cylinders
l = distance between centres of ground cylinders (typically 5” or 10”)

h = height of the gauge blocks
θ = the angle of the plate
h
θ = asin ⎛⎝ ---⎞⎠
l
• A simple example is - set up a sine bar with an angle of 24°-57’, if the sine bar has 5” centres.
57 h
sin ⎛ 24 + ------⎞ = -------------
⎝ 60⎠ 5.000
∴h = 2.1091 inches
continue on and calculate the gauge blocks required......
• The sine bar shown above will only allow a single angle to be set, but in some cases we want to
page 95
set two angles, for this a compound sine plate is used.
3.7.6.1 - Sine Bar Limitations
• When using a sine bar, the height setting is limited by the gauge block divisions available (often
0.0001”). This results in an error that may be negligible, or in some cases quite significant.
• A simple example to illustrate this effect is given below for two extreme cases. In the first case
the sine bar is near horizontal, in the second case it is near vertical. Assuming a sine bar with
10” centres, and two angles of 1°-30’ and 88°-00’, and that an 84 piece gauge block set is used.
ASIDE:
∆OUT h
SENSITIVITY = ---------------- θ = asin ⎛ ---⎞
∆IN ⎝ r⎠
∴∆IN = ∆h
∴∆OUT = ∆θ = etc
Therefore, as the angle approaches 90°, the error increases

page 96
First, find the gauge block heights required,
30
h 1 = 10 sin ⎛ 1 + ------⎞ = 0.2618in. h 2 = 10 sin ( 88 ) = 9.9939in.
⎝ 60⎠
Next, find the gauge block heights,
******* DO IN CLASS
Given the actual heights, we can recalculate the actual angle of the sine bar,
h1 h2
θ A1 = asin ⎛ ------⎞ = θ A2 = asin ⎛ ------⎞ =
⎝ 10⎠ ⎝ 10⎠
This shows the errors of the two angles

θ error1 = θ error2 =
***Note: the error for the larger angle is also much larger
• In any of these cases we can see that at larger angles, the sine bar is susceptible to errors in the
length of the sine bar, as well as in the height of the gauge blocks.
3.7.7 Comparators
• Accuracies commonly below 1/10 thousandth of an inch
• These instruments try to reduce the friction that is such a problem for the dial indicators
• There are four common principles used to design these instruments,

- mechanical
- pneumatic
- electrical
- optical
• comparators have very limited ranges of motion, but very high sensitivities (and therefore accu-
racies). As a result the comparators are often calibrated against standards such as gauge blocks.
page 97
• The basic requirements of these instruments are,

- rigidity of the design
- linear magnification within the operation range
- coarse and fine offset adjustments
3.7.7.1 - Mechanical Comparators
• The Johansson Mikrokator used a twisted strip with a pointer attached. as the plunger is
depressed, it causes the strip to stretch. As the twisted strip is stretched, it changes the angle of
the pointer, and thus the indicated deflection.
scale (side view)
pointer (moves in and out of page)
twisted strip
bell crank lever
plunger
• The Sigma Mechanical Comparator uses a partially wrapped band wrapped about a driving
drum to turn a pointer needle.
page 98
knife edge and

pointer arm that is essentially saphire bearing
a pivoting beam block (knife edge
position is adjustable)
drum
flexible driving band
plunger
3.7.7.2 - Mechanical and Optical Comparators
• The Eden-Rolt Reed system uses a pointer attached to the end of two reeds. One reed is pushed
by a plunger, while the other is fixed. As one reed moves relative to the other, the pointer that
they are commonly attached to will deflect.
page 99
pointer
moving reed
fixed reed
plunger
3.7.7.3 - Optical Comparators
• These devices use a plunger to rotate a mirror. A light beam is reflected off that mirror, and sim-
ply by the virtue of distance, the small rotation of the mirror can be converted to a significant
translation with little friction.
XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
3.7.7.4 - Pneumatic Comparators
• Flow type
- the float height is essentially proportional to the air that escapes from the gauge head
- master gauges are used to find calibration points on the scales
- the input pressure is regulated to allow magnification adjustment
page 100
- a pressure bleed off valve allows changes to the base level for offset
- The pressure is similar to that shown in the graph below,
flow through
gauge tube
clearance at gauge
head to let air escape
zero adjust
output to gauge
tapered glass tube
scale
float (with vanes to

encourage rotation for
ballistic stability)
input flow from regulator
• The Soloflex Back Pressure System uses an orifice with the venturi effect to measure air flow. If
the gas is not moving, the pressure on both sides of the orifice will be equal. If the flow is mov-
ing quickly, the air pressure on the downstream side of the orifice will be at a lower pressure.
page 101
air flows in orifice air flows to

gauge head
dip tube
height difference
proportional to
pressure
manometer tube
water tank
• A Differential Back Pressure system uses a split flow channel, one flow goes to the gauge head,
the other goes to a zero offset valve. A meter measures the difference in pressures, and thus
gives the differences in pressure.
3.8 Measuring Aparatus
3.8.1 Reference Planes
• Very flat surfaces are needed when setting up height or angle measurements. This is because the
measuring instruments are moved across the surface, and if the height varies, accuracy will
suffer.
• Typical plates are made from cast iron, or granite, and are from a few inches per side, and up. A
typical plate might be 2 feet by 2 feet.
page 102
3.8.1.1 - Granite Surface Plates
• The surfaces are finished by rotary lapping machines.
• When done the flatness of the surfaces are inspected for flatness. This is done with auto-collima-
tors or laser alignment equipment followed by geometrical analysis oncomputer.
• The general advantages of these plates over cast iron are,

- durability
- closer tolerances
- lower cost
- lower thermal expansion
- quality
- non-rusting
- burrs do not occur, but chipping does
- ease of use
- non-magnetic
- less glare
- no oil is required, thus dust does not stick
- less wringing
- inserts are often provided for clamping
3.8.1.2 - Cast Iron Surface Plates
• Whitworth’s three plate method of manufacture is outlined below. This method is particularly
desirable because the flatness is self generating.
page 103
Plate B Plate C
Plate A
Three plates are shown (with exaggerated curves in the surface). These
plates will be hand scraped in alternate combinations to reduce the surface
curvature. As the process continues, the plates will become flatter.
Plate A
Step 1:
plates A and B are scraped.
Plate B
Plate C
Step 2:
Plate ‘C’ is scraped to match ‘A’
Plate A
Plate B
Step 3:
The process is repeated by scraping ‘B’ and ‘C’.
This reveals errors, and reduces error.
Plate C
***NOTE: Plate ‘A’ is the master plate
3.8.2 Squares
• Squares use known angles as a measurement reference. Generally a square is used to measure 90
degree angles (i.e., square corners)
• The basic types are,

page 104
- Combination Set - This has a sliding blade and is used for layout.
- Standard Square - There are three grades: 1. Reference, 2. Inspection, 3. Workshop
blade
beam
- Toolmakers Square
- Cylindrical Square
90° Both the object to be measured, and

the square are placed on a reference
plane. The square should provide and
90° angle to the reference plane.
- Direct Reading Type
• The advantages of the Toolmakers, and cylindrical squares are,

1. There is a line of contact between the part and the square.
2. More resistant to damage.
3. Can be checked by rotation.
• Standard Squares can be checked for errors using a reversal test. In this test an angle plate is
placed on a reference plane, and a standard square is placed against the angle plate. A dial indi-
cator is run along the square from one end to the other, and the drop/rise is measured. The
square is now rotated so that the other side is now measured. The drop/rise in height can be
used to calculate the angles of both the square, and the angle plate.
page 105
test A
drops 0.0007”
4.00”
test B: With the square reversed
rises 0.0003”
2.00”
Some values of drops, and distances are given above for illustration. The first step
in calculating the angles is to find the angles in the first, and second tests.
– 0.0007 ·
θ A = asin ⎛⎝ -------------------⎞⎠ = – 0.010°
4.00
0.0003
θ B = asin ⎛ ----------------⎞ = 0.009°
⎝ 2.00 ⎠
Based on these values, the angle of the square is,
θA – θB
θ SQUARE = 90° + ⎛ ------------------⎞ = 89.99°
⎝ 2 ⎠
Likewise, the angle of the angle plate is,
θA + θB
θ ANGLE = 90° + ⎛ ------------------⎞ = 90.00°
⎝ 2 ⎠
page 106
3.9 Practice Problems
1. What are measurement standards?

ans. Standards are objects of known size, quantity, roughness, etc. These standards are used to cal-
ibrate and verify measuring instruments. As a result, measured values are more accurate.
2. What effect will temperature variation have on precision measurements?

ans. Temperature control during measurement is important because as materials are heated they
expand. Each material expands at a different rate. This leads to distortion of parts and measur-
ing devices that results in measurement errors.
3. How can a vernier scale provide higher accuracy?

ans. A vernier scale uses a second elongated scale to interpolate values on a major scale.
4. What are dimensional tolerances, and what are their primary uses?
ans. Dimensional tolerances specify the amount a dimension may vary about a target value. These
are supplied by a designer to ensure the correct function of a device. If these tolerances are
controlled the final product will work as planned.
5. Why is an allowance different from a tolerance?

ans. A tolerance is the amount a single dimension can vary. An allowance is an intentional differ-
ence between two dimensions to allow for press fits, running fits, etc.
6. What are fits?

ans. There are standard for different types of fits (e.g. press fit, running clearance). These specify
the allowance of two parts, so that they may be made separately and then joined (mated) in an
assembly.
7. What is the difference between precision and accuracy?

ans. Precision suggests a limit of technology, accuracy is the ability to achieve a value consis-
tently. These are often interchanged because we are usually concerned with the accuracy when
producing precision parts.
8. If a steel ruler expands 1% because of a temperature change, and we are measuring a 2” length,
what will the measured dimension be?
ans. If we assume that only the steel rule expands, and not the steel part, we can calculate,
l bar l measures 100 ( 2 )

-----------------
- = -------------------
- l measures = ----------------- = 1.98in
100 + 1 100 101
9. Draw the scales for a vernier micrometer reading 0.3997”.

page 107
ans.
For the 0.3997 value 10
The vernier scale to the left is
shown as flattened out. It
would typically be found on
5 the back of the micrometer.
0 1 2 3
0
20
1. Calculate the CLA/Ra value for the wave form below.
height
(um)
mean 1 4 3
2 1 3 4 2 1 distance
ans. 2+1+1+4+3+0+1+3+4+2+1
CLA = R a = ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ = 2
11
2. What is the difference between surface texture and integrity?

page 108
ans. Surface integrity refers to all of the properties of the surface of a material, while surface tex-
ture on refers to the geometry of the surface.
3. Describe roughness, waviness and lay.

ans. Roughness is semi or completely random variation in the surface height, these are typically
smaller in size. Waviness is a period or larger variation in surface height. This can be caused by
warping or buckling, ripples, etc. Lay refers to a direction of a roughness pattern. For example
when cutting with a lath the roughness will be different in the axial and radial directions.
4. What methods are used for measuring surface roughness?

ans. Surface roughness is normally measured with an instrument that drags a stylus across the sur-
face (called a profilometer). The movement up and down is measured and used to calculate a
roughness value.
5. Describe cutoff.
ans. Cutoff is the length of the surface that the stylus of the profilometer is allowed to move over.
6. Two different surfaces may have the same roughness value. Why?
ans. A surface roughness value gives an indication of the rms value, but this can come in many
forms. A regular looking roughness pattern may have the same roughness value as a shallower
wave form with an occasional deep pit.
7. What will be the effect of a difference between the stylus path and the surface roughness?
ans. If the stylus path does not align with the lay of the roughness, then the roughness reading will
be lower (or higher) than expected.
8. When is waviness a desirable and undesirable design feature?

ans. Waviness of a surface can be desirable when the surface is to have a rough appearance. If
there is a moving mechanical contact between two surfaces waviness can lead to premature
wearing of the parts.
9. Given the figure below indicating stylus height values for a surface roughness measurement,
find the Ra and Rq value.
0 -2 -4 -3 -3 -5 -3 0
0 4 3 4 5
page 109
ans.
a 4
b 3
c 4 4+3+4+5+0–2–4–3–3–5–3–0
R a = ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- = – 0.4
d 5 10
e 0
f -2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
Rq = 4 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 0 + 2 + 4 + 3 + 3 + 5 + 3 + 0- = 3.71
g -4 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
10
h -3
i -3
j -5
k -3
l 0
10. How are surface roughness and tolerance of the process related?
ans. Surface roughness is a good indication of the ability of a process to control final dimensions.
Therefore if the process cannot control the surface roughness, it will be unlikely that the
dimensions can also be controlled.
11. How are tolerances related to the size of a feature?

ans. The tolerance/surface roughness graph is based on an important concept in manufacturing.
There is a relationship between the scale of a dimension and the scale of a tolerance. In other
words, if we make two parts in the same machine, but one is twice the size of the other, then its
tolerance must be twice the size. Here we can see the more precise processes are near the bot-
tom with a ratio of tolerance to dimension of 1/10000, the highest is about 1/10. Note: polish-
ing and lapping are used to finish the production of gage blocks.
1. Show that the vee block method exaggerates errors using a round that is deformed into a trian-
gular shape.
1. Select gauge blocks from an 83 piece set to build up a dimension of 3.2265”
2. Use the Unilateral System for a GO/NO-GO gauge design if the calibrated temperature is 72°F
and the actual room temperature is 92°F. The shape to be tested is shown below.
page 110
+.008”
3.000” -.002”
2.005”
1.995” 2.000” ± .005”
3.008”
2.998”
3. Find the Running Clearance fit category for the hole and shaft shown below.
+.0005” .2992” ±.0003”

.3004” -.0004”
4. Set up a sine bar (with 5 inches between cylinder centres) to provide an angle of 15°.
a) What height of gauge blocks is required?

b) Suggest an appropriate set of gauge blocks from an 81 piece set.
c) What is the actual angle of the sine bar?
d) If the room temperature is 95°F and the coefficient of expansion is .000001” per inch per °F,
and the gauge blocks are calibrated to 68°F, what is the actual sine bar angle?
e) Suggest a new gauge block stack for the conditions in d).
5. If the scale below reads .48, label the bottom vernier scale.
page 111
0 1 2
0
Vernier scale
6. List four different reasons that a material like cheese would not be good for gauge blocks.
7. When using a dial indicator, is parallax or the principle of alignment more significant? Explain
your answer.
8. How can you verify that a standard square is 90°?
9. Design a GO/NO-GO gauge for a 5” by 7” square hole with tolerances of ±.1” on each dimen-
sion. Show the tolerances and dimensions for the gauges.
page 112
10. Write the values displayed on the vernier scales below.
0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3
0 1 0 1
Value: Value:
0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3
0 1 0 1
Value: Value:
1. If the thimble on a micrometer is made larger, does it affect the ‘radial arm’, or the ‘inclined
plane’ principle?
12. When a comparator approaches a workpiece from one direction, it will read a different value
than when it approaches from the other way. Explain why.
13. One type of fit is for Interchangeable Assemblies (it uses tolerances to ensure that parts can be
made separately, but still fit together). What are the two other types of fits that were described
in class? Describe why they are different.
14. A square hole has one dimension that will be checked with a GO-NOGO gauge set. The basic
dimension is 2.005” ±0.003”. The gauge and hole are used in a room temperature of 105°F, but
they should be accurate when at 60°F. The gauge coefficient of linear thermal expansion is
0.000001”, and the coefficient is 0.000002” for the material of the workpiece with the hole.
a) What sizes should the GO and NOGO gauges be?

b) Using the gauge block set shown below, list the gauge block stacks required.
15. A square is set up the two ways shown below, and a comparator is run from one end to the
other. The resulting measurements result in the rises, or drops indicated. If the comparator is
page 113
run over a total distance of 5” for both measurements, what is the angle of the squares A and
B?
test A
drops 0.008”
test B
rises 0.002”
16. The hole shaft pair is assembled with an LN fit.
+.0000”
3.0070” -.0018”
+.0030”
3.0000” -.0000”
a) Draw the tolerance diagram.

b) Determine what the LN fit number is.
17. A sine bar will be used to give an angle of 82°35’

page 114
a) If the sine bar has 5” centres, what height will be needed?

b) Calculate the gauge block stack for the height in a).
c) What is the actual angle of the sine bar?
d) If the temperature in the room is 65°F at calibration, and 85°F at use, what change in angle does
the sine bar have (coefficient of linear thermal expansion 0.000001 “/”°F for the sine bar, and
0.0000005 “/”°F for the gauge blocks)?
e) Could the sine bar be used with other instruments to improve accuracy?
18. Draw the number on the vernier scale below if the reading is 1.12
0 1 2
19. Parallax effects are more important than the principle of alignment for flow type pneumatic
comparators - TRUE or FALSE
20. Draw GO/NO-GO gauges for the shaft below.
R1.250” ±0.003”
0.250” +.006”
-.000”
Select the most significant error that occurs when reading a scale that is properly used.
a) parallax errors where the scale is not parallel to the work.
page 115
b) change in the length of the scale due to a temperature change of 1°C.

c) reading with a scale that has a damaged end.
d) rounding off to the nearest division.
If we wanted to measure the diameter of the inside of a tip of a medical syringe (in the range of
0.005”) what would be the best measuring instrument?
a) transfer gauge
b) tool makers microscope
c) GO/NOGO gauges
d) mechanical comparator
Which of the following statements is most correct?

a) vernier scales are used for linear measurements only.
b) micrometer scales are used for linear measurements only.
c) micrometer scales make vernier scales more accurate.
d) none of the above.
Which of the statements below is not correct?

a) the radial arm principle amplifies the rotation of a screw to a larger surface area and radial
travel.
b) the inclined plane principle means that a small axial travel for a thread will be amplified to a
much larger radial travel
c) the principle of alignment suggests that the dimension to be measured, and the measuring
instrument should be aligned along the same axis.
d) all are correct.
Which of the following physical principles is not used as a basis for comparators.
a) air pressure.
b) air flow.
c) the radial arm principle.
Surface plates are,

a) a surface that can be used to measure flatness without other equipment.
b) can be used for measuring small angles without other equipment.
c) a surface that can be used for measuring large angles without other equipment.
d) all of the above.
Sine bars,
a) are more accurate near 90°.
b) are more accurate near 0°.
c) are used with angular gauge blocks.
Given the diagram below, what will the average interference/clearance be?
a) 0.008”
page 116
b) 0.020”
c) 0.032”
d) none of the above
3.016”
3.000”
2.992”
2.984”
Given an 83 piece set of gauge blocks, how many different stacks 1.1117” in height can be built
from the same set? (do not consider wear blocks)
a) 1
b) 2 or 3
c) 4 or 5
d) more than 5
Select the most appropriate statement.

a) dial indicators use the inclined plane principle.
b) dial indicators are a crude form of comparator.
c) the range of the dial indicator is generally less than standard comparators.
Briefly describe the relationship between tolerance and accuracy. (2%)
Find a gauge block stack that gives a value of 1.2351°. (3%)
a) given a metric gauge block set that is calibration grade (a tolerance of +0.00010mm to -
0.00005mm) find the dimension and tolerance of a stack that is 3.2761cm in height. (4%)
b) If the stack found in a) is increased in temperature from the ambient of 23°C to a higher tem-
perature of 41°C, what is the new dimension and tolerance? (assume the coefficient of linear
thermal expansion is 10-7K-1. (8%)
Suggest a suitable comparator for measuring the diameter of a threaded nut. (3%)
Two blocks are stacked as shown below. In the first test we measure the drop in height (0.005”)
from one side to the other (5.000”). Then the block on top is turned 180° (left to right)and the
new drop in height (0.015”) is measured over a distance (4.000”). What are the angles of each
of the blocks? (8%)
1. From the same set of gauge blocks build up the dimensions 3.2452” and 3.2462”. You must not
use the same gauge blocks twice. Use the 83 piece gauge block set.
page 117
1. Design Plug gauges for holes that are 1.500” +0.0025” - 0.000”. (ans. GO limits are 1.50025”/
1.5000” dia., NO GO limits are 1.50250”/1.50225” dia.)
2. Design a gap gauge to inspect shafts that are 0.875” +0.000” -0.008”. (ans. GO limits are
0.8746”/0.8738” dia., NO GO limits are 0.8678”/0.8670” dia.)
3. Design GO and NO GO gauges for the hole shown below.
Hole
1.260” R
1.254”
1.760”
1.754”
(ans. the three gauges are pictured below)
2.3900”
GO gauge 2.3891”
1.2549”
1.2543” NO GO gauge
1.2600”
NO GO
1.2594”
2.3819”
2.3813”
4. Design GO/NO GO gauges for an equilateral triangular hole that is to have each side
2.025”±0.002”.
1. Determine what height is required to set up a 5” sine bar for an angle of 11°34’. Specify the
gauge block stack required.
2. Why are different grades of gauge blocks used?

ans. There are different quality levels for gages blocks. The poorest sets are workshop grade and
are more accurate than most machine tools. The best sets are very accurate, and must be kept in
tightly controlled conditions. The bast sets are used for calibrating others.
3. How are a ring gauge and a plug gauge different?

ans. A plug gage goes into a hole, a ring gage surrounds a dimension.
page 118
page 119
4. CUTTING
Topics:
•
Objectives:
•
4.1 Drilling
• A very common operation that cuts cylindrical holes.
• General type of drill presses in use are,

• Sensitive - typically belt driven, and the bit is fed by hand. There are a limited choice of
speeds. A bench top machine
• Vertical or Pillar - has a heavy frame to support a wider range of work. The table height
is adjustable, and power speeds and feeds are available.
• Radial Arm - For very large and heavy work. The arm is power driven for the height
location. The drilling head traverses the swinging arm. The workpiece remains sta-
tionary on the machine base, or work table. The machine spindle is moved to the
location required.
• More specialized drill presses are,

• Gang Type - several spindles/or stations are mounted on one long table
• Multi Spindle - There are many spindles mounted on one head to allow many holes to be
drilled simultaneously (e.g., up to 24)
• Numerical Control Type - The machine can automatically change tooling with a turret or
automatic tool changer. Speeds, feeds and table position are controlled using a
computer program.
• Counter Bores - Allows the head of cap screws to be sunk beneath a surface
page 120
• Spot Face - Allows the head of a bolt to be sunk beneath the surface. This is basically a shallow
counter bore.
• Counter Sink - Allows counter sunk head screws to be sunk beneath a surface.
82°
• Center Drilling - Allows parts to be mounted between centers, on lathes typically.

page 121
• Tapered Holes - these holes can be cut using reamers.
• Threaded Holes - Taps can be used to add threads to holes
• High tolerance finishes for holes can be made with boring or reaming.
page 122
4.1.1 Drill Bits
• The twist drill does most of the cutting with the tip of the bit.
• There are flutes to carry the chips up from the cutting edges to the top of the hole where they are
cast off.
• Some of the parts of a drill bit are diagramed below as viewed from the cutting tip of the drill,
Tip View of the Drill Web
Margin
Body Clearance
• Some other features of the drill bit are shown below for a side view of the drill bit,
8° to 12° relief
point
angle
margin
flute (space)
land
• Typical parameters for drill bits are,

- Material is High Speed Steel
page 123
- Standard Point Angle is 118°
• Harder materials have higher point angles, soft materials have lower point angles.
• The helix results in a positive cutting rake.
• Drill bits are typically ground (by hand) until they are the desired shape. When done grinding,
the lips should be the same length and at the same angle, otherwise and oversized hole may be
produced.
• Drill sizes are typically measured across the drill points with a micrometer
• Typical drill sizes are,

- FRACTIONAL - 1/64” to 3 1/4” dia. in 1/64” steps
- NUMBER - #1 = 0.228” dia. to #80 = 0.0135” dia.
- LETTER - A = 0.234” dia. to Z = 0.413” dia.
- METRIC - 0.4mm dia. to 50mm dia.
DRILL # dia. (in.) DRILL # dia. (in.) DRILL # dia. (in.) DRILL # dia. (in.)
1 0.2280 25 0.1495 49 0.0730 73 0.0240

2 0.2210 26 0.1470 50 0.0700 74 0.0225
3 0.2130 27 0.1440 51 0.0670 75 0.0210
4 0.2090 28 0.1405 52 0.0635 76 0.0200
5 0.2055 29 0.1360 53 0.0595 77 0.0180
6 0.2040 30 0.1285 54 0.0550 78 0.0160
7 0.2010 31 0.1200 55 0.0520 79 0.0145
8 0.1990 32 0.1160 56 0.0465 80 0.0135
9 0.1960 33 0.1130 57 0.0430 81 0.0130
10 0.1935 34 0.1110 58 0.0420 82 0.0125
11 0.1910 35 0.1100 59 0.0410 83 0.0120
12 0.1890 36 0.1065 60 0.0400 84 0.0115
13 0.1850 37 0.1040 61 0.0390 85 0.0110
14 0.1820 38 0.1015 62 0.0380 86 0.0105
15 0.1800 39 0.0995 63 0.0370 87 0.0100
16 0.1770 40 0.0980 64 0.0360 88 0.0095
17 0.1730 41 0.0960 65 0.0350 89 0.0091
18 0.1695 42 0.0935 66 0.0330 90 0.0087
19 0.1660 43 0.090 67 0.0320 91 0.0083
20 0.1610 44 0.0860 68 0.0310 92 0.0079
21 0.1590 45 0.0820 69 0.0292 93 0.0075
22 0.1570 46 0.0810 70 0.0280 94 0.0071
23 0.1540 47 0.0810 71 0.0260 95 0.0067
24 0.1520 48 0.0785 72 0.0250 96 0.0063
97 0.0059
page 124
Letter size dia. (in.) Letter size dia. (in.)
A 0.234 N 0.302
B 0.238 O 0.316
C 0.242 P 0.323
D 0.246 Q 0.332
E 0.250 R 0.339
F 0.257 S 0.348
G 0.261 T 0.358
H 0.266 U 0.368
I 0.272 V 0.377
J 0.277 W 0.386
K 0.281 X 0.397
L 0.290 Y 0.404
M 0.295 Z 0.413
• Some standard drill types are,

- Straight Shank - this type is held in a chuck
- Taper shank - this type is held in a sleeve, and a machine spindle. A drift may also be
used.
• Some other types of drills used are,

- Core drills - a drill with a small helix, and 3 or 4 flutes. This is used for light drilling,
such as opening holes in castings.
- High helix - When drilling a deep hole in a soft material these drills are used to help
remove chips
- Straight fluted - Used to drill soft metals and plastics. The straight flutes prevent the bit
from digging in.
- Centre drills - A drill with a small entry tip, and a widening profile. The result is a hole
that has a conical shape on the outside, that may be used to mount the part between
centres, or to act as a guide for a larger drill.
• Typically an allowance of a third of the drill bit diameter is given for the tip of the drill.
• Center Drill Sizes [Krar],

page 125
Regular Size Work Dia. Countersink Drill point Body Size

(in.) dia. (in.) dia. (in.) (in.)
1 3/16-5/16 3/32 3/64 1/8

2 3/8-1/2 9/64 5/64 3/16
3 5/8-3/4 3/16 7/64 1/4
4 1-1.5 15/64 1/8 5/16
5 2-3 21/64 3/16 7/16
6 3-4 3/8 7/32 1/2
7 4-5 15/32 1/4 5/8
8 over 6 9/16 5/16 3/4
4.1.2 Reamers
• Reamers are a special class of drill. They are used after a hole has been drilled near to final size.
The reamers is then used to remove a small quantity of material, and finish the hole with a
good surface texture, roundness, and alignment.
tang
tapered holder
side cutting blades no teeth on end
• These are often used to provide holes for bearings, parallel and taper dowels, and various fits
with a shaft.
• These are typically made of High Speed Steel, or with carbide tips.
• The main body contains many straight and helical flutes. The tip does not contain any cutting
edges.
• Various types are,

- Parallel Reamer - Straight fluted reamer held in a drill press spindle with a tapered shank.
page 126
- Parallel Hand - Straight flutes, but held in a hand tap wrench.

- Taper Reamers - has a taper from one end to the other. These can be used in a spindle
(tapered shank), or by hand (for a taper wrench).
- Adjustable Reamer - This uses inserted blades.
• Recommended allowances and speeds for reaming [Krar],
Hole Size (in.) Allowance (in.) Material Speed (ft/min)
1/4 0.010 Aluminum 130-200

1/2 0.015 Brass 130-180
3/4 0.018 Bronze 50-100
1 0.020 Cast Iron 50-80
1.25 0.022 Machine Steel 50-70
1.5 0.025 Steel Alloys 30-40
2 0.030 Stainless Steel 40-50
3 0.045 Magnesium 170-270
4.1.3 Boring
• Boring is used for high quality finished.
cutting point
boring bar
Workpiece
• In boring the tool can be rotated, or the work can be rotated.

page 127
4.1.4 Taps
• Taps can use for both internal and external threads.
• A typical set of hand taps consists of

- #1 Taper
- #2 Plug
- #3 Bottoming
• There are flutes in the taps to help remove chips, to provide cutting edges, and channels for
lubrication.
• There are a number of sets of threads available,

- UNC (Unified National Course)
- UNF (Unified National Fine)
- ACME
- Metric
• To create one of these holes, we must first drill a hole that is slightly smaller. For example,
5/8 - 11 - UNC
outside diameter = 5/8 = 0.625”
11 threads per inch (T.P.I.)
Unified National Coarse is the tooth profile
The tap drill size is Outside Diameter - 1/T.P.I. for UNC, UNF, Metric
threads.
Therefore, the Tap Drill Size (TDS) is,

T.D.S. = 0.625” - 1/11” = 17/32”
• Some setups associated with taps are,

- alignment of the tap in a drill press
- use of taping attachments
• NF/NC Thread Tap Drill Sizes [Krar],

page 128
National Coarse (NC) National Fine (NF)

Tap Size TPI Tap Drill Size Tap Size TPI Tap Drill Size
#5 40 #38 #5 44 #37
#6 32 #36 #6 40 #33
#8 32 #29 #8 36 #29
#10 24 #25 #10 32 #21
#12 24 #16 #12 28 #14
1/4 20 #7 1/4 28 #3
5/16 18 F 5/16 24 1
3/8 16 5/16 3/8 24 Q
7/16 14 U 7/16 20 25/64
1/2 13 27/64 1/2 20 29/64
9/16 12 31/64 9/16 18 33/64
5/8 11 17/32 5/8 18 37/64
3/4 10 21/32 3/4 16 11/16
7/8 9 49/64 7/8 14 13/16
1 8 7/8 1 14 15/16
1-1/8 7 63/64 1-1/8 12 1-3/64
1-1/4 7 1-7/64 1-1/4 12 1-11/64
1-3/8 6 1-7/32 1-3/8 12 1-19/64
1-1/2 6 1-11/32 1-1/2 12 1-27/64
1-3/4 5 1-9/16
2 4-1/2 1-25/32
4.1.5 Process Parameters
• The parameters for drilling are found in almost the same way as for lathes,
page 129
CS = rpm × C
πD πD
C = ------- = ------------
12 1000
12 × CS 1000 × CS
rpm = ------------------- = -------------------------
π×D π×D
imperial metric
where,
CS = cutting speed (fpm or m/s) - can be selected from tables

rpm = revolutions per minute of the machine spindle
C = circumference of the drill bit (ft. or m)
D = diameter of drill bit (in. or mm)
L L
T = --- = --------------------
F rpm × F
C = T×R
where,
L = length of cut (in. or mm)
F = feed rate (in./rev. or mm/rev.) - found in tables
R = Machine cost ($/min.)
• Typical high speed drill speeds are, [Krar]

page 130
Drill dia. (in.) steel casting tool steel cast iron machine steel brass/aluminum
40 fpm 60 fpm 80 fpm 100 fpm 200 fpm
1/16 2445 3665 4890 6110 12225

1/ 1220 1835 2445 3055 6110
3/16 815 1220 1630 2035 4075
1/4 610 915 1220 1530 3055
5/16 490 735 980 1220 2445
3/8 405 610 815 1020 2035
7/16 350 525 700 875 1745
1/2 305 460 610 765 1530
5/8 245 365 490 610 1220
3/4 205 305 405 510 1020
7/8 175 260 350 435 875
1 155 230 305 380 765
• Consider also the typical feeds for drilling, [Krar]
Drill dia. (in.) Feed per Rev. (in.)
1/8 or less 0.001 to 0.002

1/8 to 1/4 0.002 to 0.004
1/4 to 1/3 0.004 to 0.007
1/2 to 1 0.007 to 0.015
1 to 1.5 0.015 to 0.025
4.1.6 The mrr For Drilling
• considering the parameters defined in the discussion of speeds and feeds, etc, the mrr is given
below,
2
πD
mrr = A × F × rpm = ---------- × F × rpm
4
where,
A = cutting area of the drill bit (a cross section)
page 131
4.2 Milling
• Milling machines typically have a rotating cutting tool mounted in a spindle. The work is
mounted on a bed, and then either the spindle, or bed is moved. Cutting is done with different
parts of the milling tool, as will be described later.
• Some basic types of milling machines include,

- Knee and Column
- vertical
- horizontal
- horizontal with vertical head attachment
- universal (table rotates in plan view) and is used for helical milling
- Ram & Turret - Light weight machine tool with slotter on one end of turret. No power
feeds.
- Special Purpose - For production usage. Usually more rigid construction.
arbor
head
cutter
mounted
column on arbor
spindle spindle
table
bed
spindle mill arbor mill
4.2.1 Types of Milling Operations
• Typical operations re pictured below

page 132
Face - cut a face flat
Step
Slots
Pockets/contours
Angles
Gear Teeth
page 133
4.2.1.1 - Arbor Milling
• The advantages of arbor milling are,

- The cutter is held more rigidly on the spindle nose
- There is less variation in the arbor torque
- The teeth responsible for surface finish do not encounter the hard mill scale
- Lower power requirements
- Flatter work surface finish.
• For straddle milling

- Two similar side and face cutters are mounted on the same arbor, with spacers to separate
them.
- This allows two sides of a part to be cut in a single pass.
• For Gang milling

- Many dissimilar cutters are mounted on the same arbor at the same time.
- When the work is passed under the cutter, multiple cuts are made in a single pass, reduc-
ing alignment problems, and decreasing operation time.
4.2.2 Milling Cutters
• The family milling cutters include a number of basic operations, but in general they will cut with
some combination of the end and/or the sides.
• The basic types include,

- End Mills - The face and sides at the bottom end of this tool are used for plunge cutting
(two flutes) and side and end cuts (four flute).
- Plain - These mills are used to cut with the sides only. They are generally mounted on an
arbor.
- Side or Side & Face -
- Face - This cutter is held on a spindle nose.
- Shell and adapter -
- Form -
- T-Slot, Dovetail, Woodruff -
- Slitting Saws -
4.2.3 Milling Cutting Mechanism
• In milling each tooth on a tool removes part of the stock in the form of a chip.
page 134
• There are two types of cutting actions,

Peripheral - The teeth at the periphery do the cutting
Face - The teeth on the face of the cutter remove metal.
• The basic interface between tool and work is pictured below. This shows a peripheral milling
tooth.
centre of cutter
rotation of cutter
rake
tooth angle (α)
secondary chip being cut off

angle
table/work feed
at constant rate
clearance or
primary angle
4.2.3.1 - Up-Cut Milling
• The milling method shown above is called up-cut (or conventional) milling. In this case the table
is moving towards the cutter, opposing the cutter direction. The basic steps of chip cutting here
are,
1. As the tooth makes contact with the surface, the tooth begins to push down. As the tooth
continues to turn, it reaches a point at which the pressure has built up to a high
level, and the tooth begin to dig in.
2. As the tooth starts to dig, it cuts down, and the metal chip begins to shear off.
3. The tooth continues to cut the chip off, until it reaches the surface of the material. At
this point the chip breaks free, and the cutting forces drop to zero.
• Because the cutter does not start to cut when it makes contact, and because the advance moves
page 135
high points past the cutter contact, the surface has a natural waviness.
• If a cutter has straight flutes, then a torque profile for it might look like,
arbor torque chip breaks free
cutter rotation
(time)
tooth is in contact
• The peak arbor torque can be smoothed out by using helical cutting blades, so that there is
always a cutter in contact at any one time.
4.2.3.2 - Down-Cut Milling
• When the cutter rotation is in the same direction as the motion of the work being fed, it is
referred to a Down-cut, or climb milling.
page 136
centre of cutter
rotation of cutter
table/work feed
at constant rate
• When this cutter makes contact with the work, it must begin cutting at the maximum torque. As
a result, a back-lash eliminator must be used to take play out of the system.
• This method has advantages,

- The cutter forces are directed into the table, which reduces fixture forces, and allows
thinner workpieces
- There is less radial pressure on the arbor
- Better surface finishes obtained because there is no “dig-in”
4.3 Feeds and Speeds
• Milling is somewhat different than drilling and turning,

page 137
CS = rpm × C
πD πD
C = ------- = ------------
12 1000
12 × CS 1000 × CS
rpm = ------------------- = -------------------------
π×D π×D
imperial metric
where,
C = circumference of the cutter (ft. or m)
D = diameter of the cutter (in. or mm)
F = fpt × # t × rpm
where,
F = feed rate (in./min.) - this is independent of the spindle rpm
fpt = feed per tooth - found in tables
#t = number of teeth on a particular tool
L L
T = --- = --------------------
F rpm × F
C = T×R
where,
• Typical speeds are, [Krar]

page 138
Work Material HSS tool carbide tool

(fpm) (fpm)
machine steel 70-100 150-250

tool steel 60-70 125-200
cast iron 50-80 125-200
bronze 65-120 200-400
aluminum 500-1000 1000-2000
• Typical feed per tooth values for HSS cutters, [Krar]
Material face mill helical slot/side end mill form cut circular
(in.) mill mill (in.) (in.) saws
(in.) (in.) (in.)
aluminum 0.022 0.018 0.013 0.011 0.007 0.005

brass/bronze (medium) 0.014 0.011 0.008 0.007 0.004 0.003
cast iron (medium) 0.013 0.010 0.007 0.007 0.004 0.003
machine steel 0.012 0.010 0.007 0.006 0.004 0.003
tool steel (medium) 0.010 0.008 0.006 0.005 0.003 0.003
stainless steel 0.006 0.005 0.004 0.003 0.002 0.002
• Typical feed per tooth values for cemented carbide (tipped) cutters, [Krar]
Material face mill helical slot/side end mill form cut circular
(in.) mill mill (in.) (in.) saws
(in.) (in.) (in.)
aluminum 0.020 0.016 0.012 0.010 0.006 0.005

brass/bronze (medium) 0.012 0.010 0.007 0.006 0.004 0.003
cast iron (medium) 0.016 0.013 0.010 0.008 0.005 0.004
machine steel 0.016 0.013 0.009 0.008 0.005 0.004
tool steel (medium) 0.014 0.011 0.008 0.007 0.004 0.004
stainless steel 0.010 0.008 0.006 0.005 0.003 0.003
page 139
4.3.1 The mrr for Milling
below,
d
w
work fed into cutter
mrr = w × d × F
where,
w = width of cut
d = depth of cut
4.3.2 Process Planning for Prismatic Parts
• The basic steps are,

1. Cut off the stock slightly larger than required.
2. Cut the basic outside diameter to size using a milling machine.
3. Lay out the basic features of the parts (in manual setups, this involves coating the surface with
a blue stain, this is then cut and marked).
4. Use a bandsaw to rough cut the work.
5. On the mill, cut steps, radii, angles, grooves, etc.
6. Lay out the holes to be drilled, and then drill them.
7. Ream holes as required
8. Grind any surfaces that require it. Ground surfaces should generally have 0.010”
4.3.3 Indexing
• It may sometimes become necessary to rotate parts on a milling machine, beyond the rotation
page 140
offered in some beds (e.g. Universal Milling Machine).
• Some of the applications that require this capability are milling of,
- polygons,
- splines
- gears,
- cams
- spirals
• This method can be done with a dividing head. This is basically a worm gear unit. As the crank
is turned, the cylindrical gear will drive the round gear. This will result in an apparatus that
takes large motions in the crank, and results in small rotations of the work. When coupled with
a scale of some description this becomes very accurate.
• If a worm wheel has 40 teeth, each rotation of the crank will result in a rotation of 40/360
degrees, or 1/40th of a rotation. This means the rotation is 40:1.
****************************** INCLUDE FIGURES OF INDEXING HEAD
• There are two methods of indexing,

- Direct Indexing - A notched plate is located so that the crank shaft can be fixed at set
positions (notches).
- Simple Indexing - Work is rotated by turning a crank. The crank is finally positioned
using a plate with holes, and a sector arm. (The sector arm is used to count off the
divisions on the plates)
• An example of the calculations involved is,

page 141
Say that we want to mill a polygon on 11 sides (i.e., 1/11th of a circle).
First, we will assume that we have a worm ratio of 40:1, and that we are using a
Brown and Sharp #2 plate.
Next, we will calculate the fraction of the indexed plate to be covered,
40 1 40 7
INDEX = ⎛⎝ ------⎞⎠ ⎛⎝ ------⎞⎠ = ------ = 3 ------
1 11 11 11
So, we must turn the crank handle 3 times, plus a bit more. Next we must determine
which ring of index holes to use, and how many to count ahead by.
We can do this by looking at the remainder (7/11) and taking the denominator (11).
Next we look at the counts available for the Brown and Sharp #2 plate
(i.e., 21, 23, 27, 29, 31, 33), and from this we will notice that 33 is a multiple of 11.
Therefore we can compute the number of divisions required with,
7
holes = 33 ⎛⎝ ------⎞⎠ = 21
11
Therefore in total, we must advance the crank 3 full rotations, and 21 holes (in the
ring of 33) to rotate 1/11th of a circle.
• Another example of indexing considers a rotation of 50 degrees,
First we will calculate the total indexing required,
40 50 2000 50 5
INDEX = ⎛ ------⎞ ⎛ ---------⎞ = ------------ = ------ = 5 ---
⎝ 1 ⎠ ⎝ 360⎠ 360 9 9
Therefore there are 5 full rotations of the indexing wheel required. Next we
look at the list of indexing plates. Assume we are using the Cincinnati
Standards Plates, we should look for the ring that has lowest number of
index holes and is a multiple of 9. This would be 54 on the other side.
Therefore we would advance the sector arm by,
5
holes = 54 ⎛ ---⎞ = 30
⎝ 9⎠
page 142
• Differential indexing - is sometimes required to move plates both forward and backward part of
a turn to obtain correct spacing. i.e., output shaft through gear train drives the index plate.
XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
• Helical milling - the machine table is rotated through a helix angle. The machine lead screw
drives the dividing head. Work is rotated while the machine table feeds.
XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
• CAM Milling - requires a milling machine with a rotating vertical head. The dividing head is
driven by the machine lead screw.
4.4 Lathes
• Cutting is performed in lathes by rotating the workpiece, and then holding a relatively stationary
tool against it. Where the tool touches, the work is cut down in round patterns.
• A lathe is a large machine that rotates the work, and cutting is done with a non-rotating cutting
tool. The shapes cut are generally round, or helical. The tool is typically moved parallel to the
axis of rotation during cutting.
• Manual lathes have the following major components,

page 143
axis of part rotation tail stock
head stock
ways
bed
carriage
lead screw
lead rod
head stock - this end of the lathe contains the driving motor and gears. Power to rotate the
part is delivered from here. This typically has levers that let the speeds and feeds be set.
ways - these are hardened rails that the carriage rides on.
tail stock - this can be used to hold the other end of the part.
bed - this is a bottom pan on the lathe that catches chips, cutting fluids, etc.
carriage - this part of the lathe carries the cutting tool and moves based on the rotation of
the lead screw or rod.
lead screw - a large screw with a few threads per inch used for cutting threads
lead rod - a rod with a shaft down the side used for driving normal cutting feeds.
• General classifications used when describing lathes are,

- Swing - the largest diameter of work that can be rotated.
- Distance Between Centres - the longest length of workpiece
- Length of Bed - Related to the Distance Between Centres
- Power - The range of speeds and feeds, and the horsepower available
• The critical parameters on the lathe are speed of rotation (speed in RPM) and how far the tool
moves across the work for each rotation (feed in IPR).
• Operations on a lathe include,

page 144
Turning - produces a smooth and straight outside radius

on a part.
Threading - The cutting tool is moved quickly cutting

threads.
Facing - The end of the part is turned to be square.
Tapering - the tool is moves so as to cut a taper (cone

shape).
Parting/Slotting/Grooving - A tool is moved in/out of

the work. shallow cut will leave a formed cut, a deep
cut will cut off the unsupported part.
page 145
Drilling/Boring - a cutter or drill bit is pushed into the

end to create an internal feature.
4.4.1 Machine tools
• There are two tool feed mechanism on most lathes. These cause the cutting tool to move when
engaged.
- The larger screw (the lead screw) will cause the lathe cutter to advance quickly. This is
used for cutting screws, and for moving the tool quickly. Typical feed rates range
from about 0.05” to 0.5” per revolution.
- The small screw (the feed rod) will move the cutter slowly forward. This is largely used
when doing rough cuts, or finishing operations. Typical feeds with this screw range
from 0.001” to 0.010” per revolution.
• On a lathe the axial distance of the tool on the part is set by the carriage. A compound rest is
used on a lathe that allows the radial tool position and orientation or the cutting edges.
carriage
compound rest
• Work is held in the lathe with a number of methods.

page 146
- 3 jaw self centering chuck

- 4 jaw independently adjusted chuck
- Between centres
- Face Plates
- Mandrels
- Collets
- Soft Jaws
4.4.1.1 - Production Machines
• In production there are a variety of cutting machines used to increase throughput by automati-
cally feeding stock (through the headstock).
collet Collet - Stock is fed through from the back

of the machine and clamped by the col-
bar stock let. The collet is then driven to turn the
part and cutting tools cut the exposed
stock and then the part is cut off, and the
stock is advanced for the next part. This
is the most basic process.
bushing Sliding Headstock - In these machines the

collet collet still grips the part, but it slowly
moves forward. The cutting tools only
bar stock move in a radial direction and are posi-
tioned near the bushing (it may have
bearings also). Keeping the tools near
the bushing reduced bending moments
and allows slender parts to be cut.
Esco - In this type of machine the bar stock

is still held and advanced through a col-
bar stock let, but the tools rotate on a mounting
assembly. The tools on the assembly
can be moved in radial distances to
change the profile of the part. This
machine allows coiled stock to be
turned and is suited to simpler parts.
• Other types of turning centers provide multiple operations on a single machine,

- Multispindle - Multiple spindles in a single machine allows parallel operations in a sin-
page 147
gle lathe. Between each operation the spindles are advanced to the next operations.
- Rotary Transfer - Large machines where parts are moved to different stations, typically
over ten stations. These may have other tools such as drills mounted.
- CNC machines - These computer controlled machines are typically flexible, but a bit
slower. Flexibility is enhanced by a wider variety of operations and multiple tools
in the same machine.
- Cam - For high production rates, cams can be made to drive the cutting heads. Their
geometry will move the tool in complex patterns.
4.4.2 Toolbits
• A lathe toolbit is shown in the figure below, with a few terms defined.
side cutting
edge angle
end cutting
edge angle nose
radius
back rake
side rake
side relief
end relief
• In general, as the rake angle increases (positive), the cutting forces are reduced, the surface fin-
ish improves, and tool life increases.
• The side edge cutting angle has two effects outlined below,
page 148
1. The angles edge allows a slow build up of cutting forces

Work rotates (the top out of
page in this example)
Tool is moved slowly
2. Increase in the side rake angle reduces the chip thickness

T1
T2
T1 < T2 for same area
Tool is moved slowly
• The End Relief Angle prevents friction on the flank of the tool. The holder for the bit is often
angled, and the end relief angle must be larger than the tool holder angle to prevent rubbing.
page 149
the work rotates this way
tool holder
Effective end relief angle
• The side relief angle has a function similar to the end relief, This angle must exceed the feed
helix angle.
helix angle
work circumference
= 3.14159 Dia.
effective side relief
feed/rev.
• Increasing the nose radius improves the surface finish. But this reaches a limit.
page 150
4.4.3 Thread Cutting On A Lathe
• Threads are cut using lathes by advancing the cutting tool quickly so that it cuts in a helical
band. This helical band is actually a thread. The procedure calls for correct settings of the
machine, and also that the helix be restarted at the same location each time.
• The basic procedure is,

1. The tool point must be ground so that it has the same angle as the thread to be cut. Typ-
ical angles are 60° for Vee threads, and 29° for ACME threads. A thread gauge can
be used to measure thread angles. (also called Centre Gauge or Fish Tail Gauge).
2. The correct gear ratio is required between the machine spindle to the lead screw. This
can be determined with the equation,
driver TPI LEADSCREW

ratio = ----------------- = -------------------------------------
driven TPI WORKPIECE
where,
TPI LEADSCREW = the threads per inch on the lead screw (typically 4)
TPI WORKPIECE = the TPI to be cut on the workpiece
For example, to cut 20 TPI we calculate,

4 4 20 The increase is made to match the
ratio = ------ = 5 ⎛ ------⎞ = --------- number of teeth available in our
20 ⎝ 20⎠ 100
lathe (these figures depend on specific
machine tools).
3. The compound slide is set at half the thread angle. This is so that as multiple passes are
made to cut the thread (most threads require a few passes to cut), the tool will be
advanced in by the compound slide in such a way that only one face cuts. If both
faces were used for cutting there would be a good chance of vibrations and chatter.
For example, if a 60° thread is being cut, the compound rest is often set at 29°.
4. The cutting tool is set in the holder perpendicular to the work, and the fishtail gauge is
used to check the angle of the point.
5. The In-feed is set to the surface of the part for the first pass (quite often the first pass
just scratches the surface to allow visual checking of the settings). On each subse-
quent pass the infeed will be set closer.
6. The cross slide is set at the same location for each cutting pass. i.e., the dial setting is
zero.
page 151
7. The In-feed is adjusted on the compound slide for each pass by moving it in a distance.
A simple measure of this distance is,
0.75
∆ INFEED = ----------
TPI
************************** INCLUDE CHASING DIAL FIG 31-13
8. The chasing dial is used to restart the thread cutting in synchronization with what has
been cut before. (If this step is not done properly, the notches in a thread might be
cut over existing ridges - effectively cutting the entire thread flat to the bottom).
The carriage of the lathe in driven across by a split nut. When the split nut is closed
over the lead screw, it begins to move. It must be clamped over the lead screw
when it is at the right angle. The method for doing this is with the chasing dial. The
chasing dial has 16 different locations to engage at. In some cases you can engage
the nut at any time, in other cases there are only a few positions to engage at. The
basic rules are,
Calculate the following ratio (the previous example is used for illustration),
and reduce the denominator to the smallest integer value.
TPI WORKPIECE 20 5
R = ------------------------------------- = ------ = ---
TPI LEADSCREW 4 1
Other examples could be,

1 1
7 --- 3 ---
18
------ = 9---, 19
------, -----2- = 15
4 13
------, ------ = ------
4 2 4 4 8 4 16
Then looking at the denominator only, select the positions of the chasing
dial that the carriage can be engaged at,
DENOMINATOR WHEN TO ENGAGE CARRIAGE

1 close nut at any position
2 every 1/8 of dial (e.g., at any line)
4 every 1/4 of dial (e.g., at any line with number)
8 every 1/2 of dial (e.g., 1 and 3, or 2 and 4)
16 every revolution at the same place (e.g., 1)
page 152
4.4.4 Cutting Tapers
• A taper is a conical shape.
• Tapers can be cut with lathes quite easily.
• The typical measures for tapers are shown below,
where,
D d
TL = taper length
D = the large diameter
d = the small diameter
TL
In Imperial:
D–d
tpf = ------------- × 12
TL
where,
D = large diameter (in.)
d = small diameter (in.)
TL = the taper length (in.)
tpf = taper per foot (in./ft.)
In Metric:
Specified as a ratio of mm change in diameter to length in mm
For example, a 20cm long bar that changes in diameter from 3cm to 2.2cm
would result in,
∆D : TL = ( 30 – 22 ) : 200 = 8 : 200 = 1 : 25
• Standard tapers include,

- Lathe-Spindle Nose - Used for alignment of hole/shaft pairs
type D-1 (tpf = 3”)
type L (tps = 3.5”)
- Self Holding Tapers - Used for stability
Taper shank drills, reamers, sleeves, etc.
Use “Morse Tapers” numbered 1 to 7
page 153
4.4.5 Turning Tapers on Lathes
• There are some common methods for turning tapers on a lathe,

- Off-setting the tail stock
- Using the compound slide
- using a taper turning attachment
- using a form tool
• Off-Set Tail Stock - In this method the normal rotating part of the lathe still drives the workpiece
(mounted between centres), but the centre at the tailstock is offset towards/away from the cut-
ting tool. Then, as the cutting tool passes over, the part is cut in a conical shape. The method
for determining the offset distance is described below.
OL
TL
OL ( D – d ) tpf × OL
OFFSET = -------- × ------------------ = ---------------------
TL 2 24
where,
OL = overall length
TL = taper length
D = the large taper diameter
d = the small taper diameter
tpf = taper per foot (in.)
OFFSET = the distance to move the tailstock from the zero setting
page 154
Metal removed tailstock

offset
It is necessary to measure the tailstock offset when using this method. This can be
done with,
1. A scale
2. A dial indicator
This method is limited to small tapers over long lengths.
The misalignment of the centres used in this method can cause damage to
the work, and to the centres.
• The Compound Slide Method - The compound slide is set to travel at half of the taper angle. The
tool is then fed across the work by hand, cutting the taper as it goes.
• Taper Turning Attachment - Additional equipment is attached at the rear of the lathe. The cross
slide is disconnected from the cross feed nut. The cross slide is then connected to the attach-
ment. As the carriage is engaged, and travels along the bed, the attachment will cause the cutter
to move in/out to cut the taper.
• Form Tool - This type of tool is specifically designed for one cut, at a certain taper angle. The
tool is plunged at one location, and never moved along the lathe slides.
page 155
4.4.6 Feeds and Speeds
• If we consider the speed and feed of a lathe,

- Spindle Speed is in revolutions per minute
- Feed is in inches per revolution
• The Feed Chart is used to select the speeds and feeds of the lathe, and is often attached to the
lathe near the setting levers.
• There are some simple (geometric) equations that can be listed,
CS = rpm × C
πD πD
C = ------- = ------------
12 1000
12 × CS 1000 × CS
rpm = ------------------- = -------------------------
π×D π×D
imperial metric
where,

C = circumference of the workpiece (ft. or m)
D = diameter of workpiece (in. or mm)
L
T = --------------------
rpm × F
C = T×R
where,
F = feed rate (in./rev. or mm/rev.) - found in tables
• Typical cutting speeds for a high speed steel tool are, [Krar]
page 156
Material Rough Cut Finish Cut Thread cut

(fpm) (fpm) (fpm)
machine steel 90 100 35

tool steel 70 90 30
cast iron 60 80 25
bronze 90 100 25
aluminum 200 300 60
• Typical feeds when using a high speed steel tool are, [Krar]
Material Rough Cut Finish Cut

(in./rev.) (in./rev.)
machine steel 0.010-0.020 0.003-0.010

tool steel 0.010-0.020 0.003-0.010
cast iron 0.015-0.025 0.005-0.012
bronze 0.015-0.025 0.003-0.010
aluminum 0.015-0.030 0.005-0.010
4.4.7 The mrr for Turning
below,
page 157
D d
2 2
πD πd
mrr = ⎛⎝ ---------- – ---------⎞⎠ × F × rpm
4 4
where,
D = diameter of workpiece before cutting
d = diameter of workpiece after cutting
4.4.8 Process Planning for Turning
• The general steps when process planning for turning external parts are,
1. Rough cuts all diameters to within 1/32” starting with the largest diameters first.
2. Rough cut all shoulders and steps to within 1/32”
3. Do special operations such as knurling and grooving
4. Cool the workpiece to get it close to the final dimension.
5. Finish turn the diameters, then the shoulders and steps
6. Deburr if necessary
• If the part is to be mounted between centres, plan should precede by,

1. cut stock that is 1/8” larger than required.
2. Put the work in the lathe, in a chuck, and face and centre drill the end.
3. reverse the pice in the chuck and face the piece to size, and centre drill.
4. Mount the work between centres
• For work to be mounted in a chuck, (implies internal features),

1. cut the stock 1/8” wider in diameter, and 1/2” longer.
2. Mount the work in the chuck with 5/16” to 3/8” inside.
3. Use a facing operation (lightly) to square the end.
4. Rough cut the external diameters, from the largest to the smallest.
5. Drill out the centre of the work using a drill chuck mounted in the tailstocks spindle. Start with
a centre drill, and increase drill sizes to increase the hole.
6. Mount a boring tool to cut the internal diameter to close to the final diameter.
page 158
7. Cut any special feature now.

8. Do finish cuts on outside and inside.
9. Reverse the part in the chuck and face off the material to size. Protect the work by placing a
piece of soft metal between it and the chuck.
4.5 Cutting Speeds, Feeds, Tools, and Times
• Cutting is a balance between a number of factors,

- cutting slowly will add costly time to manufacturing operations.
- cutting faster will lead to decreased tool life, and extra time will be required to repair
tools.
• Some reasonable speeds and feeds for a single cutting point tool are given below [Krar],
MATERIAL DEPTH (in.) FEED PER REV. (ipr) CUTTING SPEED (fpm)
Aluminum 0.005-0.015 0.002-0.005 700-1000

0.020-0.090 0.005-0.015 450-700
0.100-0.200 0.015-0.030 300-450
0.300-0.700 0.030-0.090 100-200
Brass, Bronze 0.005-0.015 0.002-0.005 700-800

0.020-0.090 0.005-0.015 600-700
0.100-0.200 0.015-0.030 500-600
0.300-0.700 0.030-0.090 200-400
cast iron (medium) 0.005-0.015 0.002-0.005 350-450

0.020-0.090 0.005-0.015 250-350
0.100-0.200 0.015-0.030 200-250
0.300-0.700 0.030-0.090 75-150
machine steel 0.005-0.015 0.002-0.005 700-1000

0.020-0.090 0.005-0.015 550-700
0.100-0.200 0.015-0.030 400-550
0.300-0.700 0.030-0.090 150-300
tool steel 0.005-0.015 0.002-0.005 500-750

0.020-0.090 0.005-0.015 400-500
0.100-0.200 0.015-0.030 300-400
0.300-0.700 0.030-0.090 100-300
stainless steel 0.005-0.015 0.002-0.005 375-500

0.020-0.090 0.005-0.015 300-375
0.100-0.200 0.015-0.030 250-300
0.300-0.700 0.030-0.090 75-175
titanium alloys 0.005-0.015 0.002-0.005 300-400

0.020-0.090 0.005-0.015 200-300
0.100-0.200 0.015-0.030 175-200
0.300-0.700 0.030-0.090 50-125
page 159
4.6 Cutting Power
• There are a number of reasons for wanting to calculate the power consumed in cutting. These
numbers can tell us how fast we can cut, or how large the motor on a machine must be.
• Having both the forces and velocities found with the Merchant for Circle, we are able to calcu-
late the power,
Fc Vc
P c = ---------------
33000
Fs Vs
P s = --------------- All have units of Horsepower (i.e., 1/33000)
33000
F × Vf
P f = ---------------
33000
where,
Pc = the total cutting power
Ps = the shearing power required
Pf = the friction losses
• We can relate the energy used in cutting to the mrr.
Energy Consumed Pc = Fc × Vc
Metal Removal Rate Q = A0 × Vc
where,
A0 = Area of Cut
***Note: both Wc and Q are proportional to Vc
From these basic relationships we can a simple relationship that is the ratio
between the energy consumed, and the volume of metal removed,
Pc Fc × Vc Fc
p s = ----- = ------------------ = ------
Q A0 × Vc A0
You will notice that the result is a force over an area, which is a pressure. As
a result Ps will be called the Specific Cutting Pressure.
page 160
• The cutting force will vary, thus changing Ps, as the cutting velocities are changed.
ps
Vc
This curve turns downward for two reasons,

1. The tool experiences edge forces that are more significant at lower cutting speeds.
2. As the velocity increases, the temperature increases, and less energy is required
to shear the metal.
• The effects of rake angle on cutting are shown in the graph below, [REF ******]
page 161
The Effect of Rake Angle on Cutting Force
500
fpm
150
400 200
300
Cutting Force (Fc) (lb.)
400
500
300 600
200
100
Carbide Tool
Feed = 0.010”/rev.
0
-15°
-10°
-5°
0°
5°
10°
15°
Rake Angle
• The horsepower required for cutting can be found using empirical methods,
page 162
Unit horse power (HPu) is the amount of power to remove a volume of metal
in a period of time.
HP u = power to cut 1 cubic inch per minute - found in tables
HP g = Q × HP u = Gross Horsepower
Average Unit Horsepower Values of Energy Per Unit Volume [REF]
Material BHN HPu (HP/(in3/min.)
Carbon steels 150-200 1.0

200-250 1.4
250-350 1.6
Leaded steels 150-175 0.7
Cast irons 125-190 0.5
190-250 1.6
Stainless steels 135-275 1.5
Aluminum alloys 50-100 0.3
Magnesium alloys 40-90 0.2
Copper 125-140 0.7
Copper alloys 100-150 0.7
• If we consider the implications these formulas have when cutting on a lathe, we would be able to
develop the following equations,
page 163
Q = f × d × V × 12
where,
f = feed
d = depth or cut
V = velocity
Fc × Vc
HP c = ------------------ = HP u × Q × c
33000
where,
c = a feed factor from tables
Horsepower Feed Correction Factors for Turning, Planning and Shaping [RE
Feed Factor
(ips or ipr) (mm/rev or mm/stroke)
0.002 0.05 1.4

0.005 0.12 1.2
0.008 0.20 1.05
0.012 0.30 1.0
0.020 0.50 0.9
0.030 0.75 0.80
0.040 1.00 0.80
0.050 1.25 0.75
page 164
We can also consider the efficiency of the machine tool,
HP c
HP g = ----------
em
where,
e m = the machine tool efficiency factor [0, 1]
from this we can determine the minimum machine tool horsepower required,
HP c
HP M = HP I + HP g = HP I + ----------
em
where,
HP M = The minimum machine tool horse power required
HP I = The idle horsepower consumed by the machine tool
4.7 Examples
4.8 Summary
4.10 Problems

page 165
4.12 Practice Problems
1. What would happen if a drill without flutes was used?
2. If we want a hole with a 1/2-14-UNC thread, what size of tap drill should be used?
3. What type of drill press is suitable for drilling holes in car engine blocks? Justify your answer.
4. Which of these statements is not correct?

a) work is not moved on a radial arm drill press.
b) automatic feeds are available on sensitive drill presses.
c) multispindle drill presses always drill multiple holes at once.
5. Which of these statements is correct?

a) a margin of a drill bit does most of the cutting.
b) the relief angle on the tip of the drill bit makes it not a conical shape.
c) a large drill bit point angle is useful for cutting soft materials.
6. Which of the following statements is not correct?

a) core drills have 3 or 4 flutes.
b) high helix drills help in chip removal.
c) straight fluted drills are used for sheet metal.
d) centre drills are for long holes, such as gun barrels.
7. Which of the following is not a typical drill press operation?

a) counter boring.
b) spot facing.
c) counter sinking.
8. Which of the statements is most correct?

a) reamers are used to finish holes with accuracies not possible when a normal drill is used.
b) adjustable taps will cut a wide variety of threaded holes.
c) taps and reamers can both be used without a machine tool.
9. Given a hole that is to be drilled then reamed to 3.000”, develop a process plan including
speeds and feeds.
10. We want to drill a hole that is 2.369” in diameter. If we know that the accuracy the shop can
provide for drilling is +0.030” to -0.010”,
a) what is an appropriate fractional drill size to use?
b) what operation might follow?
page 166
11. Calculate the machine tool spindle speeds for the following,
a) drilling with a 19/32” high speed steel bit in mild steel. The CS is 70 ft./min.
12. We are to drill 6 holes in a 2” thick mild steel plate. The plate is held in a jig. We are using a
63/64” high speed steel drill, and the suggested parameters are CS = 80 ft./min. with a feed of
0.004”/rev. After drilling each hole is to be finished with a 1.0” diameter reamer. If the sug-
gested parameters for the reamer are CS = 80 ft./min. with a feed of 0.010”/rev.,
a) calculate the time to do all of the operations (and make allowances for drill point travel)
b) find the cost to produce 500 parts when each part needs 3 minutes for setup (no opera-
tion), labor rates are $25/hr., and overhead is $25/hr.
13. Which of these statements is not correct?

a) work is not moved on a radial arm drill press.
b) automatic feeds are available on sensitive drill presses.
c) multispindle drill presses must always drill multiple holes at once.
ans. B

a) a margin of a drill bit does most of the cutting.
b) the relief angle on the tip of the drill bit makes it a conical shape.
c) a large drill bit point angle is useful for cutting soft materials.
ans. D
15. Which of the following statements is not correct?

a) core drills have a hollow center to remove chips.
b) high helix drills help in chip removal.
c) straight fluted drills are used for sheet metal.
d) centre drills are for long holes, such as gun barrels.
ans. A or D
16. Which of the following is not a typical drill press operation?

a) counter boring.
b) spot facing.
c) counter sinking.
ans. D
17. Which of the statements is most correct?

a) reamers are used to finish holes with accuracies not possible when a normal drill is used.
page 167
b) adjustable taps will cut a wide variety of threaded holes.

c) taps and reamers can both be used without a machine tool.
ans. A
18. What are functions of the following parts of a drill bit. a) body, b) web, c) point, d) tang, e)
margin, f) flutes, g) body clearance.
19. What are the purposes of the following drill points. a) conventional, b) flat, c) long angle.
20. What applications are the following drill bits well suited to? a) high helix, b) straight flute, c)
gun, d) hard steel, e) core, f) oil hole.
21. What will happen if a drill bit has unequal angles on the cutting edges/lips? What if the edges
are not of equal length?
22. Why should most holes be started with a center drill?
23. What are the disadvantages of a thick web found on some drills?
24. What is the purpose of pilot holes?
25. What is the main difference between a) threading operations and tapping operations? b) bor-
ing and reaming?
26. List 5 ways work can be held in a lathe.
27. Can peripheral and face milling be done with the same cutter? How common is this?
28. Describe the steps in cutting a 3/8-12-UNC taped hole.

(ans. center drill, drill 1/4”, drill .292”, starting tap, finishing tap)
29. a) Explain the cutting mechanism of a drill bit, and b) suggest the features of a drill bit for cut-
ting a thin piece of sheet metal.
1. A 2” diameter milling cutter with 8 teeth has been selected. What is the table feed if we are
milling at 80 ft./min. with a tooth load of 0.004”/tooth?

a) milling with a 3/4” high speed steel cutter in tool steel work. The CS is 60 ft./min.
b) milling with a 150mm diameter tungsten carbide tipped face cutter in stainless steel
work. The CS is 65 m/min.
page 168
3. You are given a block of aluminum (5” by 5” by 5”) and you must mill off a 1/16” layer. Using
the tables for speeds and feeds, and using the other details provided below, determine a cost for
the operation.
• Milling cutter- high speed steel

- diameter 2”
- 10 teeth with a tooth load of 0.004” per tooth
- cost for the machine is $20.00 per hours
ans. This cut is more than a finishing cut.
We can assume this is a light rough cut or heavy finishing cut. The cutter type
will be assumed to be a face mill. Because the part width is 5” and the cutter
is 2” we will need three passes to cut the part.
D = 2in #t = 10 fpt = 0.004 500 + 1000
CS = --------------------------- = 750fpm
2
R = 20$/hr
12 × CS 12 ( 750 )
rpm = ------------------- = -------------------- = 1432
π×D π2
F = fpt × # t × rpm = ( 0.004 ) ( 10 ) ( 1432 ) = 57ipm
L pass = 5in + D L = 3L pass = 3 ( 5 + 2 ) = 21in
L 21in
T = --- = ---------------- = 0.37min
F 57ipm
0.37
C = T × R = ⎛ ----------⎞ ( 20 ) = 0.12$
⎝ 60 ⎠
4. Which of the following statements is true for milling?

a) milling cutters can cut with the face and peripheral teeth.
b) the cutting edge moves opposite to the direction used in lathes.
c) indexing is used to cut rounded surfaces.
5. What are the advantages of upcut and downcut milling?
ans. Upcut - lower tool impact forces

Upcut - loose work is safer
Downcut - pushes work into table
Downcut - better surface finish
page 169
6. Which of the following statements is true for milling?

a) milling cutters can cut with the face and not the peripheral teeth.
b) the cutting edge moves opposite to the direction used in lathes.
c) indexing is only used to cut rounded surfaces.
ans. D
7. Given a 3” dia. 8 tooth fly cutter, with carbide cutting points, and a steel work piece, recom-
mend, a) RPM, b) feed.
8. Given a 6” dia. high speed steel arbor mill with 10 teeth, that will be cutting cast iron work, rec-
ommend, a) RPM, feed.
9. Calculate the indexing required when would be cutting a gear with 36 teeth? Use one of the
Brown and Sharp indexing plates.
10. Determine the angular indexing required (on Brown and Sharp, and Cincinatti Standard
plates) if we want an angle of 23°30’.
1. Given that a tapered piece is to be made with the tailstock offset method, determine the taper
per foot, and offset required if, you are starting with a bar of stock that is 8” long, and 1.125” in
diameter, and the final taper is to be 6” long and 1” at the small end.
(ans. tpf = 0.25”, offset = 0.0833”)
2. Given the 1/2-12 UNC thread that is to be cut on the lathe,
a) What should the gear ratio between the machine spindle and the lead screw be if the
lead screw is 5 t.p.i.?
b) What should the in-feed be for each pass?
3. Which of the following statements about lathe toolbits is correct?

a) a small nose radius will result in a smoother surface.
b) small relief angles will always increase friction.
c) large rake angles will decrease cutting forces.
(ans. c)
4. Which of the statements about lathes below is most correct?

a) jawed chucks hold only standard sizes of pieces.
b) mandrels hold work pieces from the outside.
c) the chasing dial is used for measuring fine cuts.
d) lead screws and feed rods are lathe parts
(ans. d)
page 170
5. When turning between centres a dog is required; what is a dog in this context?
(ans. it holds the work piece so that it can be driven with a face plate mounted on the lathe spin-
dle)
6. A centre gauge (fish tail gauge) is employed in thread cutting. Suggest two uses for the gauge.
(ans. aligning a cutting tool for threads, )
7. Given an external 9/16-12-UNC thread, determined which tools would be used.
(ans. a turning tool to turn the outside diameter of 9/16”+1/12”, UNC tool to turn thread)
8. If we are rough cutting a 5” diameter bar of bronze on a lathe with a HSS tool,
a) what speed and feed should be used?
b) if the cut is 12” long, and will be made in two passes, how long will the operation take?
c) if the setup time is 5 minutes, and the machine rate is $50/hr., what will the cost of the oper-
ation be?
Using the lookup tables in the notes we pick a surface cutting speed and feed.
D = 5in L = 12in R = 50$/hr
Rough Finish
ft ft
CS = 90 --------- CS = 100 ---------
min min
0.015 + 0.025 in in 0.003 + 0.010 in in

f = --------------------------------- -------- = 0.02 -------- f = --------------------------------- -------- = 0.0065 --------
2 rev rev 2 rev rev
12CS 12CS
rpm = ------------- = 68 rpm = ------------- = 76
πD πD
L L
T = ------------------ = 17.39min T = ------------------ = 24.29min
rpm × f rpm × f
2 ( 8.82 ) + 5 2 ( 24.29 ) + 5
C = T × R = ⎛ ----------------------------⎞ 50 = 18.71$ C = T × R = ⎛ -------------------------------⎞ 50 = 44.65$
⎝ 60 ⎠ ⎝ 60 ⎠
9. List the basic steps for setting up a lathe to cut a thread on a bar of stock, assume the stock is
mounted between centres already.
(ans. see thread cutting section)
10. If a taper of 1mm in 10mm is to be cut, what will the offset distance be for a 10cm part?
page 171
a) turning on a lathe with a high speed steel tool in mild steel work with a diameter of
2.75”. The cutting speeds is 100 ft./min.
12. We have been given a mild steel bar that is to be turned on a lathe. It has a diameter of 14” and
a length of 28”. We have been asked to make two rough passes, and one finishing pass. The
tool we have selected is Carbide. When doing rough cuts we use a feed of 0.007”/rev., and for
finishing cuts we use a feed of 0.004”/rev. How long will this operation take?
13. Which of the following statements about lathe toolbits is correct?

a) a small nose radius will result in a smoother surface.
b) small relief angles will always increase friction.
c) large rake angles will decrease cutting forces.
ans. C or D
14. Which of the statements about lathes below is most correct?

a) jawed chucks hold only standard sizes of pieces.
b) collets hold work pieces from the outside.
c) the chasing dial is used for measuring fine cuts.
d) lead screws and indexers are lathe parts
ans. B
15. Given the non-standard 3/8-19 UNC thread that is to be cut on the lathe,
a) What should the gear ratio between the machine spindle and the lead screw be if the
lead screw is 4 t.p.i.?
b) What should the in-feed be for each pass?
ans. a) 4/19, b) 0.039
16. Develop a rough process plan for the part below by clearly listing operation steps in the cor-
rect sequence. Feeds, speeds, times and costs are not needed at this time.
page 172
3.75”
1.25” 1.00”
1.25”
3” tpf
0.75” 1.75” 1/16” slot x 1/16”
1/8” slot X 1/16” below taper
Operation Operation
Number Description
0010 Cut off 2” dia. Stock to 4”
0020 Mount in lathe chuck, face and centre drill
ans.
Operation Operation
Number Description (Note excess details given for beginners)
0010 Cut off 2” dia. Stock to 4”
0020 Mount in lathe chuck, face and center drill to 3.75” length
0030 Mount between centers
0040 Turn entire length to 1.75” dia.
0050 Cut slot with form tool 1” from end to 1/16” depth
0060 Turn one end down to 1.25”dia. for 15/16”
0070 Reverse part in centers (cover finished end with soft metal)
0080 Cut 1/8” by 1/16” slot
0090 Turn taper with taper turning attachment
0100 Return tailstock to normal position
0110 Deburr and inspect
*Note: the implied tolerances +/- 0.005 would not require cooling
17. The aluminum component below is to be turned on a lathe using a HSS tool. Develop a pro-
cess plan, including offset for the taper, speeds, feeds, etc. Put the process plan in a list similar
to the format shown. Assume a cost of $45.00/hr. for the lathe, and $25.00/hr. for all other
page 173
pieces of equipment. State all assumption clearly, and justify numbers in the process plan with
calculations or references.
3.75”
1.25” 1.00”
1.25”
3” tpf
0.75” 1.75” 1/16” slot x 1/16”
1/8” slot X 1/16” below taper
Operation Operation Time Cost

Number Description
0010 Cut off Stock to 4” 6 min. $5.00
0020 Mount in lathe chuck, face and centre drill 12 min. $9.00
18. On a lathe toolbit what are the functions of, a) the side relief angle, b) end relief angle, c) back
rake, d) side rake angle, nose radius.
19. What applications are large positive rake angles for? negative rake angles?
20. What is the difference between end and face milling?
21. What RPM should be used to rough cut a cast iron piece with a 3” dia. with a high speed steel
tool. What RPM should be used for a similar workpiece of plain carbon steel? What RPM
should be used for the two materials if finishing cuts are being made?
22. Calculate the time required to machine a 2” dia. copper rod that is to be turned for a length of
10”.
23. What are rough and finish turning operations used for?
24. What are two methods for cutting stepped shoulders on a lathe?
25. Explain the difference between self holding and steep tapers using the coefficient of friction.
26. Find the tpf and tailstock offset for tapers on the following work.
page 174
a) D=1.5”, d=1.25”, TL=4”, OL=8”
27. convert a metric taper of 1:50 to a tpf. Convert a 1”tpf to metric.
28. Define the terms, fit, tolerance, allowance, limits, clearance, press fit, precision.
29. For a 1”-8-NC thread find the minimum and maximum diameters and minimum width of the
toolbit point.
30. Describe the differences in speeds, feeds and depths of cuts for roughing and finishing cuts.
31. What types of chips are desirable when setting up automated cutting processes?
32. Compare the time to cut a work piece using a high speed steel tool and a carbide tool. The 4”
dia. aluminum work is to be rough turned over a length of 14”.
33. What operations can be performed on a lathe?
34. How are the parameters different for a lathe when turning, as opposed to finishing?
35. A taper is to be cut on the aluminum part below. Indicate how far the tailstock should be offset
and the speed and feed settings for the lathe.
1.50” 1.00”
3.00” 5.00”
(ans. offset=0.4”, feed 0.005-0.010”, speed 760RPM)
1. An orthogonal cut is made with a carbide tool having a 15° positive rake angle. The various
parameters were noted,
- the cut width was 0.25”
- the feed was set at 0.0125”
- the chip thickness was measured to be 0.0375”
- the cutting speed was 250 ft./min.
- the forces measured were Fc = 375 lb. and Ft = 125 lb.
page 175
a) Use Merchant’s Circle to scale, and the velocity diagram

b) From the Merchant Circle diagram find the shear angle (φ), friction force (F), friction
normal force (N), and shear force (Fs).
c) From the Velocity diagram find the friction velocity (Vf).
d) Calculate values for the coefficient of friction (mu) and the metal removal rate.
e) Calculate values, and compare the results for the results found in a), b) and c).
(ans: F = 218lb., N = 330lb., φ= 19.37°, Fs = 312 lb., µ= 0.948, Vc = 250 ft./min., Vf = 83.5 ft./
min. Q = 9.375 in3/min.)
2. The cutting forces for a lathe are listed below,

• work RPM = 125
• feed/rev = 0.005”
• chip thickness = 0.0123”
• rake angle of tool = 14°
• Ft = 150 lb, Fc = 245 lb
• work diameter = 8”
a) Find the horsepower consumed in cutting, shearing and friction.

b) Find a maximum lathe horsepower, assuming the machine efficiency is 95% and it
requires 1/8 idle horsepower.
c) Based on the cutting horsepower, what material(s) might we be cutting?
3. What roles do rake and relief angles play in cutting tools?
ans. the rake angle will change the basic cutting parameters. A positive rake (sharp tool) will give
lower cutting forces, but less edge strength. A negative or neutral rake will give higher cutting
forces, but more strength. The relief angle provide a gap behind the cutting edge so that the
tool does not rub the work.
4. Which of these statement is the most correct?

a) a continuous chip with built up edge may result when we try to cut too much metal.
b) a continuous chip will result when cutting very brittle work materials.
c) a discontinuous chip will result when we use fine feeds and speeds.
ans. a
5. One of the assumptions behind orthogonal cutting is,

a) that the rake angle is positive.
b) that the tool is only cutting with one edge and one point.
c) the shear plane is a function of before and after chip thicknesses.
ans. b
page 176

a) the cutting pressure drops as cutting velocity increases.
b) power required drops as metal temperature and cutting velocity increase.
c) we can use the quantity of metal removed by itself to estimate the required horsepower of a
machine tool.
ans. a
7. A lathe toolbit with a rake angle of 20° is cutting a section of pipe with an inner diameter of 6”
and an outer diameter of 6.25”. The cut has a depth of 0.010” and the chip has a thickness of
0.020”. If the lathe is turning at 200 rpm, and the measured cutting forces are Fc = 300 lb, and
Ft = 125lb,
a) what assumption must you make.
b) find the following values using a graphical or numerical solution: (Marks are only awarded
for correct answers) Fs, FN, F, N, τ, φ, µ, Vc, Vf, Vs.
c) what is the minimum horsepower required for the machine?
d) given that the tube is aluminum, use another method to find the required horsepower.
page 177
ans.
α = 20deg F c = 300lbs F t = 125lbs t 1 = d = 0.010in
6 + 6.25
RPM = 200 t 2 = 0.020in D = ⎛ -------------------⎞ = 6.125in
⎝ 2 ⎠
a) reasonable assumptions are that we are performing orthogonal cutting. This means
that we are cutting fully through the wall of the tube. We also want to assume that the
effects of the different cutting speeds from the inside to the outside of the tube are
negligible.
t1 r c cos α
b) r c = ---- = 0.5 φ = atan ⎛ -------------------------⎞ = atan ( 0.56676719 ) = 29.5deg
t2 ⎝ 1 – r c sin α⎠
F = F t cos α + F c sin α = 220lbs N = F c cos α – F t sin α = 239lbs
F s = F c cos φ – F t sin φ = 200lbs F n = F t cos φ + F c sin φ = 257lbs
F
µ = ---- = 0.92 τ = atan ( 0.92 ) = 42.6deg
N
RPMπD 200π ( 6.125 )
V c = --------------------- = ------------------------------- = 321fpm
12 12
321 cos 20 321 sin 29.5
V s = ------------------------------------ = 306fpm V f = ------------------------------------ = 160fpm
cos ( 29.5 – 20 ) cos ( 29.5 – 20 )
c) Fc Vc 300 ( 321 )
HP c = --------------- = ----------------------- = 2.9HP For an efficient machine with no idle
33000 33000 horsepower.
d) 3
in
Q = d ( 6.25 – 6 )V c 12 = 0.010 ( 0.25 )321 ( 12 ) = 9.63 ---------
min
HP c = HP u Q = 0.3 ( 9.63 ) = 2.9HP
8. Calculate the machine tool spindle speeds for the following:

a) Milling with a tungsten carbide tipped face cutter on a stainless steel work piece. C.S. =
65 m/min., cutter dia. = 150mm.
b) Drilling with a High Speed Steel drill in Machine Steel work, with C.S. = 70 ft./min.,
and a drill diameter of 19/32”
c) Turning on a lathe with a High Speed Steel tool in a mild steel work piece. Surface cut-
ting speed = 100 ft./min., and a workpiece diameter of 2.75”
d) Milling with a High Speed Steel cutter in tool steel work with a cutter speed of 60 ft./
min., and a cutter diameter of 3/4”.
9. Short answer,
page 178
a) Why are ceramics normally provided as inserts for tools, and not as entire tools?
b) List the important properties of cutting tool materials and explain why each is important.
ans.
a) Ceramics are brittle materials and cannot provide the structural strength required
for a tool.
b) hardness at high temperatures - this provides longer life of the cutting tool and
allows higher cutting speeds.
toughness - to provide the structural strength needed to resist impacts and cutting
forces
wear resistance - to prolong usage before replacement
doesn’t chemically react - another wear factor
formable/manufacturable - can be manufactured in a useful geometry
10. A turning cut was made in a magnesium workpiece with a feed of 0.050ipr. The cutting speed
was 300 fpm, and the cutting force was measured as 200lbs. The lathe is 95% efficient and has
an idle horsepower of 0.1HP. Using all of the provided information estimate the horsepower
required for the cut.
ans. ft
Vc Fc 300 --------- ( 200lbs )
min
HPc = --------------- = ----------------------------------------- = 1.82HP
33000 ftlbs
33000 ------------------
minHP
HPc c ( 1.82HP ) ( 0.75 )
HP M = HP I + ------------- = 0.1HP + --------------------------------------- = 1.54HP
e 0.95
11. Develop an expression that is the ratio friction power over cutting power using the equations
for orthogonal cutting power. Simplify the expression to be in terms of measured values (rake
angle, Fc, Ft, and chip thicknesses).
FV f ⎞
⎛ -------------- V c sin φ ⎞
⎛ -------------------------
ans. - ( F cos α + F sin α ) -
Wf ⎝ 33000⎠ FV f t c ⎝ cos ( φ – α )⎠
R = ------- = -------------------- = ------------ = --------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Wc Fc Vc ⎞ Fc Vc Fc Vc
⎛ ---------------
⎝ 33000⎠
( F t cos α + F c sin α ) ( sin φ ) ( F t cos α + F c sin α ) sin φ
R = --------------------------------------------------------------- = ----------------------------------------------- ⎛ --------------------------⎞
F c cos ( φ – α ) Fc ⎝ cos ( φ – α )⎠
( F t cos α + F c sin α ) t 1
R = ----------------------------------------------- ⎛ ----⎞
Fc ⎝ t 2⎠
12. A new lathe tool is to be used on cast iron work with a 6” diameter to make a 5” long rough
cut in 3 passes. The operation conditions listed below were provided by the supplier or
page 179
assumed. Calculate the parameters a) to e) as requested.

Cutting Speed = 300 fpm
Feed Rate = 0.008 ipr
Depth of Cut = 0.125”
Idle Horse Power = 0.25
Machine Efficiency = 0.90
a) Spindle RPM
b) Time to make the cut (min.)
c) Metal Removal Rate Q (in.3/min.)
d) Cutting Horse Power (HPc)
e) Minimum Machine Tool Motor HP.
13. Which of these statement is most correct?

a) a continuous chip with built up edge may result when we try to cut brittle metals.
b) a continuous chip will result when cutting very strong work materials.
c) a discontinuous chip will result when we use heavy feeds and speeds.
ans. C
14. One of the assumptions behind calculating orthogonal cutting forces is,
a) that the rake angle is positive.
b) that the tool is only cutting with one edge and one point.
c) the shear plane is a function of before and after chip thicknesses.
ans. C
15. Which of these statements is most correct?

a) the cutting pressure drops as cutting velocity decreases.
b) power required to cut each cubic inch drops as cutting velocity increases.
c) we can use the quantity of metal removed by itself to estimate the required horsepower of a
machine tool.
ans. B
16. A new lathe tool is to be used on cast iron work with a 6” diameter to make a 36” long rough
cut in 4 passes. The operation conditions listed below were provided by the supplier or
assumed. Calculate the parameters a) to e) as requested.
Cutting Speed = 200 fpm
Feed Rate = 0.010 ipr
Depth of Cut = 0.100”
Idle Horse Power = 0.25
Machine Efficiency = 0.90
page 180
a) Spindle RPM
b) Time to make the cut (min.)
c) Metal Removal Rate Q (in.3/min.)
d) Cutting Horse Power (HPc)
e) Minimum Machine Tool Motor Horse Power.
ans. a) 127rpm, b) 113min., c) 2.4 ipm, d) 1.23 or 3.94HP, e) 1.62 or 4.63HP
ft -
D = 6in CS = 200 --------
min f = 0.01ipr d = 0.1in HP I = 0.25 e = 0.9
ft
200 ---------
a) CS min 200 ( 12 )in
rpm = ------- = ------------------- = --------------------------- = 127rpm
πd π ( 6in ) π ( 6 )in min
b) L 36in (for one pass)

T = ----------------- = ------------------------------------------- = 28.35min
f ( rpm ) 0.01ipr ( 127rpm )
3
c) in
Q = 12fdCS = 12 ( 0.01 ) ( 0.1 ) ( 200 ) = 2.4 ---------
min
0.5 + 1.6
d) HP c = HP u Q = ⎛ ---------------------⎞ 2.4 = 2.5HP
⎝ 2 ⎠
HP C 2.5
e) HP M = HP I + ----------- = 0.25 + ------- = 3.0HP
e 0.9
17. a) Define machinability. b) What determines the machinability of a metal?
20. What factors will affect surface finish?
21. Sketch a single edge cutting tool and label the a) face, b) flank, c) nose, d) cutting edge, e)
relief, f) shank.
22. Why is the cutting speed important? What will happen at different cutting speeds, from very
slow to very fast?
23. We have set up a lathe and are doing an orthogonal cut. The feed rate of the lathe is 0.1mm,
and the chip thickness after the cut is 0.2mm. The depth of the chip being cut is 5mm. The sur-
face cutting speed of the tool is 2m/s. The tool has a rake angle of 10deg. The tangential force
is measured as 200N, and the cutting force is 500N. a) Calculate the shear force and velocity.
b) Calculate the total energy produced in the cut, c) Calculate the energy used to shear d)
Explain the difference between the total and the shear energy. [based on Kalpakjian]
page 181
ans.
Given, m
t 1 = 0.1mm α = 10° V c = 2 ---- F c = 500N
s
t 2 = 0.2mm depth = 5mm F t = 200N
Find the total power and shear power.

m 1HP
W c = F c V c = ( 500N ) ⎛ 2 ----⎞ = 1000W ⎛ --------------⎞ = 1.34HP
⎝ s⎠ ⎝ 746W⎠
t1 0.1
r c = ---- = ------- = 0.5
t2 0.2
r c cos α
φ = atan ⎛ -------------------------⎞ = 28.3°
⎝ 1 – r c sin α⎠
F S = F c cos φ – F t sin φ = 345N
V c cos α m
V S = -------------------------- = 2.07 ----
cos ( φ – α ) s
1HP
W S = F S V S = 714W ⎛ --------------⎞ = 0.96HP
⎝ 746W⎠
Finally the ratio between the cutting power and the shear power
WS
------- = 0.96
---------- = 0.71
Wc 1.34
24. How is machining different than other processes?
25. What is the difference between a roughing and finishing operation? How does this affect the
workpiece and the power consumed?
26. What type of chip is expected at higher cutting speeds?
27. Does the friction power in cutting increase more with a feed or speed increase?
28. Why does cost typically increase for finishing operations.
29. Explain the correction factor ‘c’ used with the HPu values.
(ans. the HPu values are not linear, and ‘c’ corrects for these non-linear values)
page 182
5. JOINING
Topics:
•
Objectives:
•
5.1 Introduction
• Welding is the process of joining two or more objects together. In general this is done by melting
the adjacent surfaces, or by melting a third material that acts as a ‘glue’
• We can categorize welding by processes,

page 183
Arc Carbon Electrode Shielded Shielded

Inert Gas
UnShielded Carbon Arc
Twin Carbon Arc
Metal Electrode Shielded CO2 Mig CO2
Flux
Arc-Spot
Coated Electrode
Electro Slag
Imp. Tape
Inert Gas Mig
Tig
Arc-Spot
Plasma
Stud
Submerged
Unshielded Bare Electrode
Stud
Brazing Block
Dip
Flow
Furnace
Induction
Resistance
Torch
Twin Carbon Arc
Electron Beam
Explosive
Flow
Forge Die
Friction
Hammer
Roll
Gas Air Acetylene
Oxy Acetelene
Oxy Hydrogen
Pressure
Induction
Ion Beam
Laser Beam
Resistance Flash
Percussion
Projection
Spot
Seam
Upset
Thermit Nonpressure
Pressure
Ultrasonic
5.2 ADHESIVE BONDING

page 184
5.3 ARC WELDING
• Basically, an electric arc is used to heat base metals and a consumable filler rod.
• This is the most common form of welding and is used in about half of all applications.
• A power supply is used to create a high potential between an electrode (guided by the welder)
and a metal work piece. When moved close enough electrodes break down the air and start to
flow. The local current of the flow is so high that it heats metals up to 30000C or 54000F.
welding stick
electric arc
work piece
current flows
power in a loop through
supply the metal metal welding table
• Material is added during this welding process.This material can come from a consumable elec-
trode, or from a rod of material that is fed separately.
• The electrodes/rods are often coated. This coating serves a number of functions,
- it protects the welder from contact
- it deoxidizes and provides a gas shield
• Problems that arise in this form of welding is contamination of the metal with elements in the
atmosphere (O, H, N, etc.). There can also be problems with surfaces that are not clean. Solu-
tions to this include,
Gas shields - an inert gas is blown into the weld zone to drive away other atmospheric
gases.
Flux - a material that is added to clean the surface, this may also give off a gas to drive
away unwanted gases.
• Common types of processes include,

SMAW (Shielded Metal Arc Welding)/Stick Welding - A consumable electrode with a
coating that will act as a flux to clean the metal, and to create a gas shield.
page 185
work coating sets up gas shield
coating
filler material
coating
MIG (Metal Inert Gas) - A consumable electrode in a gas shield. In addition to simple
materials, this can handle aluminum, magnesium, titanium, stainless steel, copper,
etc. This torch is normally water or air cooled.
gas to shield the arc

work
electrode and feed rod
rod is fed into work
TIG (Tungsten Inert Gas) - A nonconsumable tungsten electrode is used with a filler rods
and a gas shield. This can handle aluminum, titanium, stainless steel, copper, etc.
This torch is normally water or air cooled.
gas to shield the arc

work
tungsten electrode
SAW (Submerged Arc Welding) - A normal wire is used as a consumable electrode, and
page 186
the flux is applied generously around the weld. The weld occurs within the flux,
and is protected from the air.
flux covers weld
work
electrode and feed rod
• Process variables include,

- electrode current 50-300A is common
- voltage
- polarity
- arc length
- speed
- materials
- flux
- workpiece thickness
5.4 GAS WELDING
• Basically, filler and base materials are heated to the point of melting by a burning a gas.
• Two common types are,

- oxygen-acetylene
- mapp gas
• These are suited to a few applications, but they produce by-products that can contaminate the
final weld.
• Typically the flame is adjusted to give a clean burn, and this is applied to the point of the weld.
page 187
weld tip and

gas orifice
hot point (inside blue flame)
• A welding rod will be fed in separately to melt and join the weld line.
• Flux can be used to clean the welds.
• Process variables include,

- gas and oxygen flow rates
- distance from surface
- speed
- material types
- surface preparation of materials
5.5 SOLDERING AND BRAZING
• Basically, soldering and brazing involve melting a filler material that will flow into a narrow gap
and solidify. It is distinct because the base materials should not be melted.
• The main difference is,

- Soldering is done at a lower temperature, either with a propane torch, or an electric
heater. It is intended for bonds with less required strength, such as electrical and
plumbing applications.
- Brazing is done at higher temperatures with oxyacetylene or mapp gas torches. These
bonds tend to be higher and can be used for mechanical strength.
• General process considerations include,

- Suitable for gaps from 0.001” to 0.01”
- Surfaces must be sanded and cleaned before these processes are used.
- Flux is often used to deoxidize a surface so that the filler will adhere better. Typical
fluxes include,
Brazing flux - fused borax or alcohol and borax paste
Soldering flux - inorganic salts (zinc ammonium chloride), muriatic acid, resin
based
- Some fluxes are corrosive and should be removed after use.
• Materials include,
page 188
- Solder is often an alloy combination of two of tin, lead, silver, zinc, antimony or bis-
muth.
- Brazing metals are typically alloys such as,
brazing brass (60% Cu, 40%Zn)
manganese bronze
nickel silver
copper silicon
silver alloys (with/without phosphorous)
copper phosphorous
5.6 PLASTIC WELDING
• Well suited to joining of thermoplastics.
• Types of plastics used in welding are,
Material Welding Temp. (°C)
ABS 350
Acylics 350
PC 350
Polyamide 400
Polybutylene 350
Polyethylene high density 300
Polyethylene low density 270
Polypropylene 300
Polypropylene rubber 300
Polyurethane 300-350
PVC high density 300
PVC low density 400-500
• Plastics to be joined should be compatible. A common method is based on trial and error testing.
• To determine plastic types burning small samples with a low flame gives the following observa-
tions,
page 189
Material Observations
ABS smells sweet, black sooty flame, does not extinguish

Polyamide smells like burnt horn, stringy, does not extinguish
Polycarbonate black sooty smoke, may extinguish
Polyethylene smells bad, feels like wax, burns like wax, drips
Polypropylene smells like wax, feels like wax, burns like wax, drips
PVC acrid smell, black smoke, does not extinguish
• Welding of thermoplastics involves heating, contact, cooling and bonding.
• Joints may be weakened by incomplete fusion, oxidation or thermal degradation of the plastic.
• Melting may be done by,

- gas or electric gun
- heated tool
- induction heating
- friction
- spinning
• Sheet welding,
- heat and pressure are applied at an overlapped joint between thin sheets.
- rollers join the sheets (one roller is often motor driven and heated while the other just
applies pressure).
- typical variables are,
- roller temperatures
- feed rate
- pressure
-underheating leads to a loose seam.
- overheating leads to a hole formation.
- parametric setting is very sensitive.
- welds can be done on tables with a hand roller and a heat gun.
- advantages
- simple tools
- disadvantages
- hard to set parameters
- preparation of welded sheets.
page 190
Overlap - less than 3 mm
Butt with lap
Single butt
Double butt
- if welded plastics to repair cracks, drill holes at the ends to stop crack propaga-
tion.
• Hot air/gas welding,

- Used successfully with molded parts in,
- PVC
- polyvinylidene chloride
- polyethylene
- acrylic
- polychlorotriflourethylene
- Operation steps,
1. pieces positioned but a gap of 1/16” left
2. a suitable welding (often same material) rod is pushed into the gap
3. a hot blast often 400-600°F is directed at the tip of the welding rod and surfaces
to be welded. * if a torch to focus distance of 1-2” is used, a drop in tem-
perature of 200°F will occur, the resulting temperature should be the melt-
ing temperature of the plastic.
-The final strength ranges from 50% maximum for high density materials, to near 100%
for low densities.
- The heating guns are similar to common hair dryers with heaters and fans, and vents to
control air flow rates.
- The heat calls for safety measures.
- Nozzles - a variety of nozzles and tools are available.
- Advantages,
- simple tools
page 191
- Disadvantages,
- welding angles hard to set
• Tack welding,
- parts are put in position.
- the gun temperature is allowed to heat up (a tack welding nozzle is used).
- the gun is put at an angle of 30-40°F to the weld and held in place until melting begins.
- the gun is slowly drawn along the seam.
- since the tack weld is weak (used for positioning) subsequent welding is required.
• General welding,
- operation
1. the gun is held 90° to the weld and a rod is inserted.
2. once the rod starts to melt, the gun is turned to a 45° angle and moved steadily
along the weld.
3. The gun is moved in an elliptical path over the weld with an amplitude of about
1”.
4. The rod is forced into the groove with a pressure of about 3-6 lbs. This pressure
prevents air from entering the weld. An angle of 45° to 90° is used for the
rod.
5. When ending a weld, the heat is turned off, and after cooling the rod is twisted
off, or for continuous welds there should be an overlap of 1/2”.
6. If required a weld can be restarted by cutting the previous weld at an angle, and
starting from that point.
• Speed Welding
- the rod and gas are fed side by side.
- the rod is heated in the gun, and is “wiped” out as it leaves the gun.
- when starting pressure is applied to the rod and a sharpened tip is forced into the work.
- as the rod starts to melt, the gun is lowered to 45° and drawn along. The welding rod is
pulled in itself.
- moving the tip too fast will result in beading and too slow will result in charring.
- the weld is stopped by standing the gun at 90° to the surface and pulling the gun off. The
rod is then cut off.
• Tractor Welding (Machine Welding),

- a hot air gun and rollers are driven over a surface by motors.
- a tape can be dispensed that will join the sheets or the two sheets can be overlapped.
- advantages,
- fully automated
- easy to set parameters
- disadvantages,
- special equipment required
• Ultra Sonic Welding,

- basically a high frequency vibration is directed through a plastic joint. The vibration
page 192
causes friction, and then heat, often causing a solid bond in less than a second.
- frequencies above 20 KHz.
- the distance the vibration travels has a great deal to do with determining the classifica-
tion.
- very well suited to rigid thermo plastic parts.
- good designs make direct application of the vibrations possible.
Better
- a smaller contact area increases the energy concentration. As a result V-notches, tongues,
pins, and other special joints are commonly used.
Better
- if remote sealing is necessary, thicker walls should be incorporated into the part design
- epoxy molds can be used to reinforce weaker parts when doing this operation.
- advantages,
- fast
- clean
- no extra materials needed
- disadvantages,
- tool design required
- simple design rules not always available
• Linear Vibration Welding,

- similar to Ultrasonic Welding, except that frequencies are about one hundred Hz and
amplitude are mm.
page 193
- this is best used with high coefficient of friction, low viscosity plastics.
• Spin/Friction Welding,
- two parts are spun and the contact area builds up heat through friction and pressure. The
pressure forces a good bond between parts and drives out bobbles.
- flashing may occur with this method.
- advantages,
- produces a good weld
- air does not enter during welding
- inexpensive machines, such as drill presses may be used
- disadvantages,
- circular weld joints are required
• Testing Plastic Welds,

- a handheld gun can be used to generate arcs. The sparks are generated with voltages up
to 55 KV at 200 KHz.
- operation,
1. The gun is calibrated to spark at distances just over the weld thickness (to a
ground plate).
2. the ground plate is placed behind the weld.
3. as the probe is moved over the weld, sparks will jump when a gap in the weld
moves between the probe and the ground plate.
5.7 Examples
5.8 Summary
5.10 Problems
2.What is the purpose of flux in welding?
3. List 20 parts you have seen that are welded. Indicate which welding process is the most appro-
priate for each.
4. What types of processes would be best suited for joining the following items? Indicate why.
a) two 12” dia. plastic pipes.
b) two 12” dia. steel pipes.
page 194
c) the sides of a plastic bag for potato chips.

d) two aluminum plates along one edge.
e) an aluminum and steel plate into a laminated plate.
f) steel muffler pipes.
5. What are the primary differences between welding soldering and gluing?

page 195
6. ROTATIONS
Topics:
•
Objectives:
•
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Rotational Masses and Inertia

page 196
equations of motion
d
θ ω = ⎛⎝ -----⎞⎠ θ (1)
dt
T
d d 2
α = ⎛⎝ -----⎞⎠ ω = ⎛⎝ -----⎞⎠ θ (2)
dt dt
OR θ ( t ) = ∫ ω ( t ) dt = ∫ ∫ α ( t ) dt dt (3)
ω ( t ) = ∫ α ( t ) dt (4)
( t )-
α(t) = T
--------- (5)
JM
where,
θ, ω, α = position, velocity and acceleration
J M = second mass moment of inertia of the body
T = torque applied to body
θ, ω, α
∑T = JM α (6)
J M = I xx + I yy (7)
2 (8)
I xx = ∫ y dM
J
2 (9)
T I yy = ∫ x dM
Note: The ’mass’ moment of inertia will be used when dealing with acceleration of a
mass. Later we will use the ’area’ moment of inertia for torsional springs.
page 197
J M = J˜M + Mr
2
where,
J M = mass moment about the new point
JM˜ = mass moment about the center of mass
M = mass of the object

r = distance from the centroid to the new point
Figure 6.1 Parallel axis theorem for shifting a mass moment of inertia
J A = J˜A + Ar
2
where,
J A = area moment about the new point
J˜A = area moment about the centroid
A = mass of the object

r = distance from the centroid to the new point
Figure 6.2 Parallel axis theorem for shifting a area moment of inertia
Aside: If forces do not pass through the center of an object, it will rotate. If the object
is made of a homogeneous material, the area and volume centroids can be used as
the center. If the object is made of different materials then the center of mass should
be used for the center. If the gravity varies over the length of the (very long) object
then the center of gravity should be used.
page 198
The rectangular shape to the right is constrained to rotate about

point A. The total mass of the object is 10kg. The given 4
dimensions are in meters. Find the mass moment of inertia. -2.5
-5 5
First find the density and calculate the moments of inertia about -1
the centroid.
-4
10Kg –2
ρ = -------------------------------- = 0.125Kgm
2 ( 5m )2 ( 4m )
4
4 4 3
2 2 –1 y
I xx = ∫– 4 y dM = ∫– 4 y ρ2 ( 5m ) dy = 1.25Kgm -----
3 –4
3 3
– 1 ( 4m ) ( – 4m )
∴ = 1.25Kgm ⎛ --------------- – ------------------⎞ = 53.33Kgm
2
⎝ 3 3 ⎠
5
5 5 3
2 2 –1 x
I yy = ∫– 5 x dM = ∫– 5 x ρ2 ( 4m ) dx = 1Kgm -----
3 –5
3 3
– 1 ( 5m ) ( – 5m )
∴ = 1Kgm ⎛⎝ --------------- – ------------------⎞⎠ = 83.33Kgm
2
3 3
2 2 2
J M = I xx + I yy = 53.33Kgm + 83.33Kgm = 136.67Kgm
The centroid can now be shifted to the center of rotation using the parallel axis theorem.
J M = J˜M + Mr = 136.67Kgm + ( 10Kg ) ( ( – 2.5m ) + ( – 1m ) ) = 209.2Kgm

2 2 2 2 2
page 199
L
JA G
T = ⎛ ----------⎞ θ (8)
⎝ L ⎠
θ
T = K S ( ∆θ ) (9)
T
Note: Remember to use radians for these calculations. In fact you are advised to use
radians for all calculations. Don’t forget to set your calculator to radians also.
Note: This calculation uses the area moment of inertia.
Figure 6.3 A solid torsional spring

page 200
J M1 J M2
τ K s1 K s2 K s3
Model the system above assuming that the center shaft is a torsional spring, and that a
torque is applied to the leftmost disk. Leave the results in state variable form.
θ1 ··
K s2 ( θ 1 – θ 2 ) + ∑M = τ – K s2 ( θ 1 – θ 2 ) = J M 1 θ 1
··
J M1 θ 1 = – K s2 θ 1 + K s2 θ 2 + τ
· (1)
θ1 = ω1
JM1
· – K s2 K s2
τ ω 1 = ⎛ -----------⎞ θ 1 + ⎛ --------⎞ θ 2 + τ (2)
⎝ JM ⎠ ⎝ JM ⎠
1 1
θ2 ··
K s2 ( θ 2 – θ 1 ) + ∑M = – K s2 ( θ 2 – θ 1 ) – K s3 θ 2 = J M2 θ 2
·· – K s3 – K s2 K s2
θ 2 = ⎛ ---------------------------⎞ θ 2 + ⎛ --------⎞ θ 1
⎝ J M2 ⎠ ⎝ J M 2⎠
JM2 · (3)
θ2 = ω2
· – K s3 – K s2 K s2 (4)
K s3 θ 2 ω 2 = ⎛⎝ ---------------------------⎞⎠ θ 2 + ⎛⎝ --------⎞⎠ θ 1
JM 2
JM 2
0 1 0 0
θ1 – K s2 K s2 θ1 0
----------- 0 -------- 0
d- ω 1 JM1 JM1 ω1
---- = + τ
dt θ 0 0 0 1 θ2 0
2
ω2 K s2 – K s3 – K s2 0
- 0 ω2
-------- 0 --------------------------
JM2 JM2
Figure 6.4 A rotational spring example

page 201
T = Kd ω
T = Kd ( ω1 – ω2 )
Figure 6.5 The rotational damping equation

page 202
J M1 J M2
τ K s1 K s2 K s3
B1 B2
Model the system above assuming that the center shaft is a torsional spring, and that a
torque is applied to the leftmost disk. Leave the results in state variable form.
θ1 · ··
K s2 ( θ 1 – θ 2 ) + ∑M = τ – K s2 ( θ 1 – θ 2 ) – B 1 θ 1 = J M 1 θ 1
·· ·
J M1 θ 1 = – B 1 θ 1 – K s2 θ 1 + K s2 θ 2 + τ
· (1)
θ1 = ω1
JM1
· –B1 – K s2 K s2 τ
τ ω 1 = ⎛⎝ ---------⎞⎠ ω 1 + ⎛⎝ -----------⎞⎠ θ 1 + ⎛⎝ --------⎞⎠ θ 2 + -------- (2)
· JM JM JM JM
B1 θ1 1 1 1 1
θ2 · ··
K s2 ( θ 2 – θ 1 ) + ∑ M = – K s2 ( θ 2 – θ 1 ) – B 2 θ 2 – K s3 θ 2 = J M2 θ 2
·· –B2 · – K s3 – K s2 K s2
θ 2 = ⎛ ---------⎞ θ 2 + ⎛ ---------------------------⎞ θ 2 + ⎛ --------⎞ θ 1
⎝ JM ⎠ ⎝ J M2 ⎠ ⎝ JM ⎠
2 2
JM2 · (3)
θ2 = ω2
· –B2 – K s3 – K s2 K s2 (4)
K s3 θ 2 · ω 2 = ⎛ ---------⎞ ω 2 + ⎛ ---------------------------⎞ θ 2 + ⎛ --------⎞ θ 1
B2 θ2 ⎝ JM ⎠ ⎝ J M2 ⎠ ⎝ JM ⎠
2 2
0 1 0 0
θ1 – K s2 –B1 K s2 θ1 0
----------- --------- -------- 0 τ-
d- ω 1 J M1 JM1 JM1 ω1 -------
---- = J
+ M1
dt θ 0 0 0 1 θ2
2
0
ω2 K s2 – K s3 – K s2 –B
-------- 0 --------------------------- --------2- ω 2 0
J M2 JM2 J M2
Figure 6.6 A System Example

page 203
6.3 Motor Models
6.3.1 Basic Brushed DC Motors
In a DC motor there is normally a set of coils on the rotor that turn inside a stator
populated with permanent magnets. Figure 6.7 shows a simplified model of a motor. The
magnetics provide a permanent magnetic field for the rotor to push against. When current
is run through the wire loop it creates a magnetic field.
magnetic
field
axis of
rotation ω
Figure 6.7 A Simplified Rotor
The power is delivered to the rotor using a commutator and brushes, as shown in
Figure 6.8. In the figure the power is supplied to the rotor through graphite brushes rub-
bing against the commutator. The commutator is split so that every half revolution the
polarity of the voltage on the rotor, and the induced magnetic field reverses to push against
the permanent magnets.
page 204
motor
shaft brushes
Top split commutator
Front split commutator
motor
shaft
brushes
V+ power V-
supply
Figure 6.8 A Split Ring Commutator
The direction of rotation will be determined by the polarity of the applied voltage,
and the speed is proportional to the voltage. A feedback controller is used with these
motors to provide motor positioning and velocity control.
These motors are losing popularity to brushless motors. The brushes are subject to
wear, which increases maintenance costs. In addition, the use of brushes increases resis-
tance, and lowers the motors efficiency.
page 205
ASIDE: The controller to drive a servo motor normally uses a Pulse Width Modulated
(PWM) signal. As shown below the signal produces an effective voltage that is rela-
tive to the time that the signal is on. The percentage of time that the signal is on is
called the duty cycle. When the voltage is on all the time the effective voltage deliv-
ered is the maximum voltage. So, if the voltage is only on half the time, the effective
voltage is half the maximum voltage. This method is popular because it can pro-
duce a variable effective voltage efficiently. The frequency of these waves is nor-
mally above 20KHz, above the range of human hearing.
50% duty cycle

V max
50
V eff = --------- V max
0 100
t
20% duty cycle
V max
20
V eff = --------- V max
0 100
t
100% duty cycle
V max
100
V eff = --------- V max
0 100
t
0% duty cycle
V max
0
V eff = --------- V max
0 100
t
Figure 6.9 Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) For Control

page 206
ASIDE: A PWM signal can be used to drive a motor with the circuit shown below. The
PWM signal switches the NPN transistor, thus switching power to the motor. In this
case the voltage polarity on the motor will always be the same direction, so the
motor may only turn in one direction.
power
V+ supply
V+ V-
signal
source DC motor
com
Figure 6.10 PWM Unidirectional Motor Control Circuit

page 207
+Vs
ASIDE: When a motor is to be con-
trolled with PWM in two directions
the H-bridge circuit (shown below)
is a popular choice. These can be
built with individual components, or Va Vb
purchased as integrated circuits for
smaller motors. To turn the motor in
one direction the PWM signal is
applied to the Va inputs, while the
Vb inputs are held low. In this
arrangement the positive voltage is
at the left side of the motor. To
reverse the direction the PWM sig- Vb Va
nal is applied to the Vb inputs, while
the Va inputs are held low. This
applies the positive voltage to the
right side of the motor.
-Vs
Figure 6.11 PWM Bidirectional Motor Control Circuit
2 T load
d K K
∴ ----- ω + ω ------⎞ = V s ⎛ ------⎞ – ------------
⎛ ⎞ ⎛
⎝ dt⎠ ⎝ JR⎠ ⎝ JR⎠ JM
where,
ω = the angular velocity of the motor

K = the motor speed constant
J M = the moment of inertia of the motor and attached loads
R = the resistance of the motor coils
T load = a torque applied to a motor shaft
page 208
Figure 6.12 Model of a permanent magnet DC motor
T voltage/current increases
ω ss
Figure 6.13 Torque speed curve for a permanent magnet DC motor

page 209
rpm
2400
R = 40Ω
0.5s
d⎞
⎛ ---- ⎛ K2 ⎞ K T load
- ω m + ω m ⎜ ----------⎟ = V s ⎛ ----------⎞ – -----------
-
⎝ dt⎠ ⎝ J M R⎠ ⎝ J M R⎠ JM
The steady-state velocity can be used to find the value of K.
rot ⎛ K2 ⎞ K
⎛ ⎞
( 0 ) + 2400 --------- ⎜ ----------⎟ = 15V ⎛ ----------⎞ – ( 0 )
⎝ ⎠
min ⎝ J M R⎠ ⎝ J M R⎠
rot 1min 2πrad⎞
⎛ 2400 --------
- ------------- ---------------- ( K ) = 15V
⎝ min 60s 1rot ⎠
15V Vs-
- = 39.8 × 10 –3 --------
K = ----------------------------
120πrads
–1 rad
The time constant can be used to find the remaining parameters.
2
K 1
---------- = ---------- = 2s –1
JM R 0.5s
2
Vs-⎞
⎛ 39.8 × 10 – 3 --------
⎝ rad⎠
- = 0.198005 ×10-4 = 19.8 × 10 – 6 Kgm 2
J = --------------------------------------------
–1
( 40Ω ) ( 2s )
d-⎞
⎛ ---- –1 –1 –2 T load
ω m + ω m 2s = V s ( 50.3V s rad ) – -----------------------------------------
-
⎝ dt⎠ –6 2
19.8 × 10 Kgm
θ m' = ω m (1)
–1 –2 –1 –1 –2
ω m' = V s 50.3V s rad – ω m 2s – 50505Kg m T load (2)
Figure 6.14 Motor speed curve and the derived differential equation
page 210
6.4 Tachometers
6.4.1 Angular Displacement
6.4.1.1 - Potentiometers
Potentiometers measure the angular position of a shaft using a variable resistor. A

potentiometer is shown in Figure 6.15. The potentiometer is resistor, normally made with
a thin film of resistive material. A wiper can be moved along the surface of the resistive
film. As the wiper moves toward one end there will be a change in resistance proportional
to the distance moved. If a voltage is applied across the resistor, the voltage at the wiper
interpolate the voltages at the ends of the resistor.
V1
resistive
V1
film
Vw
Vw
V2
wiper
V2 physical
schematic
Figure 6.15 A Potentiometer
The potentiometer in Figure 6.16 is being used as a voltage divider. As the wiper
rotates the output voltage will be proportional to the angle of rotation.
page 211
V1
θ max θw
θw
V out = ( V 2 – V 1 ) ⎛ -----------⎞ + V 1
⎝ θ max⎠
V out
V2
Figure 6.16 A Potentiometer as a Voltage Divider
Potentiometers are popular because they are inexpensive, and don’t require special
signal conditioners. But, they have limited accuracy, normally in the range of 1% and they
are subject to mechanical wear.
Potentiometers measure absolute position, and they are calibrated by rotating them
in their mounting brackets, and then tightening them in place. The range of rotation is nor-
mally limited to less than 360 degrees or multiples of 360 degrees. Some potentiometers
can rotate without limits, and the wiper will jump from one end of the resistor to the other.
Faults in potentiometers can be detected by designing the potentiometer to never

reach the ends of the range of motion. If an output voltage from the potentiometer ever
reaches either end of the range, then a problem has occurred, and the machine can be shut
down. Two examples of problems that might cause this are wires that fall off, or the poten-
tiometer rotates in its mounting.
6.4.2 Encoders
Encoders use rotating disks with optical windows, as shown in Figure 6.17. The
encoder contains an optical disk with fine windows etched into it. Light from emitters
passes through the openings in the disk to detectors. As the encoder shaft is rotated, the
light beams are broken. The encoder shown here is a quadrature encode, and it will be dis-
cussed later.
page 212
light light
emitters detectors
Shaft rotates
Note: this type of encoder is

commonly used in com-
puter mice with a roller
ball.
Figure 6.17 An Encoder Disk
There are two fundamental types of encoders; absolute and incremental. An abso-
lute encoder will measure the position of the shaft for a single rotation. The same shaft
angle will always produce the same reading. The output is normally a binary or grey code
number. An incremental (or relative) encoder will output two pulses that can be used to
determine displacement. Logic circuits or software is used to determine the direction of
rotation, and count pulses to determine the displacement. The velocity can be determined
by measuring the time between pulses.
Encoder disks are shown in Figure 6.18. The absolute encoder has two rings, the
outer ring is the most significant digit of the encoder, the inner ring is the least significant
digit. The relative encoder has two rings, with one ring rotated a few degrees ahead of the
other, but otherwise the same. Both rings detect position to a quarter of the disk. To add
accuracy to the absolute encoder more rings must be added to the disk, and more emitters
and detectors. To add accuracy to the relative encoder we only need to add more windows
to the existing two rings. Typical encoders will have from 2 to thousands of windows per
ring.
page 213
sensors read across

a single radial line
relative encoder
(quadrature) absolute encoder
Figure 6.18 Encoder Disks
When using absolute encoders, the position during a single rotation is measured
directly. If the encoder rotates multiple times then the total number of rotations must be
counted separately.
When using a relative encoder, the distance of rotation is determined by counting

the pulses from one of the rings. If the encoder only rotates in one direction then a simple
count of pulses from one ring will determine the total distance. If the encoder can rotate
both directions a second ring must be used to determine when to subtract pulses. The
quadrature scheme, using two rings, is shown in Figure 6.19. The signals are set up so that
one is out of phase with the other. Notice that for different directions of rotation, input B
either leads or lags A.
page 214
Quad input A
clockwise rotation
Quad Input B
Note the change total displacement can be determined

as direction by adding/subtracting pulse counts
is reversed (direction determines add/subtract)
Quad input A
counterclockwise rotation
Quad Input B
Note: To determine direction we can do a simple check. If both are off or on, the first to
change state determines direction. Consider a point in the graphs above where both
A and B are off. If A is the first input to turn on the encoder is rotating clockwise. If
B is the first to turn on the rotation is counterclockwise.
Aside: A circuit (or program) can be built for this circuit using an up/down counter. If
the positive edge of input A is used to trigger the clock, and input B is used to drive
the up/down count, the counter will keep track of the encoder position.
Figure 6.19 Quadrature Encoders
Interfaces for encoders are commonly available for PLCs and as purchased units.
Newer PLCs will also allow two normal inputs to be used to decode encoder inputs.
page 215
Normally absolute and relative encoders require a calibration phase when a con-
troller is turned on. This normally involves moving an axis until it reaches a logical sensor
that marks the end of the range. The end of range is then used as the zero position.
Machines using encoders, and other relative sensors, are noticeable in that they normally
move to some extreme position before use.
6.4.2.1 - Tachometers
Tachometers measure the velocity of a rotating shaft. A common technique is to

mount a magnet to a rotating shaft. When the magnetic moves past a stationary pick-up
coil, current is induced. For each rotation of the shaft there is a pulse in the coil, as shown
in Figure 6.20. When the time between the pulses is measured the period for one rotation
can be found, and the frequency calculated. This technique often requires some signal
conditioning circuitry.
pickup Vout
rotating coil
shaft Vout
t
magnet
1/f
Figure 6.20 A Magnetic Tachometer
Another common technique uses a simple permanent magnet DC generator (note:

you can also use a small DC motor). The generator is hooked to the rotating shaft. The
rotation of a shaft will induce a voltage proportional to the angular velocity. This tech-
nique will introduce some drag into the system, and is used where efficiency is not an
issue.
Both of these techniques are common, and inexpensive.

page 216
6.5 Examples
6.6 Summary
6.8 Problems

page 217
7. FEEDBACK CONTROL REVIEW
Topics:
•
Objectives:
•
7.1 Introduction
page 218
Control variable
INPUT OUTPUT
(e.g. θgas) SYSTEM
(e.g. velocity)
(e.g. a car)
vdesired verror control θgas vactual

car
+ function
_
Note: The arrows in the diagram indicate directions so that outputs and inputs
are unambiguous. Each block in the diagram represents a transfer function.
Figure 7.21 An automotive cruise control system
Human rules to control car (also like expert system/fuzzy logic):
1. If verror is not zero, and has been positive/negative for a while, increase/decrease θgas
2. If verror is very big/small increase/decrease θgas
3. If verror is near zero, keep θgas the same
4. If verror suddenly becomes bigger/smaller, then increase/decrease θgas.
5. etc.
Figure 7.22 Example control rules

page 219
proportional PID function
Kp ( e )
V V
+ +V
integral
+ e u
Ki ( ∫ e ) amp motor
+
- derivative + -V
d
K d ⎛⎝ ----- e⎞⎠
dt
Figure 7.23 A PID control system
de
u = K p e + K i ∫ edt + K d ⎛ ------⎞
⎝ dt ⎠
Figure 7.24 A PID controller equation

page 220
2.2K
Computer Running Labview 1K 12Vdc motor
PCI-1200 data acquisition card

-
gain Kp +
from National Instruments

LM675
X op-amp
shafts are coupled
-
+
+5V -5V
5K potentiometer
desired position
voltage Vd
Figure 7.25 A motor feedback control system
desired
position
voltage +
Vd gain Kp op-amp motor shaft
potentiometer
Figure 7.26 A block diagram for the feedback controller

page 221
7.2 OpAmps
The ideal model of an op-amp is shown in Figure 7.27. On the left hand side are
the inverting and non-inverting inputs. Both of these inputs are assumed to have infinite
impedance, and so no current will flow. Op-amp application circuits are designed so that
the inverting and non-inverting inputs are driven to the same voltage level. The output of
the op-amp is shown on the right. In circuits op-amps are used with feedback to perform
standard operations such as those listed below.
• adders, subtractors, multipliers, and dividers - simple analog math operations

• amplifiers - increase the amplitude of a signal
• impedance isolators - hide the resistance of a circuit while passing a voltage
V-
I- Note: for analysis use,
- Vo
I- = I+ = 0
I+ +
V+ V- = V+
Figure 7.27 An ideal op-amp
A simple op-amp example is given in Figure 7.28. As expected both of the op-amp
input voltages are the same. This is a function of the circuit design. (Note: most op-amp
circuits are designed to force both inputs to have the same voltage, so it is normally rea-
sonable to assume they are the same.) The non-inverting input is connected directly to
ground, so it will force both of the inputs to 0V. When the currents are summed at the
inverting input, an equation including the input and output voltages is obtained. The final
equation shows the system is a simple multiplier, or amplifier. The gain of the amplifier is
determined by the ratio of the input and feedback resistors.
page 222
R2
R1
-
+
Vi + +
- Vo
-
The voltage at the non-inverting input will be 0V, by design the voltage at the invert-
ing input will be the same.
V + = 0V
V - = V + = 0V
The currents at the inverting input can be summed.
V- – Vi V- – Vo
∑ I V- = ---------------- + ----------------- = 0
R1 R2
0–V 0–V
--------------i + --------------o- = 0
R1 R2
–R2 Vi
V o = --------------
R1
–R2
V o = ⎛ ---------⎞ V i
⎝ R1 ⎠
Figure 7.28 A simple inverting operational amplifier configuration
An op-amp circuit that can subtract signals is shown in Figure 7.29.

page 223
R2
Find the input/output ratio,
R1
+
-
+
Vi R5 +
- + R3 Vo
Vref -
R4
-
Figure 7.29 Op-amp example
For ideal op-amp problems the node voltage method is normally the best choice.
The equations for the circuit in Figure 7.29 and derived in Figure 7.30. The general
approach to this solution is to sum the currents into the inverting and non-inverting input
nodes. Notice that the current into the op-amp is assumed to be zero. Both the inverting
and non-inverting input voltages are then set to be equal. After that, algebraic manipula-
tion results in a final expression for the op-amp. Notice that if all of the resistor values are
the same then the circuit becomes a simple subtractor.
page 224
Note: normally node voltage methods work best with op-amp circuits, although others
can be used if the non-ideal op-amp model is used.
First sum the currents at the inverting and non-inverting op-amp terminals.
V+ – Vi V+ – Vo
∑ I V+ = ----------------- + ------------------ = 0
R1 R2
1 1 1 1
V + ⎛ ------ + ------⎞ = V i ⎛ ------⎞ + V o ⎛ ------⎞
⎝ R 1 R 2⎠ ⎝ R 1⎠ ⎝ R 2⎠
R1 + R2 1 1
V + ⎛ ------------------⎞ = V i ⎛ ------⎞ + V o ⎛ ------⎞
⎝ R1 R2 ⎠ ⎝ R 1⎠ ⎝ R 2⎠
R2 R1
V + = V i ⎛⎝ ------------------⎞⎠ + V o ⎛⎝ ------------------⎞⎠ (1)
R1 + R2 R1 + R2
V - – V ref V -
∑ V- --------------------
I =
R5
+ ------ = 0
R4
1 1 1
V - ⎛ ------ + ------⎞ = V ref ⎛ ------⎞
⎝ R 4 R 5⎠ ⎝ R 5⎠
R4
V - = V ref ⎛ ------------------⎞ (2)
⎝ R 4 + R 5⎠
Now the equations can be combined.
V- = V+
R4 R2 R1
V ref ⎛⎝ ------------------⎞⎠ = V i ⎛⎝ ------------------⎞⎠ + V o ⎛⎝ ------------------⎞⎠
R4 + R5 R1 + R2 R1 + R2
R1 R2 R4
V o ⎛⎝ ------------------⎞⎠ = V i ⎛⎝ ------------------⎞⎠ – V ref ⎛⎝ ------------------⎞⎠
R1 + R2 R1 + R2 R4 + R5
R2 R4 ( R1 + R2 )
V o = V i ⎛⎝ ------⎞⎠ – V ref ⎛ ------------------------------⎞ (3)
R1 ⎝ R 1 ( R 4 + R 5 )⎠
Figure 7.30 Op-amp example (continued)
An op-amp (operational amplifier) has an extremely high gain, typically 100,000

times. The gain is multiplied by the difference between the inverting and non-inverting
terminals to form an output. A typical op-amp will work for signals from DC up to about
page 225
100KHz. When the op-amp is being used for high frequencies or large gains, the model of
the op-amp in Figure 7.31 should be used. This model includes a large resistance between
the inverting and non-inverting inputs. The voltage difference drives a dependent voltage
source with a large gain. The output resistance will limit the maximum current that the
device can produce, normally less than 100mA.
V–
typically,
rn r n > 1M Ω
+ Vo
- 5
ro A > 10
V A ( V+ – V- ) r o < 100 Ω
+
Figure 7.31 A non-ideal op-amp model
7.3 Examples
7.4 Summary
7.6 Problems

page 226
8. MECHANICAL POWER TRANSMISSION
Topics:
•
Objectives:
•
8.1 Mechanisms
• Consider a pair of adjustable vice grips.
•Some definitions,
Machine - a collection of components that will do work.
Mechanism - a collection of components to transform motion
Kinematics - consider positions/velocities/accelerations in mechanical systems
Structure - a collection of components to make larger static structures
Statics - estimate forces in mechanisms that are in equilibrium
Dynamics - determine motion that results when forces are out of balance
Link - rigid body between joints
Binary Link - has two joints only
Ternary Link - has three joints
Quaternary Link - has four joints
Pair or Joint - a connection between two links
Driver / Follower - the driver link will be driving the follower
Kinematic Chain - a sequence of links making up a mechanism
Open Loop - a snake like set of connected links
Closed Loop - a kinematic chain has one or more links that go back in the chain
page 227
Frame - a grounded or fixed link in a mechanism

Spatial - in 3 dimensions
Relative/Absolute - a position, velocity, etc. is measured based on a fixed (absolute) or
moving (relative) point.
• A Degree Of Freedom (DOF) is an independently controllable variable. As an example, a

machine that has two degrees of freedom might need two motors to control it.
• Lower Pairs, - constrained position/orientation of both sides of the joints are identical
Turning / Revolute - basically a pin joint (R)
Prismatic - a slider (P)
Screw/Helix - a nut and screw pair (H)
Cylindric - a shaft in a collar (C)
Globular/Spherical - a ball joint (S)
• Higher pairs include, - typically other equations are needed to constrain the joints, such as gear
ratios (if the joint has more than a single degree of freedom)
- flat/planar - constrained to move over a plane
- belt on pulley
- meshing gears
- sliding wheel on a surface
- etc.
• The definition of higher/lower pairs given in Shigley [1995] is, “the lower pairs, such as the pin
joint, have surface contact between the pair elements, while higher pairs, such at the connec-
tion between a cam and its follower, have line or point contact between the surface elements.”
They go on to point out that the definition is not exact, which is somewhat disappointing.
• A better definition of a higher pair is - A higher pair is not a lower pair, where a lower pair per-
mits the following relative motions between links; circular, linear, helical, cylindrical, spheri-
cal, planar.
• If a link has one joint, it is a unary link. A link with two joints is binary, with three it is ternary,
with four it is quaternary, etc.
• Planar linkages use lower order pairs, and are constrained to a single plane of motion.
• Some basic mechanism types are listed below, and split into some suggested categories
8.1.1 Locking/Engaging
Snap-action mechanisms - typically bistable mechanisms, such as electrical breaker

page 228
switches, or toggle mechanisms such as XXXX
Bistable
Toggle
Clamping Mechanisms - vices, collets, etc.

Locational Devices - self alining/centering devices
Ratchets and Escapements - A locking mechanism, like a ratchet wrench or winch
page 229
Ratchet
Escapement
Indexing Mechanisms - e.g. the geneva mechanism
Reversing Mechanisms - A mechanism that can disengage a transmission, and reverse

direction of transmission
page 230
8.1.2 Motion Transmission/Transformation
Linear Actuators - produce a straight line motion. can be done with threads, or hydraulic
cylinders
Fine Adjustments - screws, wedges, etc. - these can overcome imperfections during manu-
facture
Couplings and Connectors - transmit rotations between rotating shafts. e.g. pulleys and
belts
Sliding Connectors - transmit linear motions in different directions
8.1.3 Four Bar Linkages
Swinging or Rocking Mechanism - produce cyclic motions

page 231
coupler
Rocker
Crank
frame
In this mechanism the crank is turned, and the follower oscillates. But, the
motions forward and then backwards are not at the same rate.
Stop/Pause/Hesitation - a motion is produced that appears to come to a stop for a short

period of time.
Curve Generators - mechanisms set up to follow complex paths - typically four bar link-
page 232
ages.
Straight Line - mechanisms are set up to generate straight line motions
Roberts Mechanism - the geometry is such that

the mechanism is made of three isosceles
triangles (note the dashed lines). When
actuated the bottom point ‘A’ follows an
approximate straight line.
8.1.4 Reciprocating
Reciprocating Mechanisms - converts a rotational motion to a linear motion

page 233
Offset slider crank mechanism - will generate a fast stroke of the slider in one
direction. For example, if the crank is turned clockwise then the slider will
move fast going right, and slower returning left. The faster stroke will provide
less force, if the crank torque is constant.
advance (clockwise rotation only)
return
time of advance stroke angle of advance stroke

Q = ------------------------------------------------------ = --------------------------------------------------------
time of return stroke angle of return stroke
where,
Q = the advance to return time ratio
page 234
Scotch Yoke - the crank rotates, and causes a lin-

ear motion.
8.1.5 Six Bar Linkages
• These allow more complex motion, especially when ternary links are used.
• In Watt linkages there are two ternary links touching,
Watt I Watt II
• In Stephenson linkages the terary links don’t touch,

page 235
Stephenson I Stephenson II
Stephenson III
•. Consider the equation, and the four basic kinematic inversions below. Keep in mind that the
crank will be the shortest link, with length ‘s, and in all four cases will rotate continuously.
Drag link mechanisms

page 236
Crank-Rocker mechanisms
Double-Rocker mechanisms
8.2 Mechanical Advantage
• As a mechanism moves over a range of motion its geometry changes. If we are using a mecha-
nisms to transmit torque, or force then we must consider the ratio between the input and output
force in various positions.
• Transmission angle is the angle between the coupling member and the output member in a
mechanism. As this angle approaches ±90°, the mechanical advantage of the mechanism typi-
cally increases.
• Toggle positions occur when the input crank has near infinite mechanical advantage. Note: this
also applies that the follower has no mechanical advantage on the crank.
• Consider the example below, [prob. 1-3 from Shigley & Uicker],
page 237
C
q = 90mm
Find the maximum and minimum
transmission angles. Find the two
p = 75mm
toggle angles of the crank AB.
B
s = 25mm
l = 100mm D
A
First, find the minimum toggle angle.

2 2 2 90+25mm 75mm
75 = 115 + 100 – 2 ( 115 ) ( 100 ) cos θ 1
=115mm
∴θ 1 = 40.1°
θ1
100mm
Next, find the maximum toggle angle.
2 2 2 90-25mm 75mm
75 = 65 + 100 – 2 ( 65 ) ( 100 ) cos θ 2
=65mm
∴θ 2 ′ = 48.6°°
θ2’
θ 2 = 48.6 + 180 = 228.6°
100mm
Note: these angles are a measure of when the crank torque will create a maximum
force.
page 238
γmin
Now, find the minimum transmission angle.
90mm
2 2 2 75mm
75 = 75 + 90 – 2 ( 75 ) ( 90 ) cos γ min
∴γ min = 53.1°
100-25mm=75mm
Note: This occurs as we get the largest angle
between the links, or when the bottom two
toggle.
γmax
Finally, find the maximum transmission angle.
90mm
2 2 2 75mm
125 = 75 + 90 – 2 ( 75 ) ( 90 ) cos γ max
∴γ max = 98.1°
100+25mm=125mm
Note: These angles show the relationship
between tension/compression in the driver
and the follower.
8.3 Gears
• When forces become large we cannot count on friction for rolling contact (no slip). Gears use
metal teeth that are meshed together to transmit motion between moving components.
8.3.1 Spur Gears
• Spur gears are in very wide use throughout engineering.
• These gears are flat, and either circular or straight (a rack).

page 239
• The figure below shows a typical gear with common terms marked,
e
circl
um
end
add
e
h circl
pitc
circular
pitch le
m circ
u
end
ded
width
of space
tooth
thickness
addendum clearance
dedendum
egr352a0.jpg
• When gears are properly mated their pitch circles will be tangent. And the faces of the teeth will
touch along the addendum and dedendum surfaces, down to the clearance circles.
• Some terms of use when discussing gears,

backlash - the difference is the gap between gear teeth where they mesh. This leads to
‘play’ in the gears.
pinion - a smaller gear
wheel - a larger gear
• diametral pitch is defined by,

page 240
N
P = ----
d
where,
N = number of teeth
d = pitch diameter, in.
P = diametral pitch (teeth/in.)
• module is defined by,
d
m = ----
N
where,
m = module (mm)
d = pitch diameter (mm)
• The following relationships are also applicable,
πd π
p = ------ = πm = ---
N P
where,
p = circular pitch
• The ratio between angular velocities of two gears can be determined with the law of gearing,
ω r
-----i = ---j
ωj ri
where,
ω i, ω j = the angular velocities of gears i and j
r i, r j = the pitch radii of two gears i and j
• As seen above the law of gearing assumes that the pitch point is found at a constant radius. If
this were to move the driven gear would accelerate /decelerate as the teeth mesh and separate.
• To keep the gears meshing constantly an involute profile is typically used for the shape of the
teeth.
• To construct an involute profile, we need to construct a line that is tangential to both gears. The
teeth on both gear will be constructed to contact only on this line.
page 241
gear i
pitch
point
tooth on i
tooth on j
gear j
base cylinders
• The involute profiles for a single tooth will trace out a line as shown below (later we will
develop an equation for the point on the unwrapping string).
To do this we start with a

cord wrapped about the
base cylinder of the gear.
We pick a point on the cyl-
inder where the tooth is to
start, and mark the point
on the cord. As we then
unwrap the cord the point
will trace out the involute
profile of the tooth.
• The pressure angle is shown below,

page 242
pressure
angle
• Standards geometries for spur gears include, (based on American Gear Manufacturers Associa-
tion and ANSI standards)
Teeth type Pressure angle Addendum ‘a’ Dedendum ‘b’
Full depth 20 (deg) 1/P 1.25/P, 1.35/P

22.5 1/P 1.25/P, 1.35/P
25 1/P 1.25/P, 1.35/P
Stub 20 0.8/P 1/P
• Typical diametral pitches and modules include, (based on American Gear Manufacturers Asso-
ciation and ANSI standards)
Coarse
P = 2, 2.25, 2.5, 3, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 16
Fine
P = 20, 24, 32, 40, 48, 64, 80, 96, 120, 150, 200
OR
Preferred
m = 1, 1.25, 1.5, 2, 2.5, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10, 12, 16, 20, 25
Less Preferred
m = 1.125, 1.375, 1.75, 2.25, 2.75, 3.5, 4.5, 5.5, 7, 9, 11, 14, 18, 22, 28, 36
page 243
8.3.2 Involute Profiles
• The figure below shows the triangulated layout for the basic involute function,
y involute curve
We define the involute curve such that,
ρ = r(α + ϕ)
ρ ρ = r tan ϕ
Therefore,
l
ρ = r ( α + ϕ ) = r tan ϕ
ϕ
α = invϕ ∴α = tan ϕ – ϕ
r ∴invϕ = tan ϕ – ϕ
x
r
• Next the involute curve is applied to the generation of gear teeth.

page 244
tooth y
profile
pitch circle
φ
d/2
r
ρ
θb
θp
base circle
ϕ
invϕ
b/2
θr
x
page 245
For the gear we must consider the pitch,

d
r = --- when ϕ = φ
2
where,
φ = the pressure angle
d = diameter of pitch circle
b = diameter of given base circle
Therefore,
b
--- = r cos ( φ )
2
πd π
p = ⎛ ------⎞ = 2 ( 2rθ p ) = 2 ( dθ p ) ∴θ p = -------
⎝ N⎠ 2N
π
θ b = θ p + invφ = ------- + invφ
2N
π π π π 1
θ r = --- + θ b – invϕ = --- + ------- + invφ – invϕ = --- ⎛ 1 + ----⎞ + invφ – invϕ
2 2 2N 2 ⎝ N⎠
x = r cos ( θ r ) y = r sin ( θ r ) ϕ ≥ 0deg
• To generate points on these curves we must select values of XXXX and calculate (x, y) posi-
tions. These will be correct for one face of the tooth. If these are used to generate a splined
curve, or graphed, they will form the tooth profile. The upper and lower bounds are determined
by the addendum and dedendum.
8.3.3 Design of Gears
• The basic steps to design a gear are outlines below,

page 246
1. Calculate the desired pitch diameters for both gears, i and j. Note: gear i should be
larger than gear j for the formulas given.
Ni Nj
d i = ----- d j = -----
P P
where,
d i, d j = pitch diameters for meshing gears i and j
P = diametral pitch selected
N i, N j = given number of teeth on gears i and j
2. Find the base circles of the gears by calculating the shortest perpendicular from the
pressure line to the center. This will be the diameters of the base circles.
φ
di
bj dj
bi
b i = d i cos φ
b j = d j cos φ
where,
b i, b j = diameters of base circles
φ = pressure angle
3. Using the base circle calculate the gear tooth profile for both gears using the involute
equations described before.
page 247
4. Import the geometry into the cad system as a line. convert this to a complete tooth
(this may involve a sweep, or mirror and join depending on the CAD software). Trim-
ming, fillets, etc will be done later.
5. Calculate the addendum and dedendum radii for both gears - using the standards
given earlier. Create dedendum circles for each gear body with the diameters of the
pitch diameter minus the dedendum. (In one case this will be below the base, in the
other this will be above). In the final application the centers between these gears will
be d1+d2 apart.
1 1.25
a i = a j = --- c i = c j = ----------
P P
B i = d i – 2c i B j = d j – 2c j
A i = d i + 2a i A j = d j + 2a j
where,
a i, a j = addendums for both gears
c i, c j = dedendums for both gears
B i, B j = dedendum diameter - size of circle for the gear bodies
A i, A j = Addendum circles for gears
6. Calculate the angular spacing of the teeth using the number of teeth. Align the teeth at
the right distance from the center of rotation. The addendum, dedendum and pitch
circles must cross the tooth at the right location. Then use the cad system to copy the
teeth about the center of the gear. If required do a join step and/or cut the base circle
for the gear.
360° 360°
∆θ i = ----------- ∆θ j = -----------
Ni Nj
where,
∆θ i, ∆θ j = angles between gear teeth on gear i and j
page 248
7. Add other features as required, such as holes, keyways, holes, spokes, etc. Note: fil-
lets are needed at the base of the teeth to prevent stress concentrations, and small
rounds are needed at the top of the teeth to reduce wear. The maximum radii of the
fillets can be determined using the clearance.
r jfillet < c j – a i
r ifillet < c i – a j
where,
r jfillet, r ifillet = maximum fillet radii at the bottom of the gear teeth
• If we are dealing with a rack, it is effectively a circular gear with an infinite radius.
• When we have internal gears (one gear inside another) we need to adjust the methods to reflect
that both gears are on the same side of the pitch line.
8.3.4 Design Issues
• During motion the gear teeth undergo a combination of sliding and rolling. The direction of slid-
ing reverses at the pitch point, where the motion is pure rolling.
8.3.4.1 - Undercutting and Contact Ratios
• Undercutting occurs on some gears. This is a gouging of teeth that occurs when teeth contact
below the base circle of the gear during motion.
• During manufacturing some processes (generation) can remove the excess material that lead to
undercutting. But this can reduce the base width of the teeth and weakening of the gear.
• Undercutting problems can be reduced by increasing the radius of the gear, and increasing the
number of teeth.
• The gear teeth are in contact along the pressure line between the points where it intersects the
addendum lines.
page 249
Note: my artistry
pitch point ‘P’ is not so good.
Here the dis-
tances between
the circle
should be
equal.
pressur
e line
qa
A P
B
motion qr
a dde
adden
dede
ndu
pitc
mc
ndu
dum
q a = arc of approach
h cir
ircle
m +c
q r = arc of recess
circle
cle
lear
a
• The contact ratio is as defined below. A value of 1 means that at any time only one tooth is
n
engaged. A value greater than 1 means that only one tooth is engaged. A value of 2 would
mean that at any time 2 teeth are engage. A value less than 1 means that at times the teeth are
not in contact (bad).
qt ua + ur
m c = ---- = ----------------
p p cos φ
where,
m c = the contact ratio
u a = approach contact path length (from A to P)
u r = recess contact path length (from P to B)
2 2
ua = ( d j + a j ) – b j – d j sin φ
2 2
ur = ( d i + a i ) – b i – d i sin φ
• Undercutting will not occur during production of the profiles if the following addendum values
page 250
observed,
2 2 2
a i < b i + ( d i + d j ) ( sin φ ) – d i
2 2 2
a j < b j + ( d i + d j ) ( sin φ ) – d j
8.3.4.2 - Changing the Center Distance
• If the center distance between gears is changed, then the pitch circles on both gears will move
away from the center.
• The result of the enlarging of pitch circles will be a reduction in the contact ratio. This will lead
to a smaller contact ratio.
• This condition also allows some play in the gears (backlash). This play means that a reversing of
direction can lead to a small reversing rotation before the other tooth is impacted. This leads to
errors and the impact forces can shorten the life of gears significantly.
8.3.5 Helical Gears
• Helical gears are essentially spur gears, but with a bit of a twist in the normally straight profile
of the teeth.
egr352a1.jpg
• The helical arrangement means that the teeth engage at one point (as opposed to a line of con-
tact), and then slowly mesh along the face of the tooth. This also means that the number of
engaged teeth (contact ratio) can be higher.
• If we contrast spur and helical gears. The spur gear teeth contact fully all at once.
• These gears mesh very smoothly, so they find application for,

- high speeds
- heavy loads
- gear noise must be reduced
- center lines of shafts do not intersect
• These gears,
page 251
- require more effort during fabrication

- need additional bearings to resist axial thrust.
• helical gears can be used to transmit torques between parallel, and non-parallel (often perpendic-
ular) shafts.
• To eliminate the need for an axial thrust bearing we can use a herringbone (double helical) gear.
This is effectively two helical gears with opposite twists on the helix, and joined down a center
line.
8.3.5.1 - Design of Helical Gears
• We can describe the helix with a single angle,
ψ = helix angle
ψ
• This helix allows three different ways to measure the pitch and pressure angles.
page 252
pn
φn
px
pt
φt
p n = normal diametral pitch

p t = tranverse diametral pitch
p x = axial pitch
pn
p t = ------------- = p x cos ψ
cos ψ
φ n = normal pressure angle
φ t = tranverse pressure angle
tan φ n
cos ψ = -------------
tan φ t
• We can now develop an equivalent pitch radius,

page 253
d
d e = -------------------2-
( cos ψ )
where,
d = the pitch diameter of the helical gear
d e = the diameter of an equivalent spur gear
N
N e = d e P n = -------------------3-
( cos ψ )
where,
N = number of teeth on the helical gear
N e = equivalent number of teeth on a spur gear
P n = diametral pitch of gear
• Typical design parameters include,

- produced for specialized applications, and custom designed
- typical pressure angle is 20°
- for helix angles from 0 to 30° use the normal diametral pitch to calculate tooth propor-
tions
- helix angles greater than 45° are not recommended
- in mating parallel gears - one must have a left hand helix, and the other must have a right
hand helix. Use the sign of the helix angle to indicate left or right handed.
• The line of contact in spur gears is straight across the teeth. In helical gears, the line of contact is
diagonal.
• To measure the contact ratio we need to use three values to be effective,

page 254
ψ b = atan ( tan ψ cos φ )

Aside: Recall, a contact ratio below 1 is
mt unacceptable, and the gears will come out
m n = ----------------------2
( cos ψ b ) of contact. For helical gears this ratio
should be greater than 2.
F F tan ψ
m x = ----- = ----------------
px pt
mT = mn + mx
where,
ψ b = base helix angle
m t = transverse contact angle
m n = normal contact ratio (as found for spur gears)
m x = axial contact ratio
F = face width
m T = total contact ratio
8.3.5.2 - Perpendicular Helical Gears
• If two shafts intersect at an angle (typically 90°) we can link them using helical gears. The angle
between the shafts can be,
Σ = ψi ± ψj
where,
ψ i, ψ j = helix angle on gears i and j
Σ = angle between shafts
• The example below shows one configuration for helical gears, including the location of thrust
bearings.
page 255
Thrust Bearings
Driver Helical Gears
• When the shaft intersection angle is large (90°) you may use same handed gears to intersect. In
the example above the gears are both right handed.
• The pitch diameter for these gears can be found using,
N
d = -------------------
P n cos ψ
• A minimum contact ratio of 2 is recommended for these gears.
• Typical parameters for cross-axis helical gears are given below,
Driver Driven
Helix Angle Minimum Helix angle Pressure angle
# teeth
45° 20 45° 14.5°

60° 9 30° 17.5°
75° 4 15° 19.5°
86° 1 4° 20°
8.3.6 Bevel Gears
• These gears are like normal spur gears, except that they have a conical form.
egr352a2.jpg
page 256
• Their applications are characterized by,

- to couple shafts with intersecting axes
-
• Bevel gears are meshed so that the points of their cones are coincident.
• As we move towards the point of the cones, the number of teeth remains the same, but the diam-
eter reduces towards zero. This changes the size of the teeth, and the pitch diameter.
• The form of the gears is like that of spur gears, but each has a cone angle, and when added
together this gives the angle between the shafts.
di γi
O
γj
γ i, γ j = pitch angles
dj Σ = shaft angle
Σ = γi + γj
• We can apply some of the basic ratios to bevel gears,
ωi d N
----- = ----j = -----j
ωj di Ni
where,
ω i, ω j = input/output angular velocities
d i, d j = pitch diameters of gears (normally taken at wide base)
N i, N j = number of teeth on gears
page 257
8.3.6.1 - Design of Bevel Gears
• To determine the pitch angles for the gears we can write the following expressions,
di dj
OP = --------------- = ---------------
2 sin γ i 2 sin γ j
where,
OP = the distance from the mesh point to the tips of the cones
by trigonometry,
di di di
sin γ i = ---- sin γ j = ---- sin ( Σ – γ i ) = ---- ( sin Σ sin γ i – sin γ i sin Σ )
dj dj dj
sin Σ sin Σ
∴γ i = atan ----------------------- = atan ------------------------
dj Nj
---- + cos Σ ----- + cos Σ
di Ni
dj dj dj
sin γ j = ---- sin γ i = ---- sin ( Σ – γ ji ) = ---- ( sin Σ sin γ j – sin γ j sin Σ )
di di di
sin Σ
∴γ j = atan ------------------------
Ni
----- + cos Σ
Nj
• An approximate methods for creating bevel gears is called ‘Tredgold’s approximation’
• Tredgold’s technique requires that a cone on the bottom of the bear be found. This cone is then
flattened out, and normal gear design is done. Finally the cone is mapped back onto the bottom
of the gear. The profiles are then projected up to the point of the cone.
page 258
di dj
d e i = ------------ d ej = ------------
cos γ i cos γ j
πd e πd e
N e i = ---------i N e j = ---------j
pi pj
where,
d ei, d e j = equivalent diameter for spur gear design
N ei, N ej = equivalent number of teeth for spur gear design
• Typical design parameters include,

- 20° pressure angle for straight bevel gears
- bevel gears are always custom made, and are not interchanged
- deflections mean that the wider base tends to take most of the load, so the teeth are
designed with a short length (commonly less tan 1/3 of the total cone length)
-
8.3.7 Other Bevelled Gears
• Crown and Face Gear - this gear is much like a rack for spur gears. To get this, one of the gears
is given a pitch angle of 90°.
• Spiral Bevel Gears - to reduce noise in beveled gears, a spiral can be added to the teeth.
• Hypoid gears - the centers of the bevelled gears are not coincident - the shaft is offset.
8.3.8 Worm Gears
• Worm gears use a long helical screw that drives a larger helical gear.
egr352a3.jpg
• Basically we use a screw like gear (the worm) and a large cylindrical gear (worm gear) that is
driven by the worm.
• The worm gear curves to the shape of the worm to increase contact. Also note that worm gear is
a helical gear.
page 259
worm
pitch
circle
dg
worm gear
center
distance
Ng p
d g = ---------
π
where,
d g = pitch diameter
N g = number of worm gear teeth
• The worm acts very much like a rack, except that it is threaded onto a cylindrical surface.
page 260
dw
ψ
p λ
0.875 This relationship is suggested by the AGMA

⎛ d-----------------
w + d g⎞
-
⎝ 2 ⎠ for a good power capacity.
dw = ----------------------------------
2.2
pN w
λ = 90° – ψ = atan ⎛⎝ ----------⎞⎠
πd w
where,
λ = lead angle
ψ = helix angle
p = axial pitch
d w = pitch diameter
N w = number of teeth (threads) on the worm
• These gears find their best applications when a large gear ratio is needed in a compact space.
The shafts typically intersect at a 90° angle - when this is the case the helix angle on both gears
is the same.
• The worm gear can be single enveloping or double enveloping.

- The single envelope is the parallel sided gear. This type of gear is more forgiving
for position and alignment tolerance problems.
- The double enveloping gear has a curvature that increases the surface on contact
between the gears. This can be very useful for power applications.
• The following values are reasonable for finding the profile dimensions of the teeth,
addendum = 0.3183p
dedendum = 0.3183p
clearance = 0.050p
page 261
• Suggested pressure angles for given lead angles are listed below,
λ φ
0-16° 14.5°
16-25° 20°
25-35° 25°
35-45° 30°
8.3.9 Harmonic Drives
• These are actually normal servo motors, but with an integrated harmonic gear. The harmonic
gears are very compact, and as a result the overall size is reduced. These gears also allow very
high gear ratios (eg, 100:1)
• Harmonic drives are also gaining popularity with smaller manipulators. They use a rotating
elliptical core that deforms a flexible section. The flexible section is in contact with an outer
section for short periods of time, and as the ellipse rotates, there is a geared down rotation gen-
erated. This allows integral gears in motors
Note that as the inner elliptical spline rotates, the flexible spline counter-rotates.
The surface between the wave generator, and flexible spline is smooth, and the
surfacer between the flexible spline, and the outer spline is geared.
8.3.10 Design With Gears
• When we design gears, cams and mechanisms we are free to set and vary parameters. But, above
this we often must select these components to start with.
page 262
• The selection of components can be aided by using techniques such as,

- schematics
- ratios
- common approaches
8.3.10.1 - Gear Trains
• When we want to increase/reduce angular displacements/velocities/etc. we can use simple gear

trains.
• As we have seen before, gears typically have an input to output ratio. The relationship below is
for simple gear trains - only one gear on each axis.
n–1 n–1
ωn Ni di
e = ------ =
ω2 ∏ Ni + 1- =
----------- ∏ di + 1-
----------
i=2 i=2
where,
e = The speed ratio of a gear train (can be negative)
ω i = The angular velocity from the first gear 2 to the last gear n
N i = The number of teeth on gear i
d i = The pitch diameter of gear i
• We can deal with compound gear trains (multiple gears on each axis) by using product of driven
and driving teeth.
∏ Ni
ωn
e = ------ = i--------------
=1 -
ω2 n
∏ Nj
j=1
where,
N i = The number of driving teeth on gear i of m driving gears
N j = The number of driving teeth on gear j of n driving gears
page 263
8.3.10.2 - Examples - Fixed Axis Gears
• A simple gear train has only one gear on each axis.
• A compound gear train has multiple gears on the same axis. Consider the truck transmission
example from Shigley and Uicker,
page 264
9
clutch 8
stem gear
2 7
Motor shaft
reverse idler
3 4
10
11
6
5
Speed (gear) Gear Train In this manual transmission the gear shifter
will move the gears in and out of con-
1 2-3-6-9 tact. At this point all of the needed gears
2 2-3-5-8 will be meshed and turning. The final
3 2-3-4-7 step is to engage the last gear in the gear
4 bypass gear train train with the clutch (plate) and this
reverse 2-3-6-10-11-9 couples the gears to the wheels.
• We may also consider an in-line gear train. These can be used for items such divide by twelve
and sixty in clocks,
page 265
N 2 = 60
N2 N4
N 5 = 15 e = ------------- = 16
N3 N5
In this case the output shaft

Input shaft Output shaft turns 16 times faster than
the input shaft. If we
reversed directions the
output (former input)
would now turn 1/16 of
the input (former out-
put) shaft speed.
N 3 = 15
N 4 = 60
• Quite often we will have a particular speed ratio in mind. We can convert this to teeth numbers
by finding a suitable fractional value,
assume we are given a value of e=0.156, we can begin by putting this in fraction
form with the lowest integer values,
156 78 39
e = 0.156 = ------------ = --------- = ---------
1000 500 250
In this case the ratio is very high. We could decide to try to make a gear, or we could
split the numerator and denominator into multiples. We can then put the multiples
into smaller fractions. In the case below there are no common numerators and
denominators so all of the gears will need to be compound.
39 ( 3 ) ( 13 ) 3 13
e = --------- = ---------------------- = ⎛ ------⎞ ⎛ ------⎞
250 ( 10 ) ( 25 ) ⎝ 10⎠ ⎝ 25⎠
Looking at the numerators and denominators there are a few integers that are small.
We should set a minimum number of teeth for practical design purposes. In this
case we can set the minimum at 20.
3 13 21 26 21 26
e = ⎛ ------⎞ ⎛ ------⎞ = ⎛ ------⎞ ⎛ ------⎞ = ⎛ ------⎞ ⎛ ------⎞
⎝ 10⎠ ⎝ 25⎠ ⎝ 70⎠ ⎝ 50⎠ ⎝ 50⎠ ⎝ 70⎠
• The gear train in the previous example might look something like,
page 266
N 5 = 70
N 2 = 21
Input shaft Output shaft
N 4 = 26
N 3 = 50
• Try the design below,
Design a gear train for the value e=-0.2. Next design for e=0.2.
page 267
8.3.10.3 - Examples - Moving Axis Gears
• In some cases gears move relative to each other. This can be used to generate some interesting
alternatives.
8.3.10.4 - Epicyclic Gear Trains
• Epicyclic gears have many applications, such as automatic transmissions in automobiles.
• In these trains the gears typically orbit each other.
• Consider the basic epicyclic gear train,
Planet Gear
Planet
Carrier
OR KINEMATIC
3 EQUIVALENT
2
Sun gear
• We can represent these gears using a notation developed by Levai. Consider the basic epicyclic
gear,
page 268
collar 4
3
gear
2 and 3 move relative to ground. This is
teeth
different that ‘4’ because it is not
directly connected to ground.
• When designing with these gears, we can consider different control modes possible. In the case
above we could connect the gear ‘4’ to a ring gear (internal gear) and make a simple multi-
speed transmission.
5 If we ground ‘3’ then we get a speed ratio between ‘2’

(clutch stem gear) and ‘5’ (the output shaft) of,
4
N2 N4 N2
3 e = – ------ ------ = – ------
N4 N5 N5
If we connect ‘3’ to ‘5’ then we get a speed ratio of,
2 e = 1
• Some of the other possible gear train types include variations on the number of planets.
• Consider the compact planetary gear shown below,

page 269
double
sun gear planet gear
planet carrier
fixed gear
• We can also construct an epicyclic gear using bevel gears. This is called Humpage’s reduction
gear.
fixed gear
double planet
bevel gear
output shaft
input shaft
planet carrier
output gear
and shaft
• Consider the example below,

page 270
1
Draw the Levai representation
3 for the epicyclic gear to the
2 left. Assuming that the num-
ber of teeth are 20, 30, 15,
4 50 from gear 2 through to
gear 5, find the speed ratio
5 between the input at 2 and
the output at 3. What would
the speed ratio be if 4 was
the output?
8.3.10.5 - Differentials
• Differential mechanisms allow us to effectively do subtraction or averaging.
• If we want to determine the difference between two linear motions we could a mechanism like
the one shown below,
page 271
∆x 12 = 2∆x 1 – ∆x 2
∆x 1 a
a
∆x 2
• An angular differential is shown below using bevel gears,
θ6
N2 N4
θ2 θ 5 = ------ θ – ------ θ
N5 1 N5 2
θ4
3
θ6 = θ2 + θ4
2 4
5
6
θ5
************** include image here
• In one type of automotive differential the housing above is driven, and both the output shafts
turn. This allows a small difference in wheel speed. Without this simple action like turning cor-
ners would exert large forces on the tires and drive train. This is also why one of the drive
wheels can spin while the other is fixed.
• Various vehicles can disengage the differential for offroad conditions (where tires can slip),
page 272
while others have mechanisms to balance torque to the wheels when an excessive difference in
speed is detected.
• Worm gears have also been used in automotive differentials.
8.3.11 Gear Forces and Torques
• The involute profile of the gear means that the force applied at the gear teeth is not tangent to the
pitch line, but actually tangent to the base circle. At the pitch point the force between the teeth
acts at the pressure angle.
• For spur gears the following values and equations can be used for the applied forces. Clearly
there would be a reaction force that is not shown here. (Note: this applies even if multiple teeth
are in contact).
F
F t = F cos φ
φ F n = F sin φ
d
T = --- F cos φ
2
T
pitch
circle
• If we are considering helical gears the helical spiral of the teeth adds a second angle to the con-
tact force. This means that the contact force requires 3D analysis.
page 273
Given the gear geometry,

φ t = transverse pressure angle
ψ = helix angle
we can calculate,
F t = F cos ψ cos φ t
F n = F cos ψ sin φ t
F a = F sin ψ cos φ t
d d 2T
T = F t --- = --- F cos ψ cos φ t ∴F = ------------------------------
2 2 d cos ψ cos φ t
where,
F a = the axial component of the force (need axial bearings)
• Straight bevel gears are not so easy to calculate because the force is applied at a variable dis-
tance from the center of the rotational axis.
• In these gears we compromise by assuming the force is applied at the center of the tooth. In actu-
ality this force will be further from the center of the gear.
• We can calculate force components using the relationships below,
F t = F cos φ
F r = F sin φ cos γ
F a = F sin φ sin γ
d avg d avg 2T
T = ---------- F t = ---------- F cos φ ∴F = ----------------------
2 2 d avg cos φ
where,
d avg = the average pitch diameter of the teeth
γ = angle of bevel
F r = the force component normal to the axis of rotation
• For all of these gears we need to use the calculated forces to design bearings and supports. Most
notably the axial thrusts require thrust bearings be included in the design.
page 274
8.4 Cams
• Cams are basically shaped surfaces that are typically not round. The cam is rotated or translated,
and a follower (possibly a small wheel) is displaced as it moves over the surface.
• Cams can generate complex motion profiles in a compact area.
• Engine values are a well known application of cams. They can open and close the cylinders with
a large force, but will also dwell in open or closed positions.
• Typical cams are pictured below,
Plate (or Disk, or Radial) Cam
Wedge/Translating Cam
page 275
End (or Face) Cam
Cylindrical (or Barrel) Cam
• Some types of reciprocating followers include,
Roller Knife Edge flat-face

page 276
• Some oscillating followers include,
roller curved shoe
• We can often describe a cam by drawing the displacement profile on a graph.
displacement
f(θ)
Rise Dwell Return Dwell
lift
cam
angle
θ
0 360°
• Consider possible displacement curves for,

page 277
- wave machine
- stamping press
- washing machine
• The curve above can be broken into sections and described with a mathematical function,
y = f(θ)
2
f ( θ ) = Aθ + Bθ + C Parabolic motion
f ( θ ) = A + B cos Cθ Harmonic motion
f(θ) = A Constant/dwell motion
• Of these two functions, the parabolic will allow a greater level of control, but harmonic motion
will permit smooth transitions between motions.
• Some of the general design rules,

1. fulfil the basic motion requirements. (cam profiles are not exact and decisions are
required.)
2. The displacement, velocity and acceleration curves must be continuous, but the jerk
page 278
must not be infinite. This means that the positions and first and second derivatives
must be equal at the segment ends.
3. Minimize the velocities and accelerations.
• The first step in developing a cam is to develop a motion profile. Consider example 5-2 from
Shigley and Uicker,
We want a cam driving a reciprocating follower. The cam is rotated with an angular veloc-
ity of 150 rev/min. The follower should start in a dwell and accelerate to a constant
velocity of 25 in./sec. for a rise of 1.25 in. The follower should come to a rest after
moving a total height of 3 in. The follower should then drop back, and dwell for 0.10
sec.
First we will draw a function that has the basic components of the motion. In total there is
the initial acceleration from a dwell (parabolic segment) to a constant velocity (straight
line segment). After the constant velocity there are two transitions back to a final dwell
at the starting height (2 parabolic segments). This evens out to a dwell (straight line
segment). The displacement magnitudes were calculated and labeled on the graph
f(θ)
3.0
L2 f2 ( θ )
2.125 f3 ( θ )
L1
0.875 f1 ( θ )
L0 f0 ( θ ) f4 ( θ )
0.0
θ
β0 β1 β2 β3 β4
accel. 25 in/s decel. reverse dwell
Next, determine the obvious angles,
rev 1min 360°

β 4 = ( 0.10s ) ⎛⎝ 150 ---------⎞⎠ ⎛⎝ -------------⎞⎠ ⎛⎝ -----------⎞⎠ = 90°
min 60s 1rev
⎛ ⎞
1.25in⎟ ⎛ rev 1min 360°
β 1 = --------------- 150 ---------⎞ ⎛ -------------⎞ ⎛ -----------⎞ = 45°
⎜
⎜ in ⎟ ⎝ min⎠ ⎝ 60s ⎠ ⎝ 1rev⎠
⎝ 25 ----- ⎠
s
360° = β 0 + β 1 + β 2 + β 3 + β 4
∴225° = β 0 + β 2 + β 3
page 279
First, consider the first acceleration segment, and the maximums,

2
f 0 ( 0 ) = 0 = Aθ + Bθ + C ∴C = 0 L0 L0
f 0' ( β 0 ) = 2Aθ = 2 -----2 β 0 = 2 -----
f 0' ( 0 ) = 0 = 2Aθ + B ∴B = 0 β0 β0
L0 L0
f 0 ( β 0 ) = L 0 = Aθ
2
∴A = -----2 f 0'' ( β 0 ) = 2A = 2 -----2
β0 β0
second, consider the first decceleration segment (flipped left/right), and the maximums,
2
f 2 ( 0 ) = 0 = Aθ + Bθ + C ∴C = 0 L2 L2
f 2' ( β 2 ) = 2Aθ = 2 -----2 β 2 = 2 -----
f 2' ( 0 ) = 0 = 2Aθ + B ∴B = 0 β2 β2
L2 L2
f 2 ( β 2 ) = L 2 = Aθ
2
∴A = -----2 f 2'' ( β 2 ) = 2A = 2 -----2
β2 β2
finally, consider the return to the dwell (half the way), and the maximums,
2
f 3 ( 0 ) = 0 = Aθ + Bθ + C ∴C = 0
f 3' ( 0 ) = 0 = 2Aθ + B ∴B = 0
β3 4 ( L0 + L1 + L2 )
f 3 ⎛ -----⎞ = L 0 + L 1 + L 2 = Aθ
2
∴A = -------------------------------------
-
⎝ 2⎠ β3
2
β3 4 ( L0 + L1 + L2 )
f 3' ⎛ -----⎞ = 2Aθ = --------------------------------------
⎝ 2⎠ β3
β3 8 ( L0 + L1 + L2 )
f 3'' ⎛ -----⎞ = 2A = -------------------------------------
-
⎝ 2⎠ 2
β 3
page 280
Now, we need to balance the velocities and accelerations. This can be done by setting
all of the maximum velocities and accelerations equal,
Velocities,
L0 L2 4 ( L0 + L1 + L2 )
2 ----- = 2 ----- = --------------------------------------
β0 β2 β3
1.75 1.75 12
∴---------- = ---------- = ------
β0 β2 β3
Accelerations,
L0 L2 8 ( L0 + L1 + L2 )
2 -----2 = 2 -----2 = -------------------------------------
2
-
β0 β2 β3
1.75- 1.75- 24
∴---------
2
= ---------
2
= -----2-
β0 β2 β3
At this point we can use either velocities or accelerations to find the times for each
segment. I arbitrarily decide to use velocities,
12
β1 = β0 β 3 = ---------- β
1.75 0
12
225° = β 0 + β 2 + β 3 = β 0 + β 0 + ---------- β = 8.857β 0
1.75 0
∴β 0 = 25.4°
∴β 2 = 25.4°
∴β 3 = 174.2°
• Now,
page 281
Convert the cam profile in the previous problem to a circular cam profile using a knife
edge follower.
• You may have recognized that the previous design assumed that the follower must have a point
contact with the curve.
• In actual practice we will have surfaces that are in contact, the surfaces can be identified using
the equations developed previously.
• Consider the flat-face follower.

page 282
Note the follower is offset, this will not

change the operation, but can be used to
reduce moments in the shaft for a clock-
wise rotation.
R0
45° constant
90° dwell velocity
We can use the following relationships to plot the cam profile, based on the
motion profile. The first relationship will avoid undercutting - this is a
case where the cam gets ‘stuck’ on a second peak.
R 0 > r min – f'' min ( θ ) – f ( θ )
r min = a minimum allowed curvature for the cam
The face width must be wider than,
face width > f' max ( θ ) – f' min ( θ )
• We can develop the a modified cam profile based on the flat faced follower. (Note: the proof is
done as if a milling cutter is used, but this turns out to be more a matter of convenience)
page 283
r mill
dL dθ
γ
L = f ( θ ) + R0
c dθ
R R
φ
φ
Fixed
position
on cam
θ θ
--a- = tan φ a
∴φ = atan ⎛ ---⎞
L ⎝ L⎠
--L- = cos φ L
∴R = ------------
R cos φ
• Using the derivation of the basic relationships, we can now develop a method to plot out a com-
plete cam profile.
page 284
1. Pick an angle of 0 for the first iteration, increment this in subsequent calculations.
θ i = [ 0°…360° ]
2. Calculate,
L = f ( φ ) + R0
d
a = ------ f ( φ )
dφ
a
φ = atan ⎛ ---⎞
⎝ L⎠
L
R = ------------
cos φ
x = R cos ( θ + φ ) y = R sin ( θ + φ )
3. Plot the point, pick a subsequent point and then do a new calculation for the new angle.
• Now, develop a cam for example 3-52 from Shigley and Uicker,
page 285
First, determine the minimum radius of the cam, if the curvature of the cam is
to be greater than 0.5” at all points, and the face width.
Develop the equations for the geometry of the cam using the profile calculated
earlier.
• Keep in mind that when designing cam-follower pairs that the radius of the follower is not zero.
Therefore it may be necessary to compensate for this during the design.
• Consider the effect of a round follower on a wedge cam.

page 286
• Consider the effect of a round follower on a radial cam.
NOTE: The point of contact

remains tangential, angle of the
cam suggests a different point of
contact. In this case the upper
position of the cam has a small
offset across the surface of the
cam.
We can use the following relationships to plot the cam profile, based on the
motion profile.
r follower
1. Pick a displacement angle
m
θ i = [ 0°…360° ]
2. Calculate γ
2 2
F = L +m
d L = f ( θ ) + r follower + r min
a = ------ f ( θ )
dθ
La ⎞
α = atan ⎛ -------------------
⎝ 2 ⎠
F – ma
m
ψ = atan ⎛ ----⎞
⎝ L⎠ θ
φ = α–ψ
x = F cos ( θ + ψ ) – r follower cos φ
x = F sin ( θ + ψ ) – r follower sin φ
3. Plot the point, and select the subsequent point.
• Other arrangements are possible, and some proofs are provided in the text.
page 287
8.4.1 Using Cams in Mechanisms
• We can use cams to give complex joint motion,
8.5 Examples
8.6 Summary
Erdman, A.G. and Sandor, G.N., Mechanism Design Analysis and Synthesis, Vol. 1, 3rd Edition,
Prentice Hall, 1997.
Shigley, J.E., Uicker, J.J., “Theory of Machines and Mechanisms, Second Edition, McGraw-Hill,
1995.
8.8 Problems
1. Draw the kinematic inversions of the linkage below. Does it satisfy the Grashof Criterion?
What is the mobility of the mechanism? Determine the maximum transmission angles, and the
toggle angles if CD is the crank. What is the advance-to-return time ratio?
page 288
5mm
B
7mm C
7mm
A
D
10mm
2. Draw the kinematic inversions of the linkage below. Does it satisfy the Grashof Criterion?
What is the mobility of the mechanism?
5mm
7mm
7mm
10mm
3. The human arm is an open loop kinematic chain. Assuming the shoulder is the ground, what is
the mobility of the human arm, including all joints down to the finger tips?
1. We have been asked to design a coarse pitch (P=3) gear pair with stub teeth and a speed ratio of
e=0.24. Find the radii and dimensions needed to draw the gears. Find at least one point on a gear
tooth profile. Roughly sketch the gears showing the dimensions calculated.
1. You were recently hired as a Fuel Containment and Monitoring specialist for Generous Motors.
Your first job is to design a mechanical gauge for an instrument panel. The tank holds up to 10
gallons of fuel. It has been determined that the needle on the gauge should remain steady at the
full ‘F’ mark while the tank contains 8 to 10 gallons. When the tank has less than 3 gallons the
gauge should read empty ‘E’. The last design was a failure ‘F’, and your boss fired the engineer
responsible. It seems that he his design did not follow good cam design rules - the velocity and
accelerations were not minimized - and so the gauge would wear out, and jam prematurely.
Design a new cam to relate the float in the tank to the gauge on the instrument panel.
page 289
follower needle
linear cam
(old design) E F
gasoline gauge
tank
3”
10”
float
2. The motion profile curve below has 4 segments. Segments A and C are based on polynomials.
Segment D is based on a harmonic/cosine function. Segment B is a constant velocity segment.
y
1
C
0.5
B D
0.3
A
0 θ
0 1 2 3 6.242
a) Write the equation for curve segment B.

b) What effect does the follower shape have when converting the motion profile to a cam profile.
Draw a figure to illustrate this with a round follower.
c) Write the coefficients for the curve segment C.
page 290
3 2
yC = AC θ + BC θ + CC θ + DC
AC =
BC =
CC =
DC =

page 291
9. MECHANICAL ISSUES
Topics:
•
Objectives:
•
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Friction
Viscous friction was discussed before, where a lubricant would provide a damping
effect between two moving objects. In cases where there is no lubricant, and the touching
surfaces are dry, dry coulomb friction may result. In this case the surfaces will stick in
place until a maximum force is overcome. After that the object will begin to slide and a
constant friction force will result.
Figure 9.32 shows the classic model for (dry Coulomb) friction. The force on the
horizontal axis is the force applied to the friction surfaces while the vertical axis is the
resulting friction force. Beneath the slip force the object will stay in place. When the slip
force is exceeded the object will begin to move, and the resulting kinetic friction force will
be relatively constant. (Note: If the object begins to travel much faster then the kinetic
friction force will decrease.) It is common to forget that friction forces are bidirectional,
page 292
but it always opposes the applied force or motion. The friction force is a function of the
coefficient of friction and the normal force across the contact surfaces. The coefficient of
friction is a function of the materials, surface texture and surface shape.
F result Block begins to slip and the

applied force exceeds the
Fs resultant and acceleration begins.
Fk
F applied
Fs
F
Fg Fk = µk N
F k, F s
Fs ≤ µs N
N
Note: When solving problems with friction remember that the friction force will always
equal the applied force (not the maximum force) until slip occurs. After that the fric-
tion is approximately constant. In addition, the friction forces direction opposes
applied forces, and motion.
Figure 9.32 Dry friction
Many systems use kinetic friction to dissipate energy from a system as heat, sound
and vibration.
page 293
Find the acceleration of the block for

both angles indicated. µ s = 0.3
10 kg
µ k = 0.2 θ1 = 5 °
θ
θ 2 = 35 °
ans.
Figure 9.33 Drill problem: find the accelerations
9.3 Friction
page 294
Model the system and consider

the static and kinetic friction
forces on the shaft on the right JM
hand side. τ Ks T s ≤ 10Nm
T k = 6Nm
θ ··
+ ∑M = τ – Ks θ – TF = JM θ
Ks θ
·· (1)
JM θ = τ – Ks θ – TF
· (2)
θ = ω
JM
· τ – TF Ks
τ ω = ⎛ --------------⎞ + ⎛ ------⎞ θ (3)
⎝ J M ⎠ ⎝ J M⎠
FF
Next, the torque force must be calculated, and then used to determine the new torque force.
·
J M ω = τ – K s θ – T test
· (4)
T test = τ – K s θ – J M ω
cases:
Not slipping previously
T test ≤ 10Nm T F = T test
T test > 10Nm T F = 6Nm
Slipping previously
T test < 6Nm T F = T test
T test ≥ 6Nm T F = 6Nm
Figure 9.34 A friction system example
9.4 Contact Points And Joints
A system is built by connecting components together. These connections can be

rigid or moving. In solid connections all forces and moments are transmitted and the two
pieces act as a single rigid body. In moving connections there is at least one degree of free-
page 295
dom. If we limit this to translation only, there are up to three degrees of freedom, x, y and
z. In any direction there is a degree of freedom, a force or moment cannot be transmitted.
When constructing FBDs for a system we must break all of the components into
individual rigid bodies. Where the mechanism has been broken the contact forces must be
added to both of the separated pieces. Consider the example in Figure 9.35. At joint A the
forces are written as two components in the x and y directions. For joint B the force com-
ponents with equal magnitudes but opposite directions are added to both FBDs.
F Ay F By
A F Ax
F Bx
M1
B
M1 g M2 g
M2
F Bx
F By Note: Don’t forget that forces on con-
nected FBDs should have equal
magnitudes, but opposite direc-
tions.
Figure 9.35 FBDs for systems with connected members
9.4.1 Switching
- system components turned on/off
- cables in tension/compression
- show an example where input conditions change

page 296
y· + 4y = f ( t ) f(t < 0) = 0
f ( 0 ≤ t < 5s ) = 2
f ( t ≥ 5s ) = 0
- give PWM (Pulse Width Modulation) example with ripple showing equivalent
voltage. PWM is used to generate analog voltage equivalents. Show for a system with first
order response with tau = 0.1s for a frequency of 1KHz, 10Hz and 1Hz. Point out the rip-
ple and effective voltage.
- important to consider when doing system analysis
9.4.2 Deadband
- Friction in all components
- costs money to reduce friction, so it is better to compensate in software
- small actuation signals not large enough to overcome friction
- This effect is normally known as ’stiction’, a combination of the words static and
friction.
- Friction is common in less expensive motors, and when a motor is driving a

mechanical system.
- In systems there are two type of friction that must be considered.
- The static friction, ’stiction’, will prevent initial motion. If the systems breaks
free and starts turning, the kinetic friction will provide a roughly constant friction resis-
tance.
- relationship in figure below.

page 297
- the region where the applied voltage has no effect is called the deadband.
-
ω
The kinetic
friction results
in a different curve
while slowing down
Vapplied
motor starts
deadband to turn as
friction is
overcome
Figure 9.36 Motor deadband for a bidirectional motor
- deadband compensation as shown in figure below.
Vadjusted
Vstick
Vwanted
-Vstick
Figure 9.37 Deadband approximation for a bidirectional motor
- equations for these are shown in figure

page 298
Cadjusted
C max = 255
Cstick
C min = – 255 Cwanted
C max = 255
-Cstick if(Cwanted > 0)
C wanted
C adjusted = C stick + ⎛ ------------------⎞ ( C max – C stick )
C min = 255 ⎝ C max ⎠
if(Cwanted < 0)
C wanted
C adjusted = – C stick + ⎛⎝ ------------------⎞⎠ ( C min – C stick )
C min
if(Cwanted = 0)
C adjusted = 0
Figure 9.38 Deadband approximation for a bidirectional motor
- c-code below
#define c_stick_pos 100

#define c_stick_neg -110 /* make the value positive */
#define c_max 255
#define c_min -255 /* make the value positive */
int deadband(int c_wanted){ /* call this routine when updating */

int c_adjusted;
if(c_wanted == 0){ /* turn off the output */

c_adjusted = 0;
} else if(c_wanted > 0){ /* a positive output */
c_adjusted = c_stick_pos +
(c_max - c_stick_pos) * c_wanted / c_max;
if(c_adjusted > c_max) c_adjusted = c_max;
} else { /* the output must be negative */
c_adjusted = -c_stick_neg -
(c_min - c_stick_neg) * c_wanted / c_min;
if(c_adjusted < -c_min) c_adjusted = c_min;
}
return c_adjusted;
Figure 9.39 Deadband compensation subroutine

page 299
9.4.3 Saturation and Clipping
• Some devices have natural maximum values, such as voltage or pressure limita-
tions caused by a regulated supply.
9.4.4 Hysteresis and Slip
- windup resulting from springiness and friction
- backlash
-
page 300
- correct by tracking the previous motion direction and taking extra steps when
reversing direction
9.4.5 Delays and Lags
• Time delays are common in systems
• In the simplest form this is a period of time between when an event occurs and
when the effect occurs.
• If an output delay is larger than the control system step time it may be necessary
to predict future states and initiate outputs ahead of those.
• If an input delay is larger than the control system it might be necessary to slow
the control action, or build it into the control law.
page 301
9.5 Wheeled Vehicles
9.6 Examples
9.7 Summary
9.9 Problems

page 302
10. SENSORS
Topics:
• Sensor wiring; switches, TTL, sourcing, sinking
• Proximity detection; contact switches, photo-optics, capacitive, inductive and
ultrasonic
Objectives:
• Understand the different types of sensor outputs.
• Know the basic sensor types and understand application issues.
10.1 INTRODUCTION
Sensors allow a PLC to detect the state of a process. Logical sensors can only
detect a state that is either true or false. Examples of physical phenomena that are typically
detected are listed below.
• inductive proximity - is a metal object nearby?

• capacitive proximity - is a dielectric object nearby?
• optical presence - is an object breaking a light beam or reflecting light?
• mechanical contact - is an object touching a switch?
Recently, the cost of sensors has dropped and they have become commodity items,
typically between $50 and $100. They are available in many forms from multiple vendors
such as Allen-Bradley, Omron, Hyde Park and Turck. In applications sensors are inter-
changeable between PLC vendors, but each sensor will have specific interface require-
ments.
This chapter will begin by examining the various electrical wiring techniques for
sensors, and conclude with an examination of many popular sensor types.
10.2 SENSOR WIRING
When a sensor detects a logical change it must signal that change to the PLC. This
is typically done by switching a voltage or current on or off. In some cases the output of
the sensor is used to switch a load directly, completely eliminating the PLC. Typical out-
puts from sensors (and inputs to PLCs) are listed below in relative popularity.
page 303
Sinking/Sourcing - Switches current on or off.

Plain Switches - Switches voltage on or off.
Solid State Relays - These switch AC outputs.
TTL (Transistor Transistor Logic) - Uses 0V and 5V to indicate logic levels.
10.2.1 Switches
The simplest example of sensor outputs are switches and relays. A simple example
is shown in “An Example of Switched Sensors” on page 303.
PLC Input Card

24V DC
normally open push-button
00
24 Vdc + 01
Power
Supply 02
-
03
V+
sensor 04
relay
05
output
06
V- 07
COM
Figure 10.40 An Example of Switched Sensors
In the figure a NO contact switch is connected to input 01. A sensor with a relay
output is also shown. The sensor must be powered separately, therefore the V+ and V- ter-
minals are connected to the power supply. The output of the sensor will become active
when a phenomenon has been detected. This means the internal switch (probably a relay)
will be closed allowing current to flow and the positive voltage will be applied to input 06.
10.2.2 Transistor Transistor Logic (TTL)
Transistor-Transistor Logic (TTL) is based on two voltage levels, 0V for false and
page 304
5V for true. The voltages can actually be slightly larger than 0V, or lower than 5V and still
be detected correctly. This method is very susceptible to electrical noise on the factory
floor, and should only be used when necessary. TTL outputs are common on electronic
devices and computers, and will be necessary sometimes. When connecting to other
devices simple circuits can be used to improve the signal, such as the Schmitt trigger in “A
Schmitt Trigger” on page 304.
Vi
Vi Vo
Vo
Figure 10.41 A Schmitt Trigger
A Schmitt trigger will receive an input voltage between 0-5V and convert it to 0V
or 5V. If the voltage is in an ambiguous range, about 1.5-3.5V it will be ignored.
If a sensor has a TTL output the PLC must use a TTL input card to read the values.
If the TTL sensor is being used for other applications it should be noted that the maximum
current output is normally about 20mA.
10.2.3 Sinking/Sourcing
Sinking sensors allow current to flow into the sensor to the voltage common, while
sourcing sensors allow current to flow out of the sensor from a positive source. For both of
these methods the emphasis is on current flow, not voltage. By using current flow, instead
of voltage, many of the electrical noise problems are reduced.
When discussing sourcing and sinking we are referring to the output of the sensor
that is acting like a switch. In fact the output of the sensor is normally a transistor, that will
act like a switch (with some voltage loss). A PNP transistor is used for the sourcing out-
put, and an NPN transistor is used for the sinking input. When discussing these sensors the
term sourcing is often interchanged with PNP, and sinking with NPN. A simplified exam-
ple of a sinking output sensor is shown in “A Simplified NPN/Sinking Sensor” on
page 305. The sensor will have some part that deals with detection, this is on the left. The
sensor needs a voltage supply to operate, so a voltage supply is needed for the sensor. If
the sensor has detected some phenomenon then it will trigger the active line. The active
page 305
line is directly connected to an NPN transistor. (Note: for an NPN transistor the arrow
always points away from the center.) If the voltage to the transistor on the active line is 0V,
then the transistor will not allow current to flow into the sensor. If the voltage on the active
line becomes larger (say 12V) then the transistor will switch on and allow current to flow
into the sensor to the common.
V+
V+
physical
phenomenon sensor
output
current flows in
Sensor NPN when switched on
and
Detector
Active
Line
V- V-
Aside: The sensor responds to a physical phenomenon. If the sensor is inactive (nothing
detected) then the active line is low and the transistor is off, this is like an open
switch. That means the NPN output will have no current in/out. When the sensor is
active, it will make the active line high. This will turn on the transistor, and effec-
tively close the switch. This will allow current to flow into the sensor to ground
(hence sinking). The voltage on the NPN output will be pulled down to V-. Note: the
voltage will always be 1-2V higher because of the transistor. When the sensor is off,
the NPN output will float, and any digital circuitry needs to contain a pull-up resistor.
Figure 10.42 A Simplified NPN/Sinking Sensor
Sourcing sensors are the complement to sinking sensors. The sourcing sensors use
a PNP transistor, as shown in “A Simplified Sourcing/PNP Sensor” on page 306. (Note:
PNP transistors are always drawn with the arrow pointing to the center.) When the sensor
is inactive the active line stays at the V+ value, and the transistor stays switched off. When
the sensor becomes active the active line will be made 0V, and the transistor will allow
current to flow out of the sensor.
page 306
V+
V+
physical
phenomenon
Active
Line
current flows out
Sensor when switched on
and
Detector PNP
sensor
output
V- V-
Aside: The sensor responds to the physical phenomenon. If the sensor is inactive (nothing
detected) then the active line is high and the transistor is off, this is like an open switch.
That means the PNP output will have no current in/out. When the sensor is active, it
will make the active line high. This will turn on the transistor, and effectively close the
switch. This will allow current to flow from V+ through the sensor to the output (hence
sourcing). The voltage on the PNP output will be pulled up to V+. Note: the voltage
will always be 1-2V lower because of the transistor. When off, the PNP output will
float, if used with digital circuitry a pull-down resistor will be needed.
Figure 10.43 A Simplified Sourcing/PNP Sensor
Most NPN/PNP sensors are capable of handling currents up to a few amps, and
they can be used to switch loads directly. (Note: always check the documentation for rated
voltages and currents.) An example using sourcing and sinking sensors to control lights is
shown in “Direct Control Using NPN/PNP Sensors” on page 307. (Note: This example
could be for a motion detector that turns on lights in dark hallways.)
page 307
sensor V+ V+
power sinking
NPN supply
V- V- (common)
sensor V+ V+
power sourcing
PNP supply
V- V- (common)
Note: remember to check the current and voltage ratings for the sensors.
Note: When marking power terminals, there will sometimes be two sets of
markings. The more standard is V+ and COM, but sometimes you will see
devices and power supplies without a COM (common), in this case assume
the V- is the common.
Figure 10.44 Direct Control Using NPN/PNP Sensors
In the sinking system in “Direct Control Using NPN/PNP Sensors” on page 307
the light has V+ applied to one side. The other side is connected to the NPN output of the
sensor. When the sensor turns on the current will be able to flow through the light, into the
output to V- common. (Note: Yes, the current will be allowed to flow into the output for an
NPN sensor.) In the sourcing arrangement the light will turn on when the output becomes
active, allowing current to flow from the V+, thought the sensor, the light and to V- (the
common).
At this point it is worth stating the obvious - The output of a sensor will be an input
for a PLC. And, as we saw with the NPN sensor, this does not necessarily indicate where
current is flowing. There are two viable approaches for connecting sensors to PLCs. The
first is to always use PNP sensors and normal voltage input cards. The second option is to
purchase input cards specifically designed for sourcing or sinking sensors. An example of
a PLC card for sinking sensors is shown in “A PLC Input Card for Sinking Sensors” on
page 308.
page 308
PLC Input Card for Sinking Sensors
+V current flow
+V
+V power
Internal Card Electronics
NPN supply
NPN sensor -V
00 -V
01 Note: When a PLC input card does not have a

common but it has a V+ instead, it can be
used for NPN sensors. In this case the cur-
rent will flow out of the card (sourcing) and
PLC Data Bus External Electrical we must switch it to ground.
ASIDE: This card is shown with 2 optocouplers (one for each output). Inside these
devices the is an LED and a phototransistor, but no electrical connection. These
devices are used to isolate two different electrical systems. In this case they pro-
tect the 5V digital levels of the PLC computer from the various external voltages
and currents.
Figure 10.45 A PLC Input Card for Sinking Sensors
The dashed line in the figure represents the circuit, or current flow path when the
sensor is active. This path enters the PLC input card first at a V+ terminal (Note: there is
no common on this card) and flows through an optocoupler. This current will use light to
turn on a phototransistor to tell the computer in the PLC the input current is flowing. The
current then leaves the card at input 00 and passes through the sensor to V-. When the sen-
sor is inactive the current will not flow, and the light in the optocoupler will be off. The
optocoupler is used to help protect the PLC from electrical problems outside the PLC.
The input cards for PNP sensors are similar to the NPN cards, as shown in “PLC
Input Card for Sourcing Sensors” on page 309.
page 309
PLC Input Card for Sourcing Sensors
+V
00
PNP
PNP sensor current flow
Internal Card Electronics
-V
01
+V
power
supply
-V
com
Note: When we have a PLC input card that has
a common then we can use PNP sensors. In
this case the current will flow into the card
and then out the common to the power sup-
ply.
Figure 10.46 PLC Input Card for Sourcing Sensors
The current flow loop for an active sensor is shown with a dashed line. Following
the path of the current we see that it begins at the V+, passes through the sensor, in the
input 00, through the optocoupler, out the common and to the V-.
Wiring is a major concern with PLC applications, so to reduce the total number of
wires, two wire sensors have become popular. But, by integrating three wires worth of
function into two, we now couple the power supply and sensing functions into one. Two
wire sensors are shown in “Two Wire Sensors” on page 310.
page 310
+V
PLC Input Card two wire
for Sourcing Sensors 00 sensor
-V
01
+V
power
supply
-V
com
Note: These sensors require a certain leakage
current to power the electronics.
V+
PLC Input Card

for Sinking Sensors 00
+V
two wire
sensor
01
-V +V
power
supply
-V
Figure 10.47 Two Wire Sensors
A two wire sensor can be used as either a sourcing or sinking input. In both of
these arrangements the sensor will require a small amount of current to power the sensor,
but when active it will allow more current to flow. This requires input cards that will allow
a small amount of current to flow (called the leakage current), but also be able to detect
when the current has exceeded a given value.
page 311
When purchasing sensors and input cards there are some important considerations.
Most modern sensors have both PNP and NPN outputs, although if the choice is not avail-
able, PNP is the more popular choice. PLC cards can be confusing to buy, as each vendor
refers to the cards differently. To avoid problems, look to see if the card is specifically for
sinking or sourcing sensors, or look for a V+ (sinking) or COM (sourcing). Some vendors
also sell cards that will allow you to have NPN and PNP inputs mixed on the same card.
When drawing wiring diagrams the symbols in “Sourcing and Sinking Schematic
Symbols” on page 311 are used for sinking and sourcing proximity sensors. Notice that in
the sinking sensor when the switch closes (moves up to the terminal) it contacts the com-
mon. Closing the switch in the sourcing sensor connects the output to the V+. On the
physical sensor the wires are color coded as indicated in the diagram. The brown wire is
positive, the blue wire is negative and the output is white for sinking and black for sourc-
ing. The outside shape of the sensor may change for other devices, such as photo sensors
which are often shown as round circles.
V+ brown
NPN (sinking)
NPN white blue V-
brown black
V+ PNP
PNP (sourcing)
blue V-
Figure 10.48 Sourcing and Sinking Schematic Symbols
10.2.4 Solid State Relays
Solid state relays switch AC currents. These are relatively inexpensive and are
available for large loads. Some sensors and devices are available with these as outputs.
page 312
10.3 PRESENCE DETECTION
There are two basic ways to detect object presence; contact and proximity. Contact
implies that there is mechanical contact and a resulting force between the sensor and the
object. Proximity indicates that the object is near, but contact is not required. The follow-
ing sections examine different types of sensors for detecting object presence. These sen-
sors account for a majority of the sensors used in applications.
10.3.1 Contact Switches
Contact switches are available as normally open and normally closed. Their hous-
ings are reinforced so that they can take repeated mechanical forces. These often have roll-
ers and wear pads for the point of contact. Lightweight contact switches can be purchased
for less than a dollar, but heavy duty contact switches will have much higher costs. Exam-
ples of applications include motion limit switches and part present detectors.
10.3.2 Reed Switches
Reed switches are very similar to relays, except a permanent magnet is used
instead of a wire coil. When the magnet is far away the switch is open, but when the mag-
net is brought near the switch is closed as shown in “Reed Switch” on page 312. These are
very inexpensive an can be purchased for a few dollars. They are commonly used for
safety screens and doors because they are harder to trick than other sensors.
Note: With this device the magnet is moved towards the reed switch. As it gets
closer the switch will close. This allows proximity detection without contact, but
requires that a separate magnet be attached to a moving part.
Figure 10.49 Reed Switch

page 313
10.3.3 Optical (Photoelectric) Sensors
Light sensors have been used for almost a century - originally photocells were
used for applications such as reading audio tracks on motion pictures. But modern optical
sensors are much more sophisticated.
Optical sensors require both a light source (emitter) and detector. Emitters will
produce light beams in the visible and invisible spectrums using LEDs and laser diodes.
Detectors are typically built with photodiodes or phototransistors. The emitter and detec-
tor are positioned so that an object will block or reflect a beam when present. A basic opti-
cal sensor is shown in “A Basic Optical Sensor” on page 313.
square wave
smaller signal
+V +V
lens lens
amplifier
light demodulator
oscillator
detector and
switching circuits
LED
phototransistor
Figure 10.50 A Basic Optical Sensor
In the figure the light beam is generated on the left, focused through a lens. At the
detector side the beam is focused on the detector with a second lens. If the beam is broken
the detector will indicate an object is present. The oscillating light wave is used so that the
sensor can filter out normal light in the room. The light from the emitter is turned on and
off at a set frequency. When the detector receives the light it checks to make sure that it is
at the same frequency. If light is being received at the right frequency then the beam is not
broken. The frequency of oscillation is in the KHz range, and too fast to be noticed. A side
effect of the frequency method is that the sensors can be used with lower power at longer
distances.
An emitter can be set up to point directly at a detector, this is known as opposed

mode. When the beam is broken the part will be detected. This sensor needs two separate
page 314
components, as shown in “Opposed Mode Optical Sensor” on page 314. This arrangement
works well with opaque and reflective objects with the emitter and detector separated by
distances of up to hundreds of feet.
emitter object detector
Figure 10.51 Opposed Mode Optical Sensor
Having the emitter and detector separate increases maintenance problems, and
alignment is required. A preferred solution is to house the emitter and detector in one unit.
But, this requires that light be reflected back as shown in “Retroreflective Optical Sensor”
on page 314. These sensors are well suited to larger objects up to a few feet away.
reflector
emitter
detector
reflector
emitter
object
detector
Note: the reflector is constructed with polarizing screens oriented at 90 deg. angles. If
the light is reflected back directly the light does not pass through the screen in front
of the detector. The reflector is designed to rotate the phase of the light by 90 deg.,
so it will now pass through the screen in front of the detector.
Figure 10.52 Retroreflective Optical Sensor

page 315
In the figure, the emitter sends out a beam of light. If the light is returned from the
reflector most of the light beam is returned to the detector. When an object interrupts the
beam between the emitter and the reflector the beam is no longer reflected back to the
detector, and the sensor becomes active. A potential problem with this sensor is that
reflective objects could return a good beam. This problem is overcome by polarizing the
light at the emitter (with a filter), and then using a polarized filter at the detector. The
reflector uses small cubic reflectors and when the light is reflected the polarity is rotated
by 90 degrees. If the light is reflected off the object the light will not be rotated by 90
degrees. So the polarizing filters on the emitter and detector are rotated by 90 degrees, as
shown in “Polarized Light in Retroreflective Sensors” on page 315. The reflector is very
similar to reflectors used on bicycles.
emitter
object reflector
have filters for detector light reflected with
emitted light same polarity
rotated by 90 deg.
emitter light rotated by 90 deg.

reflector
detector
Figure 10.53 Polarized Light in Retroreflective Sensors
For retroreflectors the reflectors are quite easy to align, but this method still
requires two mounted components. A diffuse sensors is a single unit that does not use a
reflector, but uses focused light as shown in “Diffuse Optical Sensor” on page 316.
page 316
emitter
object
detector
Note: with diffuse reflection the light is scattered. This reduces the quantity of light
returned. As a result the light needs to be amplified using lenses.
Figure 10.54 Diffuse Optical Sensor
Diffuse sensors use light focused over a given range, and a sensitivity adjustment
is used to select a distance. These sensors are the easiest to set up, but they require well
controlled conditions. For example if it is to pick up light and dark colored objects prob-
lems would result.
When using opposed mode sensors the emitter and detector must be aligned so that
the emitter beam and detector window overlap, as shown in “Beam Divergence and Align-
ment” on page 317. Emitter beams normally have a cone shape with a small angle of
divergence (a few degrees of less). Detectors also have a cone shaped volume of detection.
Therefore when aligning opposed mode sensor care is required not just to point the emitter
at the detector, but also the detector at the emitter. Another factor that must be considered
with this and other sensors is that the light intensity decreases over distance, so the sensors
will have a limit to separation distance.
page 317
effective beam
effective
detector detector
angle
emitter
effective alignment
beam angle is required
1
intensity ∝ ----2
r
Figure 10.55 Beam Divergence and Alignment
If an object is smaller than the width of the light beam it will not be able to block
the beam entirely when it is in front as shown in “The Relationship Between Beam Width
and Object Size” on page 317. This will create difficulties in detection, or possibly stop
detection altogether. Solutions to this problem are to use narrower beams, or wider
objects. Fiber optic cables may be used with an opposed mode optical sensor to solve this
problem, however the maximum effective distance is reduced to a couple feet.
emitter detector
object
the smaller beam width is good (but harder to align
Figure 10.56 The Relationship Between Beam Width and Object Size
Separated sensors can detect reflective parts using reflection as shown in “Detect-
ing Reflecting Parts” on page 318. The emitter and detector are positioned so that when a
reflective surface is in position the light is returned to the detector. When the surface is not
present the light does not return.
page 318
em
itt
er
reflective surface
r
to
ec
t
de
Figure 10.57 Detecting Reflecting Parts
Other types of optical sensors can also focus on a single point using beams that
converge instead of diverge. The emitter beam is focused at a distance so that the light
intensity is greatest at the focal distance. The detector can look at the point from another
angle so that the two centerlines of the emitter and detector intersect at the point of inter-
est. If an object is present before or after the focal point the detector will not see the
reflected light. This technique can also be used to detect multiple points and ranges, as
shown in “Multiple Point Detection Using Optics” on page 319 where the net angle of
refraction by the lens determines which detector is used. This type of approach, with many
more detectors, is used for range sensing systems.
focal point
emitter
detector
Figure 10.58 Point Detection Using Focused Optics

page 319
distance 1 distance 2
lens
emitter
lens
detector 2
detector 1
Figure 10.59 Multiple Point Detection Using Optics
Some applications do not permit full sized photooptic sensors to be used. Fiber
optics can be used to separate the emitters and detectors from the application. Some ven-
dors also sell photosensors that have the phototransistors and LEDs separated from the
electronics.
Light curtains are an array of beams, set up as shown in “A Light Curtain” on

page 319. If any of the beams are broken it indicates that somebody has entered a workcell
and the machine needs to be shut down. This is an inexpensive replacement for some
mechanical cages and barriers.
Figure 10.60 A Light Curtain
The optical reflectivity of objects varies from material to material as shown in

page 320
“Table of Reflectivity Values for Different Materials [Banner Handbook of Photoelectric

Sensing]” on page 320. These values show the percentage of incident light on a surface
that is reflected. These values can be used for relative comparisons of materials and esti-
mating changes in sensitivity settings for sensors.
Reflectivity
nonshiny materials Kodak white test card 90%

white paper 80%
kraft paper, cardboard 70%
lumber (pine, dry, clean) 75%
rough wood pallet 20%
beer foam 70%
opaque black nylon 14%
black neoprene 4%
black rubber tire wall 1.5%
shiny/transparent materials clear plastic bottle 40%

translucent brown plastic bottle 60%
opaque white plastic 87%
unfinished aluminum 140%
straightened aluminum 105%
unfinished black anodized aluminum 115%
stainless steel microfinished 400%
stainless steel brushed 120%
Note: For shiny and transparent materials the reflectivity can be higher
than 100% because of the return of ambient light.
Figure 10.61 Table of Reflectivity Values for Different Materials [Banner Handbook of
Photoelectric Sensing]
10.3.4 Capacitive Sensors
Capacitive sensors are able to detect most materials at distances up to a few centi-
meters. Recall the basic relationship for capacitance.
page 321
Ak
C = ------ where, C = capacitance (Farads)
d
k = dielectric constant
A = area of plates
d = distance between plates (electrodes)
In the sensor the area of the plates and distance between them is fixed. But, the
dielectric constant of the space around them will vary as different materials are brought
near the sensor. An illustration of a capacitive sensor is shown in “A Capacitive Sensor”
on page 321. an oscillating field is used to determine the capacitance of the plates. When
this changes beyond a selected sensitivity the sensor output is activated.
+V
electric
field
electrode oscillator load

object switching
electrode detector
NOTE: For this sensor the proximity of any material near the electrodes will
increase the capacitance. This will vary the magnitude of the oscillating signal
and the detector will decide when this is great enough to determine proximity.
Figure 10.62 A Capacitive Sensor
These sensors work well for insulators (such as plastics) that tend to have high
dielectric coefficients, thus increasing the capacitance. But, they also work well for metals
because the conductive materials in the target appear as larger electrodes, thus increasing
the capacitance as shown in “Dielectrics and Metals Increase the Capacitance” on
page 322. In total the capacitance changes are normally in the order of pF.
page 322
electrode metal electrode dielectric
electrode electrode
Figure 10.63 Dielectrics and Metals Increase the Capacitance
The sensors are normally made with rings (not plates) in the configuration shown
in “Electrode Arrangement for Capacitive Sensors” on page 322. In the figure the two
inner metal rings are the capacitor electrodes, but a third outer ring is added to compensate
for variations. Without the compensator ring the sensor would be very sensitive to dirt, oil
and other contaminants that might stick to the sensor.
electrode
compensating Note: the compensating electrode is used for
electrode negative feedback to make the sensor
more resistant to variations, such as con-
taminations on the face of the sensor.
Figure 10.64 Electrode Arrangement for Capacitive Sensors
A table of dielectric properties is given in “Dielectric Constants of Various Materi-

als [Turck Proximity Sensors Guide]” on page 324. This table can be used for estimating
the relative size and sensitivity of sensors. Also, consider a case where a pipe would carry
different fluids. If their dielectric constants are not very close, a second sensor may be
desired for the second fluid.
page 323
Material Constant Material Constant
ABS resin pellet 1.5-2.5 hexane 1.9

acetone 19.5 hydrogen cyanide 95.4
acetyl bromide 16.5 hydrogen peroxide 84.2
acrylic resin 2.7-4.5 isobutylamine 4.5
air 1.0 lime, shell 1.2
alcohol, industrial 16-31 marble 8.0-8.5
alcohol, isopropyl 18.3 melamine resin 4.7-10.2
ammonia 15-25 methane liquid 1.7
aniline 5.5-7.8 methanol 33.6
aqueous solutions 50-80 mica, white 4.5-9.6
ash (fly) 1.7 milk, powdered 3.5-4
bakelite 3.6 nitrobenzene 36
barley powder 3.0-4.0 neoprene 6-9
benzene 2.3 nylon 4-5
benzyl acetate 5 oil, for transformer 2.2-2.4
butane 1.4 oil, paraffin 2.2-4.8
cable sealing compound 2.5 oil, peanut 3.0
calcium carbonate 9.1 oil, petroleum 2.1
carbon tetrachloride 2.2 oil, soybean 2.9-3.5
celluloid 3.0 oil, turpentine 2.2
cellulose 3.2-7.5 paint 5-8
cement 1.5-2.1 paraffin 1.9-2.5
cement powder 5-10 paper 1.6-2.6
cereal 3-5 paper, hard 4.5
charcoal 1.2-1.8 paper, oil saturated 4.0
chlorine, liquid 2.0 perspex 3.2-3.5
coke 1.1-2.2 petroleum 2.0-2.2
corn 5-10 phenol 9.9-15
ebonite 2.7-2.9 phenol resin 4.9
epoxy resin 2.5-6 polyacetal (Delrin TM) 3.6
ethanol 24 polyamide (nylon) 2.5
ethyl bromide 4.9 polycarbonate 2.9
ethylene glycol 38.7 polyester resin 2.8-8.1
flour 2.5-3.0 polyethylene 2.3
FreonTM R22,R502 liq. 6.1 polypropylene 2.0-2.3
gasoline 2.2 polystyrene 3.0
glass 3.1-10 polyvinyl chloride resin 2.8-3.1
glass, raw material 2.0-2.5 porcelain 4.4-7
glycerine 47 press board 2-5
page 324
Material Constant Material Constant
quartz glass 3.7 Teflon (TM), PCTFE 2.3-2.8

rubber 2.5-35 Teflon (TM), PTFE 2.0
salt 6.0 toluene 2.3
sand 3-5 trichloroethylene 3.4
shellac 2.0-3.8 urea resin 6.2-9.5
silicon dioxide 4.5 urethane 3.2
silicone rubber 3.2-9.8 vaseline 2.2-2.9
silicone varnish 2.8-3.3 water 48-88
styrene resin 2.3-3.4 wax 2.4-6.5
sugar 3.0 wood, dry 2-7
sugar, granulated 1.5-2.2 wood, pressed board 2.0-2.6
sulfur 3.4 wood, wet 10-30
sulfuric acid 84 xylene 2.4
Figure 10.65 Dielectric Constants of Various Materials [Turck Proximity Sensors Guide]
The range and accuracy of these sensors are determined mainly by their size.
Larger sensors can have diameters of a few centimeters. Smaller ones can be less than a
centimeter across, and have smaller ranges, but more accuracy.
10.3.5 Inductive Sensors
Inductive sensors use currents induced by magnetic fields to detect nearby metal
objects. The inductive sensor uses a coil (an inductor) to generate a high frequency mag-
netic field as shown in “Inductive Proximity Sensor” on page 325. If there is a metal
object near the changing magnetic field, current will flow in the object. This resulting cur-
rent flow sets up a new magnetic field that opposes the original magnetic field. The net
effect is that it changes the inductance of the coil in the inductive sensor. By measuring the
inductance the sensor can determine when a metal have been brought nearby.
These sensors will detect any metals, when detecting multiple types of metal mul-
tiple sensors are often used.
page 325
inductive coil
metal
+V
oscillator output
and level switching
detector
Note: these work by setting up a high frequency field. If a target nears the field will
induce eddy currents. These currents consume power because of resistance, so
energy is in the field is lost, and the signal amplitude decreases. The detector exam-
ines filed magnitude to determine when it has decreased enough to switch.
Figure 10.66 Inductive Proximity Sensor
The sensors can detect objects a few centimeters away from the end. But, the
direction to the object can be arbitrary as shown in “Shielded and Unshielded Sensors” on
page 326. The magnetic field of the unshielded sensor covers a larger volume around the
head of the coil. By adding a shield (a metal jacket around the sides of the coil) the mag-
netic field becomes smaller, but also more directed. Shields will often be available for
inductive sensors to improve their directionality and accuracy.
page 326
unshielded
shielded
Figure 10.67 Shielded and Unshielded Sensors
10.3.6 Ultrasonic
An ultrasonic sensor emits a sound above the normal hearing threshold of 16KHz.
The time that is required for the sound to travel to the target and reflect back is propor-
tional to the distance to the target. The two common types of sensors are;
electrostatic - uses capacitive effects. It has longer ranges and wider bandwidth,
but is more sensitive to factors such as humidity.
piezoelectric - based on charge displacement during strain in crystal lattices. These
are rugged and inexpensive.
These sensors can be very effective for applications such as fluid levels in tanks
and crude distance measurement.
10.3.7 Hall Effect
Hall effect switches are basically transistors that can be switched by magnetic
fields. Their applications are very similar to reed switches, but because they are solid state
they tend to be more rugged and resist vibration. Automated machines often use these to
do initial calibration and detect end stops.
10.3.8 Fluid Flow
We can also build more complex sensors out of simpler sensors. The example in
page 327
“Flow Rate Detection With an Inductive Proximity Switch” on page 327 shows a metal
float in a tapered channel. As the fluid flow rate increases the pressure forces the float
upwards. The tapered shape of the float ensures an equilibrium position proportional to
flowrate. An inductive proximity sensor can be positioned so that it will detect when the
float has reached a certain height, and the system has reached a given flowrate.
fluid flow out
metal inductive proximity sensor

float
fluid flow in
As the fluid flow increases the float is forced higher. A proximity sensor
can be used to detect when the float reaches a certain height.
Figure 10.68 Flow Rate Detection With an Inductive Proximity Switch
10.4 SUMMARY
• Sourcing sensors allow current to flow out from the V+ supply.
• Sinking sensors allow current to flow in to the V- supply.
• Photo-optical sensors can use reflected beams (retroreflective), an emitter and
detector (opposed mode) and reflected light (diffuse) to detect a part.
• Capacitive sensors can detect metals and other materials.
• Inductive sensors can detect metals.
• Hall effect and reed switches can detect magnets.
• Ultrasonic sensors use sound waves to detect parts up to meters away.
1. Given a clear plastic bottle, list 3 different types of sensors that could be used to detect it.
2. List 3 significant trade-offs between inductive, capacitive and photooptic sensors.
3. Why is a sinking output on a sensor not like a normal switch?
4. a) Sketch the connections needed for the PLC inputs and outputs below. The outputs include a
page 328
24Vdc light and a 120Vac light. The inputs are from 2 NO push buttons, and also from an opti-
cal sensor that has both PNP and NPN outputs.
24Vdc 24Vdc
outputs inputs
+
V+ 24VDC 0
-
0 1
1 2
2 3
3 4
4 OR 5
5 6
6 7
7 com
b) State why you used either the NPN or PNP output on the sensor.
5. Select a sensor to pick up a transparent plastic bottle from a manufacturer. Copy or print the
specifications, and then draw a wiring diagram that shows how it will be wired to an appropri-
ate PLC input card.
6. Sketch the wiring to connect a power supply and PNP sensor to the PLC input card shown
page 329
below.
00
01
02
+ 03
24VDC 04
-
05
06
07
COM
7. Sketch the wiring for inputs that include the following items.
3 normally open push buttons
1 thermal relay
3 sinking sensors
1 sourcing sensor
8. A PLC has eight 10-60Vdc inputs, and four relay outputs. It is to be connected to the following
devices. Draw the required wiring.
• Two inductive proximity sensors with sourcing and sinking outputs.
• A NO run button and NC stop button.
• A 120Vac light.
• A 24Vdc solenoid.
page 330
I:0/0 I:0/0
I:0/1
I:0/2 I:0/1
I:0/3
I:0/4 I:0/2
I:0/5
I:0/6 I:0/3
I:0/7
com
9. Draw a ladder wiring diagram (as done in the lab) for a system that has two push-buttons and a
sourcing/sinking proximity sensors for 10-60Vdc inputs and two 120Vac output lights. Don’t
page 331
forget to include hard-wired start and stop buttons with an MCR.
L1 N
L1 PLC N
I:0/0 Vac
O:0/0
I:0/1
O:0/1
I:0/2
O:0/2
I:0/3
com O:0/3
10.6 PRACTICE PROBLEM SOLUTIONS
1. capacitive proximity, contact switch, photo-optic retroreflective/diffuse, ultrasonic
2. materials that can be sensed, environmental factors such as dirt, distance to object
3. the sinking output will pass only DC in a single direction, whereas a switch can pass AC and
DC.
page 332
4.
24Vdc 24Vdc
outputs inputs
+
V+ 24VDC 0
-
0 1
1 2
2 3
3 hot 4
120Vac
4 neut. 5
5 6
6 7
7 com
b) the PNP output was selected. because it will supply current, while the input card
requires it. The dashed line indicates the current flow through the sensor and input card.
page 333
5.
A transparent bottle can be picked up with a capacitive, ultrasonic, diffuse optical sen-
sor. A particular model can be selected at a manufacturers web site (eg., www.ban-
ner.com, www.hydepark.com, www.ab.com, etc.) The figure below shows the
sensor connected to a sourcing PLC input card - therefore the sensor must be sink-
ing, NPN.
+ V+
24VDC
- 0
7
page 334
6.
00
01
02
+ 03
24VDC 04
-
05
06
07
COM
page 335
7.
00
01
02
03 +
power
24Vdc supply
04
-
05
06
07
COM
+
V+ power
24Vdc supply
00 -
01
02
03
page 336
8.
I:0/0 O:0/0 +
+ power
power supply
supply I:0/1 -
- 120Vac
I:0/2 O:0/1 power
supply
neut.
V+ I:0/3
PNP
V- I:0/4 O:0/2
I:0/5
V+
PNP I:0/6 O:0/3
V-
I:0/7
com
page 337
9.
L1 N
stop start C1
MCR
C1
L1 PLC N
PB1
I:0/0 Vac
PB2 L1
O:0/0
I:0/1
L2
PR1 O:0/1
I:0/2
O:0/2
I:0/3
C1
com O:0/3
V+ V-
L1 N
10.7 ASSIGNMENT PROBLEMS
1. What type of sensor should be used if it is to detect small cosmetic case mirrors as they pass
along a belt. Explain your choice.
2. Summarize the tradeoffs between capacitive, inductive and optical sensors in a table.
3. a) Show the wiring for the following sensor, and circle the output that you are using, NPN or
page 338
PNP. Redraw the sensor using the correct symbol for the sourcing or sinking sensor chosen.
24Vdc
inputs
+
24VDC V+
-
0
4. A PLC has three NPN and two PNP sensors as inputs, and outputs to control a 24Vdc solenoid
and a small 115Vac motor. Develop the required wiring for the inputs and outputs.
page 339
11. ACTUATORS
Topics:
• Solenoids, valves and cylinders
• Hydraulics and pneumatics
• Other actuators
Objectives:
• Be aware of various actuators available.
11.1 INTRODUCTION
Actuators Drive motions in mechanical systems. Most often this is by converting

electrical energy into some form of mechanical motion.
11.2 SOLENOIDS
Solenoids are the most common actuator components. The basic principle of oper-
ation is there is a moving ferrous core (a piston) that will move inside wire coil as shown
in Figure 11.69. Normally the piston is held outside the coil by a spring. When a voltage is
applied to the coil and current flows, the coil builds up a magnetic field that attracts the
piston and pulls it into the center of the coil. The piston can be used to supply a linear
force. Well known applications of these include pneumatic values and car door openers.
current off current on
Figure 11.69 A Solenoid

page 340
As mentioned before, inductive devices can create voltage spikes and may need
snubbers, although most industrial applications have low enough voltage and current rat-
ings they can be connected directly to the PLC outputs. Most industrial solenoids will be
powered by 24Vdc and draw a few hundred mA.
11.3 VALVES
The flow of fluids and air can be controlled with solenoid controlled valves. An
example of a solenoid controlled valve is shown in Figure 11.70. The solenoid is mounted
on the side. When actuated it will drive the central spool left. The top of the valve body
has two ports that will be connected to a device such as a hydraulic cylinder. The bottom
of the valve body has a single pressure line in the center with two exhausts to the side. In
the top drawing the power flows in through the center to the right hand cylinder port. The
left hand cylinder port is allowed to exit through an exhaust port. In the bottom drawing
the solenoid is in a new position and the pressure is now applied to the left hand port on
the top, and the right hand port can exhaust. The symbols to the left of the figure show the
schematic equivalent of the actual valve positions. Valves are also available that allow the
valves to be blocked when unused.
solenoid
exhaust out power in

The solenoid has two positions and when
actuated will change the direction that
fluid flows to the device. The symbols
shown here are commonly used to
represent this type of valve.
solenoid
power in exhaust out
Figure 11.70 A Solenoid Controlled 5 Ported, 4 Way 2 Position Valve

page 341
Valve types are listed below. In the standard terminology, the ’n-way’ designates
the number of connections for inlets and outlets. In some cases there are redundant ports
for exhausts. The normally open/closed designation indicates the valve condition when
power is off. All of the valves listed are two position valve, but three position valves are
also available.
2-way normally closed - these have one inlet, and one outlet. When unenergized,
the valve is closed. When energized, the valve will open, allowing flow. These
are used to permit flows.
2-way normally open - these have one inlet, and one outlet. When unenergized, the
valve is open, allowing flow. When energized, the valve will close. These are
used to stop flows. When system power is off, flow will be allowed.
3-way normally closed - these have inlet, outlet, and exhaust ports. When unener-
gized, the outlet port is connected to the exhaust port. When energized, the inlet
is connected to the outlet port. These are used for single acting cylinders.
3-way normally open - these have inlet, outlet and exhaust ports. When unener-
gized, the inlet is connected to the outlet. Energizing the valve connects the out-
let to the exhaust. These are used for single acting cylinders
3-way universal - these have three ports. One of the ports acts as an inlet or outlet,
and is connected to one of the other two, when energized/unenergized. These
can be used to divert flows, or select alternating sources.
4-way - These valves have four ports, two inlets and two outlets. Energizing the
valve causes connection between the inlets and outlets to be reversed. These are
used for double acting cylinders.
Some of the ISO symbols for valves are shown in Figure 11.71. When using the
symbols in drawings the connections are shown for the unenergized state. The arrows
show the flow paths in different positions. The small triangles indicate an exhaust port.
page 342
normally closed normally open

Two way, two position
normally closed normally open
Three way, two position
Four way, two position
Figure 11.71 ISO Valve Symbols
When selecting valves there are a number of details that should be considered, as
listed below.
pipe size - inlets and outlets are typically threaded to accept NPT (national pipe
thread).
flow rate - the maximum flow rate is often provided to hydraulic valves.
operating pressure - a maximum operating pressure will be indicated. Some valves
will also require a minimum pressure to operate.
electrical - the solenoid coil will have a fixed supply voltage (AC or DC) and cur-
rent.
response time - this is the time for the valve to fully open/close. Typical times for
valves range from 5ms to 150ms.
enclosure - the housing for the valve will be rated as,
type 1 or 2 - for indoor use, requires protection against splashes
type 3 - for outdoor use, will resists some dirt and weathering
type 3R or 3S or 4 - water and dirt tight
type 4X - water and dirt tight, corrosion resistant
11.4 CYLINDERS
A cylinder uses pressurized fluid or air to create a linear force/motion as shown in

Figure 11.72. In the figure a fluid is pumped into one side of the cylinder under pressure,
page 343
causing that side of the cylinder to expand, and advancing the piston. The fluid on the
other side of the piston must be allowed to escape freely - if the incompressible fluid was
trapped the cylinder could not advance. The force the cylinder can exert is proportional to
the cross sectional area of the cylinder.
advancing
Fluid pumped in Fluid flows out

at pressure P at low pressure
retracting
Fluid flows out Fluid pumped in

at low pressure at pressure P
For Force:
F
P = --- F = PA
A
where,
P = the pressure of the hydraulic fluid
A = the area of the piston
F = the force available from the piston rod
Figure 11.72 A Cross Section of a Hydraulic Cylinder
Single acting cylinders apply force when extending and typically use a spring to
retract the cylinder. Double acting cylinders apply force in both direction.
page 344
single acting spring return cylinder
double acting cylinder
Figure 11.73 Schematic Symbols for Cylinders
Magnetic cylinders are often used that have a magnet on the piston head. When it
moves to the limits of motion, reed switches will detect it.
11.5 HYDRAULICS
Hydraulics use incompressible fluids to supply very large forces at slower speeds
and limited ranges of motion. If the fluid flow rate is kept low enough, many of the effects
predicted by Bernoulli’s equation can be avoided. The system uses hydraulic fluid (nor-
mally an oil) pressurized by a pump and passed through hoses and valves to drive cylin-
ders. At the heart of the system is a pump that will give pressures up to hundreds or
thousands of psi. These are delivered to a cylinder that converts it to a linear force and dis-
placement.
page 345
Hydraulic systems normally contain the following components;
1. Hydraulic Fluid
2. An Oil Reservoir
3. A Pump to Move Oil, and Apply Pressure
4. Pressure Lines
5. Control Valves - to regulate fluid flow
6. Piston and Cylinder - to actuate external mechanisms
The hydraulic fluid is often a noncorrosive oil chosen so that it lubricates the com-
ponents. This is normally stored in a reservoir as shown in Figure 11.74. Fluid is drawn
from the reservoir to a pump where it is pressurized. This is normally a geared pump so
that it may deliver fluid at a high pressure at a constant flow rate. A flow regulator is nor-
mally placed at the high pressure outlet from the pump. If fluid is not flowing in other
parts of the system this will allow fluid to recirculate back to the reservoir to reduce wear
on the pump. The high pressure fluid is delivered to solenoid controlled vales that can
switch fluid flow on or off. From the vales fluid will be delivered to the hydraulics at high
pressure, or exhausted back to the reservoir.
air filter
fluid return outlet tube
access hatch
for cleaning
refill oil filter
level
gauge
baffle - isolates the

outlet fluid from
turbulence in the inlet
page 346
Figure 11.74 A Hydraulic Fluid Reservoir
Hydraulic systems can be very effective for high power applications, but the use of
fluids, and high pressures can make this method awkward, messy, and noisy for other
applications.
11.6 PNEUMATICS
Pneumatic systems are very common, and have much in common with hydraulic
systems with a few key differences. The reservoir is eliminated as there is no need to col-
lect and store the air between uses in the system. Also because air is a gas it is compress-
ible and regulators are not needed to recirculate flow. But, the compressibility also means
that the systems are not as stiff or strong. Pneumatic systems respond very quickly, and are
commonly used for low force applications in many locations on the factory floor.
Some basic characteristics of pneumatic systems are,
- stroke from a few millimeters to meters in length (longer strokes have more
springiness
- the actuators will give a bit - they are springy
- pressures are typically up to 85psi above normal atmosphere
- the weight of cylinders can be quite low
- additional equipment is required for a pressurized air supply- linear and rotatory
actuators are available.
- dampers can be used to cushion impact at ends of cylinder travel.
When designing pneumatic systems care must be taken to verify the operating
location. In particular the elevation above sea level will result in a dramatically different
air pressure. For example, at sea level the air pressure is about 14.7 psi, but at a height of
7,800 ft (Mexico City) the air pressure is 11.1 psi. Other operating environments, such as
in submersibles, the air pressure might be higher than at sea level.
Some symbols for pneumatic systems are shown in Figure 11.75. The flow control
valve is used to restrict the flow, typically to slow motions. The shuttle valve allows flow
in one direction, but blocks it in the other. The receiver tank allows pressurized air to be
accumulated. The dryer and filter help remove dust and moisture from the air, prolonging
the life of the valves and cylinders.
page 347
Flow control valve
Shuttle valve
Receiver tank
Dryer
Filter
Pump
Pressure regulator
Figure 11.75 Pneumatics Components
11.7 MOTORS
Motors are common actuators, but for logical control applications their properties
are not that important. Typically logical control of motors consists of switching low cur-
rent motors directly with a PLC, or for more powerful motors using a relay or motor
starter. Motors will be discussed in greater detail in the chapter on continuous actuators.
page 348
11.8 COMPUTERS
- More complex devices contain computers and digital logic.
- to interface to these we use TTL logic, 0V=false, 5V=true
- TTL outputs cards supply power and don’t need a separeate power supply
- sensitive to electrical noise
11.9 OTHERS
There are many other types of actuators including those on the brief list below.
Heaters - The are often controlled with a relay and turned on and off to maintain a
temperature within a range.
Lights - Lights are used on almost all machines to indicate the machine state and
provide feedback to the operator. most lights are low current and are connected
directly to the PLC.
Sirens/Horns - Sirens or horns can be useful for unattended or dangerous machines
to make conditions well known. These can often be connected directly to the
PLC.
11.10 SUMMARY
• Solenoids can be used to convert an electric current to a limited linear motion.

• Hydraulics and pneumatics use cylinders to convert fluid and gas flows to limited
linear motions.
• Solenoid valves can be used to redirect fluid and gas flows.
• Pneumatics provides smaller forces at higher speeds, but is not stiff. Hydraulics
provides large forces and is rigid, but at lower speeds.
• Many other types of actuators can be used.
page 349
1. A piston is to be designed to exert an actuation force of 120 lbs on its extension stroke. The
inside diameter of the cylinder is 2.0” and the ram diameter is 0.375”. What shop air pressure
will be required to provide this actuation force? Use a safety factor of 1.3.
2. Draw a simple hydraulic system that will advance and retract a cylinder using PLC outputs.
Sketches should include details from the PLC output card to the hydraulic cylinder.
3. Develop an electrical ladder diagram and pneumatic diagram for a PLC controlled system. The
system includes the components listed below. The system should include all required safety
and wiring considerations.
a 3 phase 50 HP motor
1 NPN sensor
1 NO push button
1 NC limit switch
1 indicator light
a doubly acting pneumatic cylinder
1. A = pi*r^2 = 3.14159in^2, P=FS*(F/A)=1.3(120/3.14159)=49.7psi. Note, if the cylinder were

retracting we would need to subtract the rod area from the piston area. Note: this air pressure is
much higher than normally found in a shop, so it would not be practical, and a redesign would
be needed.
2.
cylinder
V +
24Vdc
00 S1
-
01 S1
02
03 pressure
regulator
release
sump pump
page 350
3.
ADD SOLUTION
1. Draw a schematic symbol for a solenoid controlled pneumatic valve and explain how the valve
operates.
3. A PLC based system has 3 proximity sensors, a start button, and an E-stop as inputs. The sys-
tem controls a pneumatic system with a solenoid controlled valve. It also controls a robot with
a TTL output. Develop a complete wiring diagram including all safety elelemnts.
4. A system contains a pneumatic cylinder with two inductive proximity sensors that will detect
when the cylinder is fully advanced or retracted. The cylinder is controlled by a solenoid con-
trolled valve. Draw electrical and pneumatic schematics for a system.
5. Draw an electrical ladder wiring diagram for a PLC controlled system that contains 2 PNP sen-
sors, a NO pushbutton, a NC limit switch, a contactor controlled AC motor and an indicator
light. Include all safety circuitry.
2. We are to connect a PLC to detect boxes moving down an assembly line and divert larger
boxes. The line is 12 inches wide and slanted so the boxes fall to one side as they travel by.
One sensor will be mounted on the lower side of the conveyor to detect when a box is present.
A second sensor will be mounted on the upper side of the conveyor to determine when a larger
box is present. If the box is present, an output to a pneumatic solenoid will be actuated to divert
the box. Your job is to select a specific PLC, sensors, and solenoid valve. Details (the absolute
minimum being model numbers) are expected with a ladder wiring diagram. (Note: take
advantage of manufacturers web sites.)
page 351
12. PROJECT MANAGEMENT
Topics:
•
Objectives:
•
12.1 Introduction
12.2 An Academic View of Design Revisited
• Before we begin,
1. Design is the satisfaction of need.
2. Design is never an exact process, and each design will differ.
3. Try to do it right the first time.
4. Most design methods try to cut the problems into smaller problems.
• One of the common problems encountered by designers is the overwhelming number of details.
Most design methods focus on dealing with detail overload. The challenges a designer faces
are,
- multiple technologies require arbitrary decisions
- a design will have many components that interact, and the effects of changes can be
widespread
page 352
- economics
- other competitive designs
• Design is typically referred to as having certain stages,

- Conceptual
- Synthesis
- Detailed
- Analysis
• The typical stages of design include,
Need
Specifications
feasibility
conceptual
detailed
analysis/testing
review
• Design factors commonly considered are,

- functional requirements
- physical constraints
- specifications
- aesthetics
- usability/user interface
page 353
- cost
- manufacturing
- evaluation/testing/analysis
- maintenance
- retirement
• A more detailed design sequence is shown below,
START: select a
needed design
determine
e.g. a support cable functional elements major changes e.g.
replace cable with beam
pick members
e.g. maximum tension geometry, etc.
select values
and properties small changes
e.g 1/2” steel cable
e.g. diameter
e.g. find stress and compare analyze for

to ultimate strength suitability
e.g. use factor

of safety decide on
deficiencies
no deficiencies
DONE: Approve
design
• Conceptual - The selection of general components to go into a system. At this point the exact
form of final point is inexact. At this point we might be deciding to put wheels on a car.
• Synthesis - The selection of components or devices for the system. At this point the general
geometry, and components for the system are selected.
• Detailed - Exact dimensions are finally assigned to parts in the system.
• Analysis - The review of design details to determine suitability. This is done after the exact
design is complete. It may lead to redesign.
page 354
• The activity of design creates a dilemma for management in that it adds to the overall cost of a
product, but it can also reduce the final cost of a product.
• We can draw graphs that illustrate the total amount committed in the final cost from the first
concept, to the final product. Most of the final cost is determined by decisions early in the
design phase.
product costs
product starts shipping
costs committed
money spent
time
design only preparation for manufacturing
• By planning for design, and then committing fully, we can obtain a better product.
design quality design process

changes (do it right the first time)
rush to design
(just do it and fix it later)
project time
start production
release
• Over-the-wall is an engineering approach that has developed because of management pressures.

It helps split designs into clean stages and responsibilities. This approach does simplify man-
agement up front, but requires fire fighting as problems arise.
• A product life cycle has four phases,

1. Identify needs, plan and design
page 355
2. Manufacture and deliver

3. Use, maintain, repair
4. Retire
12.3 Project Management

The management details for the project are outlined below. These may evolve as
the semester progresses.
12.3.1 Timeline - Tentative

Sept 3 - Teams assigned
Sept 19 - Preliminary design concept submitted with specifications
materials list estimate
budget estimate
Gantt charts
Sept 21 - Design concept approved
Oct 17 - Proposal submitted
detailed drawings (CAD)
materials list
budget
calculations/simulations
Oct 19 - Proposals approved, mechanical building begins
Oct 26 - First mechanical test
Nov 2 - Second mechanical test
Nov 7 - First controlled test
Nov 14 - Second controlled test
Nov 16 - First draft of report posted to the web used to determine the score for
competition
Nov 21 - EGR 345 competition and judging
Nov 30 - Final report draft posted to the web
Dec 10 - EGR 101 final project morning (EGR 345 students attend)
12.3.2 Teams
The teams are typically composed of up to 5 students from EGR 345. The EGR
345 teams are grouped using the self evaluation attached in the appendices.
Teams are expected to divided tasks for members to work in parallel. It is also
expected that team members will review the work of others to ensure accuracy
and completeness. This is particularly true of calculations, materials lists draw-
ings and budgets.
All team members are expected to work in a professional manner. The general
page 356
rules of conduct in a team are,

- treat others as you want to be treated
- communicate expectations and problems clearly
- be polite and accommodating
- when problems arise, help to solve them, even if they are not your fault.
Don’t lay the blame for problems on others.
Personal conflicts must be resolved by team members in a professional manner.

The performance of the team will be assessed using peer evaluations on a regu-
lar basis and may impact individual grades. In the case of non-participation the
penalty may be up to 100% of the project grade.
In the event that team members cannot resolve differences with a team member,
the team may ’fire’ the team member by a vote (it must be unanimous, except
for the member in question). In this case the ’fired’ student is responsible for
finding another team that will accept (or ’hire’) them. In the event they cannot
find another team to join, they will be expected to perform all of the work them-
self. The firing mechanism is intended to deal with individuals who ’harm’ the
progress of the team, not for non-participants.
12.3.3 Conceptual Design

Concepts are normally communicated with sketches that make the overall design
clear. Components that would be expected for this type of design are,
- There should be a minimum of 3 conceptual designs, however more are
recommended.
- A decision matrix should be used to justify the design selected.
- Sketches should be done using normal drafting practices. A good set of
sketches will include 2-D, isometric and pictorial views.
- Calculations should be provided that support the design concept.
- Electrical schematics to describe the control system.
- Block diagram to describe the control system.
- Lists of components and budgets to indicate the major parts of the system.
- Other items, such as flowcharts, are often required to clarify the design
concept.
12.3.4 Progress Reports

Teams are expected to submit progress reports on a weekly basis. These reports
will include the following elements divided into sections with a heading for
each. Point form is preferred, but complete sentences must be used. (Note:
’Parts purchased’ should be ’Parts were purchased for the cart assembly.’) Each
section should include items completed since the last report, and current action
items. If there is nothing to be said about a category use ’no changes’, ’nothing
done’, or ’complete’ as appropriate.
page 357
Cover Page - a cover sheet indicating the course, project and team num-
bers. The names of all team members should be listed on the cover.
Gantt chart - updated on a weekly basis and included each time.
Budget - when changes are made, include an updated budget. The budget
table should include descriptions, suppliers, quantity, price, and status.
Mass Table - when changes are made, include an updated mass table. Note:
this can be combined with the budget.
Design - Design changes should be indicated. Appropriate drawings, sche-
matics, or equivalent should be included. When appropriate, these should
normally be accompanied by a new set of models, calculations and/or
simulations to verify the new design.
Software - The current status of software development should be indicated,
including major accomplishments and issues.
Fabrication - The status of items being built/assembled should be indicated.
Purchasing - The status of ordered items should be indicated.
Testing - The testing progress should be indicated, including any numerical
results when available.
Other Issues - Items that may impact the success of the team should be
indicated.
Performance - A prediction of performance, including the overall perfor-
mance equation.
Early in the semester, other items will be requested, such as a combined timetable
for all team members, and a skills inventory. These should only be included in the reports
the weeks they are requested.
12.3.5 Design Proposal
The design proposal is used to present all of the design details in a single docu-
ment. The focus of this document is a MINIMAL AMOUNT OF TEXT, but a thorough
presentation of the design details. Typical elements are listed below in a typical sequence;
- a cover page indicating all of the team members and all other pertinent informa-
tion.
- a table of contents
- three view drawings of each significant part
- block diagram of the control system (s)
- block diagrams showing the system architecture
- circuit schematic
- if a motion profile will be used, it should be documented
- an assembly drawing of the mechanism, including a BOM
- a budget listing each of the parts that must be purchased/acquired. Catalog pages
and quotes can be used to validate the budget. In the final report, copies of
receipts, or catalog pages will be required.
page 358
- a weight inventory, itemized by each part of the design

- additional calculations for mechanical design issues, such as stress that may
result in failure. Normally these result in a factor of safety.
- the equations of motion for the system
- a Scilab program that verifies the operation of the system using the equations of
motion.
- a prototype C program that implements the controller as designed.
12.3.6 The Final Report
The final design will follow the same structure as the Design Proposal, with the
addition of the following elements.
- test results
- the drawings, calculations, etc. should be based upon the final design. It is rea-
sonable to write a page or less about the modifications that were required, but it
is a minimal/optional part of the report.
The report should concisely and clearly describe the design, as shown in the dia-
grams, drawings, calculations, etc. In general the format of the report is as outlined below.
Sections and subsections should be numbered.
Cover page
Executive summary - one page or less that summarizes the design and results.
Table of contents
Design description - this section should describe the mechanical, electrical and
software design aspects. Subsections should focus on the following elements;
Drawing summary - selected isometric and assembly drawings
System block diagrams
Description of control scheme, such as the motion profile
Schematics
Calculations - FBDs and differential equations
Project budget and BOM
Weight inventory
Test results - this section should describe
Simulation results
The tests that were done to describe the overall performance. There should
be a comparison of the cart with and without sway compensation.
The results of formal tests should also be described.
A comparison of overall score estimates.
Conclusions - A brief description of the overall results indicating what the
strengths and weaknesses of the design.
Recommendations - Suggestions for improvement.
page 359
Appendix - Drawings
Appendix - Stress and other similar calculations
Appendix - Controller C program
Appendix - Simulation program
Appendix - Receipts and cost evidence
Final reports will be evaluated on numerous factors including the clarity for the
design documentation (i.e., how clear is what has been done?), theory to backup the
design (does the theory match the actual design?), did the theory and actual match?
12.3.7 Gantt Charts

Gantt charts are used to track major project tasks, including sequencing. a brief
tutorial on project management with Microsoft Project is available at http://
www.stylusinc.net/ms_project_tutorial/project_management.shtml. You may
also download (free for 30 days) project management software from http://
www.smartworks.us/htm/downloads.htm. In general a Gantt chart should
include,
- Most project parts should have a development, and then a review stage by
another team member. For example, if one task is preparing mechanical
drawings, this should be followed by a review task - done by another
team member.
- Most tasks that stretch more than a week should be broken into smaller
sub tasks.
- A Gantt chart should be presented on one single sheet. If it is small
enough this can be one page, otherwise a larger sheet can be used.
- On a weekly basis a Gantt chart should be updated to include the comple-
tion of tasks.
12.3.8 Drawings
All drawings will observe the standards used in EGR 101 (see the EGR 101 or 345
course pages). This includes dimensions and tolerances that can be produced
using the available equipment and materials. Please note that ’sketch’ means
that it is done by hand, approximately, while drawing means it is done formally
in a CAD package. Normally you should create solid models, and then generate
multiview drawings. Note: All drawings must have a title block.
Shaded views have very little value and should be avoided, wireframe drawings
are much more useful. If there is a definite need to include a shaded drawing,
change the background to change the quantity of toner used.
12.3.9 Budgets and Bills of Material

Budgets should list all substantial components. Consumables, such as bolts are
normally listed under a ’miscellaneous’ heading. However, all other compo-
page 360
nents should be listed, and prices provided. If the components have been drawn
from the engineering stores, similar devices can be identified from catalogs and
those prices may be used. If your design calls for parts not commonly issued to
engineering students, you may be required to purchase these yourself. An excel-
lent local source of small parts is hobby stores, such as Ryder’s Hobbies on 28th
St. The budget should also list the quantity of parts/material, price, source/sup-
plier and status (eg., not ordered, received, due 2 weeks, late 1 week).
Don’t forget to include cost of the controller and other components used. Assume
the power supply is provided as part of the crane system and therefore has no
cost is associated. Some of the commonly available components are listed
below. List simple commodity items such as wires, bolts, etc., under a miscella-
neous category with a general cost estimate.
ATMega32 circuit board $30
Breakout board $20
motors assume $10
CT3001-ND 16 position, non-detent mechanical encoder $2.58
Potentiometer 10K (Digikey #296xd103b1n) $3.61 (???)
A Bill of Materials (BOM) lists all of the parts required to produce or assemble
some other device. This is different from parts listed in a budget in that some of
the parts will be work in process. In other words, the original material has been
worked on to produce new parts. A BOM is normally found on assembly draw-
ings.
Notes;
- there are different type of plastic, some are more brittle, others are
tougher.
12.3.10 Calculations
Calculations are required to justify the design work. These should follow the con-
ventions used in EGR 345. When computer programs are written, they should
be commented and included.
12.4 Examples
12.5 Summary

page 361
12.7 Problems
12.9 Forms
page 362
Skills Self Evaluation
Your Name:
none proficient
Hands-on Mechanical:
The ability to build components with wood, plastic, metal or other materials.
1 2 3 4 5
Hands-on Electrical: 1 2 3 4 5
Basic wiring skills, soldering, etc.
Hands-on Computer Usage: 1 2 3 4 5

CAD, Spreadsheets, creating web pages, etc.
Hands-on Computer Application: 1 2 3 4 5

Programming and computer interfacing
Mathematical Problem Solving: 1 2 3 4 5

Ability to formulate and solve complex problems
Writing:
Layout and write complex documents
1 2 3 4 5
Teamwork Skills:
The ability to work with others in a team environment.
1 2 3 4 5
Leadership Skills:
The ability to act as a role model that teammates will follow.
1 2 3 4 5
Design Skills:
Work in unstructured/semistructured problem solving.
1 2 3 4 5
Personal/Technical Strengths:
Personal/Technical Weaknesses:
People you would like to work with:

People you would NOT like to work with:
Other Commitments (courses, work, etc. - give hours for each)
Other Items of Interest:

page 363
13. MOTION CONTROL
Topics:
• Motion controllers
• Motion profiles, trapezoidal and smooth
• Gain schedulers
Objectives:
• To understand single and multi axis motion control systems.
13.1 INTRODUCTION
A system with a feedback controller will attempt to drive the system to a state
described by the desired input, such as a velocity. In earlier chapters we simply chose step
inputs, ramp inputs and other simple inputs to determine the system response. In practical
applications this setpoint needs to be generated automatically. A simple motion control
system is used to generate setpoints over time.
An example of a motion control system is shown in Figure 1.76. The motion con-
troller will accept commands or other inputs to generate a motion profile using parameters
such as distance to move, maximum acceleration and maximum velocity. The motion pro-
file is then used to generate a set of setpoints, and times they should be output. The set-
point scheduler will then use a real-time clock to output these setpoints to the motor drive.
page 364
motion controller
motion Motor
commands Setpoint Setpoint Servo
Generator Scheduler Drive
setpoint schedule
motion profile t (s) setpoint

ω
0 0.0
0.4 0.1 0.2
t 0.2 0.4
0.3 0.4
0 0.2 0.6 0.8 0.4 0.4
..... ....
Figure 1.76 A motion controller
The combination of a motion controller, drive and actuator is called an axis. When
there is more than one drive and actuator the system is said to have multiple axes. Com-
plex motion control systems such as computer controlled milling machines (CNC) and
robots have 3 to 6 axes which must be moved in coordination.
13.2 MOTION PROFILES
13.2.1 Velocity Profiles
A simple example of a velocity profile for a point-to-point motion is shown in Fig-

ure 1.77. In this example the motion starts at 20 deg and ends at 100 deg. (Note: in motion
controllers it is more common to used encoder pulses, instead of degrees, for positions
velocities, etc.) For position control we want a motion that has a velocity of zero at the
start and end of the motion, and accelerates and decelerates smoothly.
page 365
θ ( deg )
100
20
t (s)
Figure 1.77 An example of a desired motion (position)
A trapezoidal velocity profile is shown in Figure 1.78. The area under the curve is
the total distance moved. The slope of the initial and final ramp are the maximum acceler-
ation and deceleration. The top level of the trapezoid is the maximum velocity. Some con-
trollers allow the user to use the acceleration and deceleration times instead of the
maximum acceleration and deceleration. This profile gives a continuous acceleration, but
there will be a jerk (third order derivative) at the four sharp corners.
ω ( deg )
ω max
– α max
α max
t (s)
0
0 t acc t max t dec t total
where,
ω max = the maximum velocity
α max = the maximum acceleration
t acc, t dec = the acceleration and deceleration times
t max = the times at the maximum velocity

t total = the total motion time
Figure 1.78 An example of a velocity profile

page 366
The basic relationships for these variables are shown in Figure 1.79. The equations
can be used to find the acceleration and deceleration times. These equations can also be
used to find the time at the maximum velocity. If this time is negative it indicates that the
axis will not reach the maximum velocity, and the acceleration and deceleration times
must be decreased. The resulting velocity profile will be a triangle.
ω max
t acc = t dec = ------------ (1)
α max
t total = t acc + t max + t dec (2)
1 1 t acc t dec
θ = --- t acc ω max + t max ω max + --- t dec ω max = ω max ⎛ -------- + t max + --------⎞ (3)
2 2 ⎝ 2 2 ⎠
θ t acc t dec
t max = ------------ – ----------- – ----------- (4)
ω max 2 2
Note: if the time calculated in equation 4 is negative then the axis never reaches
maximum velocity, and the velocity profile becomes a triangle.
Figure 1.79 Velocity profile basic relationships
For the example in Figure 1.80 the move starts at 100deg and ends at 20 deg. The
acceleration and decelerations are completed in half a second. The system moves for 7.5
seconds at the maximum velocity.
page 367
Given, θ start = 100deg θ end = 20deg
deg deg
ω max = 10 --------- α max = 20 --------
2
-
s s
The times can be calculated as,
deg
ω max 10 ---------
s
t acc = t dec = ------------ = --------------- = 0.5s
α max deg-
20 --------2
s
θ = θ end – θ start = 20deg – 100deg = – 80deg
θ t acc t dec 80deg 0.5s 0.5s

t max = ------------ – ----------- – ----------- = --------------- – ---------- – ---------- = 7.5s
ω max 2 2 deg 2 2
10 ---------
s
t total = t acc + t max + t dec = 0.5s + 7.5s + 0.5s = 8.5s
Figure 1.80 Velocity profile example
The motion example in Figure 1.81 is so short the axis never reaches the maximum
velocity. This is made obvious by the negative time at maximum velocity. In place of this
the acceleration and deceleration times can be calculated by using the basic acceleration
position relationship. The result in this example is a motion that accelerates for 0.316s and
then decelerates for the same time.
page 368
Given, θ start = 20deg θ end = 22deg
deg deg
ω max = 10 --------- α max = 20 --------
2
-
s s
The times can be calculated as,
deg
ω max 10 ---------
s
t acc = t dec = ------------ = --------------- = 0.5s
α max deg-
20 --------2
s
θ = θ end – θ start = 22deg – 20deg = 2deg
θ t acc t dec 2deg 0.5s 0.5s

t max = ------------ – ----------- – ----------- = --------------- – ---------- – ---------- = – 0.3 s
ω max 2 2 deg 2 2
10 ---------
s
The time was negative so the acceleration and deceleration times become,
θ
--- = 1--- α max t 2acc
2 2
θ - = 2deg = 2
t acc = ----------- --------------- 0.1s = 0.316s
α max deg-
20 --------2
s
t max = 0s
Figure 1.81 Velocity profile example without reaching maximum velocity
Given the parameters calculated for the motion, the setpoints for motion can be
calculated with the equations in Figure 1.82.
page 369
Assuming the motion starts at 0s,
0s ≤ t < t acc
1 2
θ ( t ) = --- α max t + θ start
2
t acc ≤ t < t acc + t max
1 2
θ ( t ) = --- α max t acc + ω max ( t – t acc ) + θ start
2
t acc + t max ≤ t < t acc + t max + t dec
1 2 1 2
θ ( t ) = --- α max t acc + ω max t max + --- α max ( t – t max – t acc ) + θ start
2 2
t acc + t max + t dec ≤ t
θ ( t ) = θ end
Figure 1.82 Generating points given motion parameters
A subroutine that implements these is shown in Figure 1.83. In this subroutine the
time is looped with fixed time steps. The position setpoint values are put into the setpoint
array, which will then be used elsewhere to guide the mechanism.
page 370
void generate_setpoint_table(
double t_acc, double t_max, double t_step,
double vel_max, double acc_max,
double theta_start, double theta_end,
double setpoint[], int *count){
double t, t_1, t_2, t_total;
t_1 = t_acc;
t_2 = t_acc + t_max;
t_total = t_acc + t_max + t_acc;
*count = 0;
for(t = 0.0; t <= t_total; t += t_step){
if( t < t_1){
setpoint[*count] = 0.5*acc_max*t*t + theta_start;
} else if ( (t >= t_1) && (t < t_2)){
setpoint[*count] = 0.5*acc_max*t_acc*t_acc
+ vel_max*(t - t_1) + theta_start;
} else if ( (t >= t_2) && (t < t_total)){
setpoint[*count] = 0.5*acc_max*t_acc*t_acc
+ vel_max*(t_max)
+ 0.5*acc_max*(t-t_2)*(t-t_2) + theta_start;
} else {
setpoint[*count] = theta_end;
}
*count++;
}
setpoint[*count] = theta_end;
*count++;
}
Figure 1.83 Subroutine for calculating motion setpoints
In some cases the jerk should be minimized. This can be achieved by replacing the
acceleration ramps with a smooth polynomial, as shown in Figure 1.84. In this case two
quadratic polynomials will be used for the acceleration, and another two for the decelera-
tion.
page 371
2
ω ( deg ) ω ( t ) = At + Bt + C
ω max
α max – α max
t (s)
0
0 t acc t max t dec t total
where,
ω max = the maximum velocity
α max = the maximum acceleration
t acc, t dec = the acceleration and deceleration times
t max = the times at the maximum velocity

t total = the total motion time
Figure 1.84 A smooth velocity profile
An example of calculating the polynomial coefficients is given in Figure 1.85. The

curve found is for the first half of the acceleration. It can then be used for the three other
required curves.
page 372
Given, θ start θ end ω max α max
The constraints for the polynomial are,

t acc ω max
ω(0) = 0 ω ⎛ --------⎞ = ------------
⎝ 2 ⎠ 2
d t
d- ⎛ -------
acc⎞
----- ω ( 0 ) = 0 ---- ω - = α max
dt dt ⎝ 2 ⎠
These can be used to calculate the polynomial coefficients,
2
0 = A0 + B0 + C ∴C = 0
0 = 2A0 + B ∴B = 0
2 ω max
ω max = At acc A = -----------2-
t acc
α max
α max = 2At acc A = ------------
2t acc
ω max α max 2ω max

A = -----------2- = ------------ t acc = ---------------
t acc 2t acc α max
2
α max α max α max
A = ------------ = ------------------------ = ---------------
2t acc 2ω max 4ω max
2 ⎛ ---------------⎞
⎝ α max ⎠
The equation for the first segment is,

2
α max 2 t acc
ω ( t ) = --------------- t 0 ≤ t < --------
4ω max 2
The equation for the second segment can be found using the first segment,
2
α max 2
ω ( t ) = ω max – --------------- ( t acc – t )
4ω max
2 t acc
α max 2 2 -------- ≤ t < t acc
ω ( t ) = ω max – --------------- ( t – 2t acc t + t acc ) 2
4ω max
Figure 1.85 A smooth velocity profile example

page 373
The distance covered during acceleration, the area under the curves, is,
t acc 2 2
-------
- α max 2 t acc ⎛ α max 2 ⎞
θ acc = ∫0
2
- ( t – 2t acc t + t 2acc )⎟ dt
- t dt + ∫ ⎜ ω max – --------------
--------------
4ω max t acc
-------- ⎝ 4ω max ⎠
t acc 2
-------- t acc
2
2 2
α max 3 ⎛ α max ⎛ t 3 ⎞
+ ⎜ ω max t – --------------- ---- – t acc t + t acc t⎞ ⎟
2 2
θ acc = ------------------ t
12ω max ⎝ 4ω max ⎝ 3 ⎠⎠
0 t acc
--------
2
2 3 2 3 2 3 3 3
α max t acc α max ⎛ t acc 3 3 ⎞ t acc α max ⎛ t acc t acc t acc⎞
acc = ------------------ -------- + ω max t acc – --------------- ⎜ -------- – t acc + t acc⎟ – ω max -------- + --------------- ⎜ -------- – -------- + --------⎟
12ω max 8 4ω max ⎝ 3 ⎠ 2 4ω max ⎝ 24 4 2 ⎠
2 2 2
α max 3 ω max t acc α max 3 7α max 3
θ acc = ------------------ t acc + --------------------- – ------------------ t acc – ------------------ t acc
96ω max 2 12ω max 96ω max
2
– 14α max 3 ω max t acc
θ acc = --------------------- t acc + ---------------------
96ω max 2
so the time required at the maximum velocity is,

( θ – 2θ acc )
t max = ---------------------------
ω max
Figure 1.86 A smooth velocity profile example (cont’d)
13.2.2 Position Profiles
A motion can be described using position points along a path. These methods are
normally used when a controller does not have any velocity or acceleration limits. The
method shown in Figure 1.87 controls motion using a parametric function ’p(u)’. The
function value varies from 0 to 1 as the parameter ’u’ varies from 0 to 1. However, the
parameters of the function are selected so that the motion starts and stops with a velocity
of zero. In this case the final polynomial equation, (3), is fairly simple. This equation can
then be used in equation (1) to generate a smooth motion path between any arbitrary start
page 374
and end point, with arbitrary start and end times.

t – t start
θ ( t ) = θ start + ( θ end – θ start )p ⎛ --------------------------⎞ (1)
⎝ t end – t start⎠
where,
θ start, θ end = start and end positions of motion
t start, t end = start and end times for the motion
3 2
p ( u ) = Au + Bu + Cu + D (2)
The constraints for the polynomial are,
p(0) = 0 p(1) = 1
d- d-
---- p(0) = 0 ---- p( 1) = 0
dt dt
These can be used to calculate the polynomial coefficients,

3
0 = A0 + B0 + C0 + D
2 ∴D = 0
0 = 3A0 + 2B0 + C
2 ∴C = 0
3
2 ∴B = ⎛ – ---⎞ A
0 = 3A1 + 2B1 ⎝ 2⎠
3 2
1 = A1 + B1 + ( 0 )0 + 0 ∴A = – 2
∴B = 3
3 2
p ( u ) = – 2 u + 3u (3)
Figure 1.87 Generating smooth motion paths
The example in Figure 1.88 shows the use of a trigonometric function, instead of a
polynomial. This function was used to generate the points in the following sample pro-
gram in Figure 1.89.
page 375
where,
p ( u ) = A sin ( Bt + C ) + D
The coefficients can be calculated using the conditions used previously,
d-
---- p ( 0 ) = AB cos ( B ( 0 ) + C ) = 0
dt π
∴ cos ( C ) = 0 ∴C = – ---
2
d-
---- p ( 1 ) = AB cos ( B ( 1 ) + C ) = 0
dt
∴ cos ( B + C ) = 0
π ∴B = π
∴B + C = ---
2
π
p ( 0 ) = A sin ⎛ B ( 0 ) – ---⎞ + D = 0 ∴A = D
⎝ 2⎠
π
p ( 1 ) = A sin ⎛ π ( 1 ) – ---⎞ + D = 1
⎝ 2⎠
1
∴A ( 1 ) + A = 1 ∴A = ---
2
The final relationship is,
1 π 1
p ( u ) = --- sin ⎛ πt – ---⎞ + ---
2 ⎝ 2⎠ 2
Figure 1.88 Generating smooth motion paths
The program in Figure 1.89 generates a motion table that can then be used to
update setpoints. The function ’table_init()’ must be called once when the program starts
to set up global time and table values. When a new target position has been specified the
’table_generate()’ function is called to generate the setpoint table. The ’table_update()’
function is called once every interrupt scan to check the setpoint table, and update the glo-
bal setpoint variable, ’point_current’ at scheduled times. This function also includes a
simple clock to keep track of the system time.
page 376
#define TABLE_SIZE 11
int point_master[TABLE_SIZE] = {0, 24, 95, 206, 345, 500, 655, 794, 905, 976, 1000};
int point_position[TABLE_SIZE];
int point_time[TABLE_SIZE];
int point_start_time;
int point_index;
int ticks; /* variables to keep a system clock count */

int point_current; /* a global variable to track position */
int table_init(){ /* initialize the setpoint table */

ticks = 0; /* set the clock to zero */
point_current = 0; /* start the system at zero */
point_index = TABLE_SIZE; /* mark the table as empty */
}
void table_generate(int start, int end, int duration_sec){

unsigned i;
point_time[0] = ticks + 10; /* delay the start slightly */

point_position[0] = start;
for(i = 1; i < TABLE_SIZE; i++){

point_time[i] = point_time[0] +
(unsigned long)i * duration_sec * 250 / (TABLE_SIZE - 1);
point_position[i] = start + (long int)(end - start) * point_master[i] / 1000;
}
point_index = 0;
}
int table_update(){/* interrupt driven encoder update */

ticks++; /* update the clock */
if(point_index < TABLE_SIZE){

if(point_time[point_index] == ticks){
point_current = point_position[point_index++];
outint16(point_current);
putch("\n");
}
}
return point_current;
}
Figure 1.89 Subroutines for motion profile generation and use
13.3 MULTI AXIS MOTION
In a machine with multiple axes the motions of individual axes must often be coor-
dinated. A simple example would be a robot that needs to move two joints to reach a new
position. We could extend the motion of the slower joints so that the motion of each joint
would begin and end together.
page 377
13.3.1 Slew Motion
When the individual axis of a machine are not coordinated this is known as slew
motion. Each of the axes will start moving at the same time, but finish at separate times.
Consider the example in Figure 1.90. A three axis motion is required from the starting
angles of (40, 80, -40)deg, and must end at (120, 0, 0)deg. The maximum absolute acceler-
ations and decelerations are (50, 100, 150) degrees/sec/sec, and the maximum velocities
are (20, 40, 50) degrees/sec.
Joint angle (degrees)

180
90
time(sec)
θ3
θ2
-90 θ1
Joint velocity (degrees/sec)

ω max – α max
t acc t max t dec
Figure 1.90 Multi-axis slew motion
The calculations for the motion parameters are shown in Figure 1.91. These are
done in vector format for simplicity. All of the joints reach the maximum acceleration.
The fastest motion is complete in 1.13s, while the longest motion takes 4.4s.
page 378
The area under the velocity curve is the distance (angle in this case) travelled. First
we can determine the distance covered during acceleration, and deceleration and
the time during acceleration, and deceleration.
ω max 20 40 50
t acc = t dec = ------------ = ⎛ ------, ---------, ---------⎞ = ( 0.4, 0.4, 0.333 )sec.
α max ⎝ 50 100 150⎠
t acc ω max.vel. 0.4 ( 20 ) 0.4 ( 40 ) 0.333 ( 50 )
θ acc. = θ dec. = ---------------------------- = ⎛ ------------------, ------------------, ------------------------⎞ = ( 4, 8, 8.33 )deg.
2 ⎝ 2 2 2 ⎠
The next step is to examine the moves specified,

θ move = θ end – θ start = ( 120 – 40, 0 – 80, 0 – ( – 40 ) ) = ( 80, – 80, 40 )deg.
Remove the angles covered during accel./deccel., and find the travel time at maximum
velocity.
θ move – 2θ acc 80 – 2 ( 4 ) 80 – 2 ( 8 ) 40 – 2 ( 8.333 )
t max = ----------------------------------- = ⎛ -----------------------, -----------------------, ---------------------------------⎞
ω max ⎝ 20 40 50 ⎠
t max = ( 3.6, 1.6, 0.46668 )sec.
t total = t acc + t max + t dec = ( 4.4, 2.4, 1.13 )s
Figure 1.91 Calculated times for the slew motion
1.3.1.1 - Interpolated Motion
In interpolated motion the faster joints are slowed so that they finish in coordina-
tion with the slowest. This is essential in devices such as CNC milling machines. If this
did not occur a straight line cut in the x-y plane would actually be two straight lines. The
slew motion example can be extended to be slew motion where all joints finish their
motion at 4.4s. This can be done by accelerating at the maximum acceleration, but setting
a new maximum velocity. This is shown in the example in Figure 1.92 using the results
from the example in Figure 1.91.
page 379
The longest motion time is 4.4s for joint 1, and this can be used to prolong the other
motions. The calculation begins by rewriting the velocity/position relationship using
a new maximum velocity.
1 ω max' ω max' 1 ω max'
∆θ = --- ------------- ω max' + ⎛ t total – 2 -------------⎞ ω max' + --- ------------- ω max'
2 α max ⎝ α max ⎠ 2 α max
ω '
∴∆ θ = ω max' ⎛ t total – -------------⎞
max
⎝ α max ⎠
2
∴( ω max' ) + ω max' ( – t total α max ) + ∆θα max = 0
2 2
t total α max ± t total α max – 4∆θα max
∴ω max' = --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
2
ω max'
t acc' = t acc' = -------------
α max
A new maximum velocity can be calculated for joint 2 using this equation.
2 2
4.4 ( 100 ) ± ( 4.4 ) ( 100 ) – 4 ( 80 ) ( 100 )
∴ω max' = --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
2
440 ± 401.99502
∴ω max' = ---------------------------------------- = 421, 19.0
2
19.0
t acc' = t acc' = ---------- = 0.19s
100
A new maximum velocity can be calculated for joint 3 using this equation.
2 2
4.4 ( 150 ) ± ( 4.4 ) ( 150 ) – 4 ( 40 ) ( 150 )
∴ω max' = --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
2
∴ω max' = 651, 9.22
9.22
t acc' = t acc' = ---------- = 0.092s
100
Figure 1.92 Interpolated motion based upon Figure 1.91
1.3.2 Motion Scheduling
After the setpoint schedule has been developed, it is executed by the setpoint
scheduler. The setpoint scheduler will use a clock to determine when an output setpoint
should be updated. A diagram of a scheduler is shown in Figure 1.93. In this system the
setpoint scheduler is an interrupt driven subroutine that compares the system clock to the
page 380
total motion time. When enough time has elapsed the routine will move to the next value
in the setpoint table. The frequency of the interrupt clock should be smaller than or equal
to the time steps used to calculate the setpoints. The servo drive is implemented with an
algorithm such a PID control.
Time based interrupt Servo motor routine runs

routine for each axis
Setpoint Choose new

table point from
trajectory table
Read θ desired
Compute
θ desired error
Interrupt
Clock
Output actuator
signal
Return
Figure 1.93 A setpoint scheduler
The output from the scheduler updates every time step. This then leads to a situa-
tion where the axis is always chasing the target value. This leads to small errors, as shown
in Figure 1.94.
page 381
speed
actual position
trajectory table
time
trajectory table time step
position
required
actual
time
Figure 1.94 Errors in path following
1.4 PATH PLANNING

• When we have simple features, paths are easy to generate. These features include,
- steps
- pockets
- holes
- etc.
• Typically paths for these will repeat as shown below,

page 382
• For complex surfaces we want to contour appropriately. These surfaces will almost always
be represented with spline patches.
• Recall that a spline patch can be represented parametrically

page 383
(u=0,v=1) (u=1,v=1)
xp
p ( u, v ) = y p
zp
(u=0,v=0) (u=1,v=0)
• A simple algorithm to cut the surface is shown below.
dirn_flag = 1; a direction flag

n=10 ; number of passes to cut the surface
step=1.0/n ; step sizes for u and v directions
start=step/2 ; the start offset in the u and v directions
[xp,yp,zp] = p(start,start) ; calculate the start position
print(“G00 X”,xp,” Y”,yp,” Z”,zp+0.2) ; move the tool to above the start position
for i=0 to (n-1) ; will increment in the u direction
for j=0 to (n-1) ; will increment in the v direction
; calculate next point
if dirn_flag=-1 then [xp,yp,zp]=p(start+i*step,start+j*step)
if dirn_flag=1 then [xp,yp,zp]=p(start+i*step,start+(n-j)*step)
print(“G01 X”,xp,” Y”,yp,” Z”,zp) ; instruction to cut to next point
next j ; make next step in v direction until done
dirn_flag = -dirn_flag ; reverse direction to cut in opposite direction
next i ; move to next cut line in the u direction
print(“G00 Z”,zp+0.2) ; move the tool to above the end position
1.5 CASE STUDIES
- the controller described in the block diagram below uses a model for a DC per-
manent magnet DC motor to estimate a voltage based upon a predicted velocity and posi-
tion.
- the desired position and velocity are given in figure xxx based upon the motion
position control derived in the earlier section
page 384
t – t start
θ ( t ) = θ start + ( θ end – θ start )p ⎛ --------------------------⎞
3 2
p ( u ) = – 2 u + 3u
t – t start
ω ( t ) = ( θ end – θ start )p· ⎛ --------------------------⎞
2
p· ( u ) = – 6 u + 6u
Figure 1.95 Motion position control equation
- the controller that uses the desired position and velocity is shown in figure xxxx
real-time control loop
ωd
2
JRD + K
------------------------
K physical system
θd + θa
+ K -
P -----------------------
2
+ JRD + K
-
1- K enc
----------
K enc
Figure 1.96 Feedforward trajectory controller

page 385
1.6 SUMMARY
• Axis limits can be used to calculate motion profiles.
• Trapezoidal and smooth motion profiles were presented.
• Motion profiles can be used to generate setpoint tables.
• Values from the setpoints can then be output by a scheduler to drive an axis.
1. a) Develop a motion profile for a joint that moves from -100 degrees to 100 degrees with a
maximum velocity of 20 deg/s and a maximum acceleration of 100deg/s/s. b) Develop a set-
point table that has values for positions every 0.5 seconds for the entire motion.
2. Consider a basic servo controller with encoder feedback. The motor will start at a position
count of 100, and end the motion at a count of 3000. The motion is to have a maximum accel-
eration of 300 counts/s/s, and a maximum velocity of 100 counts/s. Find a motion profile that
satisfies these constraints. Generate a table of setpoints for the desired position every 2 sec-
onds.
page 386
1.
Given,
deg deg
ω max = 20 --------- α max = 100 -------- - ∆θ = 100 – ( – 100 ) = 200°
s s
2
The motion times can be calculated.

deg
ω max 20 ---------
s
t acc = t dec = ------------ = ------------------ = 0.2s
α max deg-
100 -------- 2
s
deg
∆θ – ω max t acc 200deg – 20 --------- 0.2s
s
t max = ---------------------------------- = --------------------------------------------------- = 9.8s
ω max deg
20 ---------
s
t total = t acc + t max + t dec = 0.2s + 9.8s + 0.2s = 10.2s
t (s) angle
(deg)
0.0 -100 1 deg deg
- ( 0.2s ) 2 + 20 --------- ( 0.5s – 0.2s ) – 100deg
θ 0.5s = --- 100 --------
0.5 -92 2 s
2 s
1.0 -82
1.5 -72 θ 0.5s = – 92deg
2.0 -62
deg
2.5 -52 θ 1.0s = θ 0.5s + 20 --------- ( 0.5s ) = – 92deg + 10deg
s
3.0 -42
3.5 -32
4.0 -22
4.5 -12
5.0 -2
5.5 8
6.0 18
6.5 28
7.0 38
7.5 48
8.0 58
8.5 68
9.0 78
9.5 88
10.0 98
10.5 100
11.0 100
page 387
2.
t counts
(s)
0 100
2 283
4 483
6 683
8 883
10 1083
12 1283
14 1483
16 1683
18 1883
20 2083
22 2283
24 2483
26 2683
28 2883
30 3000
1. Find a smooth path for a robot joint that will turn from θ= 75° to θ = -35° in 10 seconds. Do this
by developing an equation then calculating points every 1.0 seconds along the path for a total
motion time of 10 seconds. Do not assume a maximum velocity.
2. Paths are to be planned for a three axis motion controller. Each of the joints has a maximum
velocity of 20 deg/s, and a maximum acceleration of 30 deg/s/s. Assuming all of the joints start
at an angle of 0 degrees. Joints 1, 2 and 3 move to 40 deg, 100deg and -50deg respectively.
Develop the motion profiles assuming,
a) slew motion
b) interpolated motion
3. Develop a smooth velocity profile for moving a cutting tool that starts at 1000 inches and
moves to -1000 inches. The maximum velocity is 100 in/s and the maximum acceleration is
50in/s/s.
4. An axis has a maximum velocity of 2.0 rad/s and a maximum acceleration/deceleration of 0.5
rad/s^2. Sketch a trapezoidal motion profile and find the motion time for a -4.0 rad motion.
5. An axis has a maximum velocity of 5m/s and an acceleration/deceleration time of 1s. Sketch a
trapezoidal motion profile and find the motion time for a 25m motion.
6. Develop a smooth velocity profile for moving a cutting tool that starts at 1000 inches and
moves to -1000 inches. The maximum velocity is 100 in/s and the maximum acceleration is
page 388
50in/s/s.

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page i

Products, Robotics, and Other Useful Things

2.3.1 Drawing Elements 2.42

Basic Concepts 3.87

4.4.7 The mrr for Turning 4.156

7. FEEDBACK CONTROL REVIEW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.217

7.3 Examples 7.225

8. MECHANICAL POWER TRANSMISSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.226

9. MECHANICAL ISSUES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.291

9.1 Introduction 9.291

10. SENSORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.302

11. ACTUATORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.339

11.7 MOTORS 11.347

12. PROJECT MANAGEMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.351

13. MOTION CONTROL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.363

1.2 Bloom’s Taxonomy

1. Knowledge: remembering of previously learned material; recall (facts or whole theories);

Terms: defines, describes, identifies, lists, matches, names.

2. Comprehension: grasping the meaning of material; interpreting (explaining or summarizing);

Terms: convert, defend, distinguish, estimate, explain, generalize, rewrite.

Terms: changes, computes, demonstrates, operates, shows, uses, solves.

4. Analysis: breaking down into parts; understanding organization, clarifying, concluding.

Identify parts: See Related Order; Relationships; Clarify.

Terms: distinguish, diagrams, outlines, relates, breaks down, discriminates, subdivides.

Terms: combines, complies, composes, creates, designs, rearranges.

Terms: appraises, criticizes, compares, supports, concludes, discriminates, contrasts, summa-

1.5 References and Bibliography

1.7 Challenge Problems

2.1 CONVENTIONAL DRAFTING

• A properly drafted drawing should be understood by any engineer.

• A sample of a drafted drawing is given below.

2.1.1 Manual Drafting

2.1.2 Turning Three Dimensions Into Two (Multi View Drawings)

• To get around this we can develop a number of views to work with.

• This method of developing views is known as Orthographic projection

2.1.2.1 - The Glass Box

• Imaging the case below of a small tetrahedron (a three pointed triangle),

freeze the view

Unfold the sides to get

• The view that is selected as the front is arbitrary, but it should

• There are a number of holes commonly depicted in drawings,

Through Holes - these are cut all the

Blind Holes - these holes stop part way

2.1.5 Special Cases

2.1.5.1 - Aligned Features

• Holes are commonly rotated to simplify views

• Ribs and wings are commonly rotated to simplify views

Part is imagined in this

But the part can be drawn, and

2.1.5.2 - Incomplete Views

use half circles or use a break

2.1.6 Section Views

• The cutting plane for the section is,

• sections can be lined to indicate,

2.1.6.1 - Full Sections

2.1.6.2 - Offset Section

2.1.6.3 - Half Section

2.1.6.4 - Cut Away Sections

2.1.6.5 - Revolved Section

• The basic procedure is to

• This method is useful when space is at a premium

• The cutting plane line is not used with this technique