Rene Descartes

Cogito, ergo sum is the first principle of Descartes’s theory of knowledge because he is confident
that no rational person will doubt his or her own existence as a conscious, thinking entity—while we are
aware of thinking about our self. Even if we are dreaming or hallucinating, even if our consciousness is
being manipulated by some external entity, it is still my self-aware self that is dreaming, hallucinating, or
being manipulated.

Thus, in addition to being the first principle of his epistemology, cogito, ergo sum is also the
keystone of Descartes’s concept of self. The essence of existing as a human identity is the possibility of
being aware of our selves: Being self-conscious in this way is integral to having a personal identity.
Conversely, it would be impossible to be self-conscious if we didn’t have a personal identity of which to
be conscious. In other words, having a self-identity and being self-conscious are mutually dependent on
one another.

For Descartes, then, this is the essence of your self—you are a “thinking thing,” a dynamic
identity that engages in all of those mental operations we associate with being a human self. For
example:
 You understand situations in which you find yourself.
 You doubt the accuracy of ideas presented to you.
 You affirm the truth of a statement made about you.
 You deny an accusation that someone has made.
 You will yourself to complete a task you have begun.
 You refuse to follow a command that you consider to be unethical.
 You imagine a fulfilling career for yourself.
 You feel passionate emotions toward another person.

But in addition to engaging in all of these mental operations—and many other besides—your
self-identity is dependent on the fact that you are capable of being aware you are engaging in these
mental operations while you are engaged in them. If you were consistently not conscious of your mental
operations, consistently unaware of your thinking, reasoning, and perceiving processes, then it would
not be possible for you to have a self-identity, a unique essence, a you.

But what about your body? After all, a great deal of our self-concept and self-identity is tied up
with our physical existence: our physical qualities, appearance, gender, race, age, height, weight, hair
style, and so on. Despite this, Descartes believes that your physical body is secondary to your personal
identity. One reason for this is that he believes you can conceive of yourself existing independently of
your body.

Nevertheless, even though your body is not as central to your self as is your capacity to think
and reflect, it clearly plays a role in your self-identity. In fact, Descartes contends, if you reflect
thoughtfully, you can see that you have clear ideas of both your self as a thinking entity and your self as
a physical body. And these two dimensions of your self are quite distinct.

Following directly in the footsteps of Socrates, Plato, and Saint Augustine, Descartes declares
that the essential self—the self as thinking entity—is radically different than the self as physical body.
The thinking self—or soul—is a nonmaterial, immortal, conscious being, independent of the physical
laws of the universe. The physical body is a material, mortal, nonthinking entity, fully governed by the
physical laws of nature.

Source: John Chaffee, The Philosopher’s Way: Thinking Critically about Profound Ideas, 5th ed.
 What’s more, your soul and your body are independent of one another, and each can exist and
function without the other. How is that possible? For example, in the case of physical death, Descartes
believes (as did Plato) that your soul continues to exist, seeking union with the spiritual realm and God’s
infinite and eternal mind. On the other hand, in cases in which people are sleeping or comatose, their
bodies continue to function even though their minds are not thinking, much like the mechanisms of a
clock.

By advocating a dualistic metaphysic, Descartes was able to maintain both his integrity as a
scientist and his religious convictions as a devout Catholic. The physical self is a part of nature, governed
by the physical laws of the universe, and available to scientific analysis and experimentation. At the
same time, the conscious self (mind, soul) is a part of the spiritual realm, independent of the physical
laws of the universe, governed only by the laws of reason and God’s will.

Although a bifurcated view of the universe solves some immediate problems for Descartes, it
creates other philosophical difficulties, most notably the vexing question, “What is the relationship
between the mind and the body?”

In our everyday experience, our minds and bodies appear to be very closely related to one
another. Our thinking and emotions have a profound effect on many aspects of our physical bodies, and
physical events with our bodies have a significant impact on our mental lives. For the most part, we
experience our minds and bodies as a unified entity, very different from the two different and
completely independent substances that Descartes proposes. As the writer and humorist Mark Twain
noted, “How come the mind gets drunk when the body does the drinking?” Even Descartes recognized
the need to acknowledge the close, intimate relationship between mind and body.

Source: John Chaffee, The Philosopher’s Way: Thinking Critically about Profound Ideas, 5th ed.