ERIC ERICKSON- Psychoanalysis Theory/ Psychosocial Theory

- stresses important of culture and society to the development of ones personality

- environment
- culture
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aYCBdZLCDBQ
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aCEnIiULIho

Stages of psychosocial
a. Trust vs mistrust – 0-18 months
-Task of first year of life is to establish trust in people providing care
-Mistrust develops if basic needs are inconsistently or inadequately met
-Foundations of all psychosocial task
-To give and receive is the psychosocial theme
-Know to develop trust

1. satisfy needs on time - breastfeed

2. care must be consistent and adequate -both parents- 1st 1 year of life
3. give an experience that will add to security- touch, eye to eye contact, soft music.

b. Autonomy vs shame and doubt 18-3 years --- independence /self gov’t develop autonomy on toddler
- Increased ability to control self and environment
- Practices and attains new physical skills, developing autonomy
- Symbolizes independence by controlling body secretions, saying “no” when asked to do something,
and directing motor activity
-If successful, develops self-confidence and willpower; if criticized or unsuccessful, develops a sense of
shame and doubt about his or her abilities

1. give an opportunity of decision making like offer choices.

2. encourage to make decision rather than judge.
3. set limits

c. Initiative vs guilt- 4-6 years

- Explores the physical world with all the senses, initiates new activities, and considers new ideas-learns
how to do basic things
- Demonstrates initiative by being able to formulate and carry out a plan of action
- Develops a conscience
- If successful, develops direction and purpose; if criticized, leads to feelings of guilt and a lack of
purpose

1. let explore new places and events

2. activity recommended- modeling clay, finger painting will enhance imagination and creativity and
facilitate fine motor dev’t

d. Industry vs inferiority 7-12 yrs

- Middle years of childhood; displays development of new interests and involvement in activities
- Learns to follow rules-child learns how to do things well
- Acquires reading, writing, math, and social skills
- If successful, develops confidence and enjoys learning about new things; if compared to others, may
 develop feeling of inadequacy; inferiority may develop if too much is expected

1. give short assignments and projects

e. Identity vs role confusion or diffusion 12-18 yrs

- Rapid and marked physical changes
- Preoccupation with physical appearance
- Examines and redefines self, family, peer group, and community
- Experiments with different roles
- Peer group very important
- If successful, develops confidence in self-identity and optimism; if unable to establish meaningful
definition of self, develops role confusion
- learns who he/she is or what kind of person he/ she will become by adjusting to new body image and
seeking emancipation from parents
-freedom from parents

f. Intimacy vs isolation 20-40 yrs -looking for a lifetime partner and career focus

g. Generatively vs stagnation 40- 60

45-65 yrs

h. Ego integrity vs despair 60-65

 Stage Virtue Task

Trust vs mistrust (infant)
Autonomy vs shame and
doubt (toddler)
Initiative vs guilt
(preschool)
Industry vs inferiority
(school age)
Identity vs role confusion
(adolescence)
Intimacy vs isolation (young
adult)
Generativity vs stagnation
(middle adult)
Ego integrity vs despair
( maturity)
Hope Viewing the world as safe and reliable,
relationships as nurturing and dependable
Will Achieving a sense of control and free will
Purpose Beginning development of a conscious;
learning to manage conflict and anxiety
Competence Emerging confidence in own abilities;
taking pleasures in accomplishments
Fidelity Formulating a sense of self and belonging
Love Formulating adult, loving relationships and
meaningful attachments to others
Care Being creative and productive; establishing
the next generation
Wisdom Accepting responsibility for one’s self and
life

Age Stage/ Conflict Important Events Virtue/ Outcome

 Infancy (birth to 18 months) Trust vs. Mistrust  Feeding Hope
Early Childhood (2 to 3 years) Autonomy vs. Shame Toilet Training Will
and Doubt
Preschool (3 to 5 years) Initiative vs. Guilt Exploration Purpose

School Age (6 to 11 years) Industry vs. School Confidence

Inferiority
Adolescence (12 to 18 years) Identity vs. Role Social Relationships Fidelity
Confusion
Young Adulthood (19 to 40 Intimacy vs. Isolation Relationships Love
years)
Middle Adulthood (40 to 65 Generativity vs. Work and Care
years) Stagnation Parenthood
Maturity (65 to death) Ego Integrity vs. Reflection on Life Wisdom
Despair

Erik Erikson's Stages of Psychosocial Development

LEARNING OBJECTIVES:

 To state a short background of Erik Erickson, the proponent of Human Psycosocial Development
Theory.
 To identify the different stages of Erik Erikson’s Psychosocial development of pediatric client
(from infancy to adolescence).
 To describe different characteristics and tasks to be accomplished by the individual on each
stage.
 To identify its important events, conflicts, virtues, implications or outcome if those important
tasks are whether satisfactorily attained or completed or not during pediatrics’ psychosocial
development.

INTRODUCTION:
Erik Homburger Erikson (born Erik Salomonsen; 15 June 1902 – 12 May 1994) was a German-
American developmental psychologist and psychoanalyst known for his theory on psychological
development of human beings. Stresses important of culture and society to the development of one’s
personality. He may be most famous for coining the phrase identity crisis.

Erik Erikson was an ego psychologist who developed one of the most popular and influential theories of
development. While his theory was impacted by psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud's work, Erikson's theory
centered on psychosocial development rather than psychosexual development.

Despite lacking a bachelor's degree, Erikson served as a professor at prominent institutions,

including Harvard, University of California, Berkeley, and Yale. A Review of General Psychology survey,
published in 2002, ranked Erikson as the 12th most cited psychologist of the 20th century.

Erik Erikson's Stages of Psychosocial Development

Erikson maintained that personality develops in a predetermined order through eight stages of
psychosocial development, from infancy to adulthood. During each stage, the person experiences a
psychosocial crisis which could have a positive or negative outcome for personality development.

For Erikson (1958, 1963), these crises are of a psychosocial nature because they involve psychological
needs of the individual (i.e., psycho) conflicting with the needs of society (i.e., social).

According to the theory, successful completion of each stage results in a healthy personality and the
acquisition of basic virtues. Basic virtues are characteristic strengths which the ego can use to resolve
subsequent crises.

Failure to successfully complete a stage can result in a reduced ability to complete further stages and
therefore an unhealthier personality and sense of self.  These stages, however, can be resolved
successfully at a later time.
1. Trust vs. Mistrust
Trust vs. mistrust is the first stage in Erik Erikson's theory of psychosocial development. This stage begins
at birth continues to approximately 18 months of age. During this stage, the infant is uncertain about
the world in which they live, and looks towards their primary caregiver for stability and consistency of
care.

If the care the infant receives is consistent, predictable and reliable, they will develop a sense of trust
which will carry with them to other relationships, and they will be able to feel secure even when
threatened.

If these needs are not consistently met, mistrust, suspicion, and anxiety may develop.

If the care has been inconsistent, unpredictable and unreliable, then the infant may develop a sense of
mistrust, suspicion, and anxiety. In this situation the infant will not have confidence in the world around
them or in their abilities to influence events.

The first stage of Erikson's theory of psychosocial development occurs between birth and 1 year of age
and is the most fundamental stage in life. Because an infant is utterly dependent, developing trust is
based on the dependability and quality of the child's caregivers.
At this point in development, the child is utterly dependent upon adult caregivers for everything they
need to survive including food, love, warmth, safety, and nurturing. If a caregiver fails to provide
adequate care and love, the child will come to feel that they cannot trust or depend upon the adults in
their life.

Outcomes

If a child successfully develops trust, the child will feel safe and secure in the world. 2

Caregivers who are inconsistent, emotionally unavailable, or rejecting contribute to feelings of mistrust
in the children under their care. Failure to develop trust will result in fear and a belief that the world is
inconsistent and unpredictable.

During the first stage of psychosocial development, children develop a sense of trust when caregivers
provide reliability, care, and affection. A lack of this will lead to mistrust.

No child is going to develop a sense of 100% trust or 100% doubt. Erikson believed that successful
development was all about striking a balance between the two opposing sides. When this happens,
children acquire hope, which Erikson described as an openness to experience tempered by some
wariness that danger may be present.

Subsequent work by researchers including John Bowlby and Mary Ainsworth demonstrated the
importance of trust in forming healthy attachments during childhood and adulthood.

Success and Failure In Stage One

Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of hope. By developing a sense of trust, the infant can have
hope that as new crises arise, there is a real possibility that other people will be there as a source of
support.

Failing to acquire the virtue of hope will lead to the development of fear. This infant will carry the basic
sense of mistrust with them to other relationships. It may result in anxiety, heightened insecurities, and
an over feeling of mistrust in the world around them.

Consistent with Erikson's views on the importance of trust, research by Bowlby and Ainsworth has
outlined how the quality of the early experience of attachment can affect relationships with others in
later life.
2. Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt
Autonomy versus shame and doubt is the second stage of Erik Erikson's stages of psychosocial
development. This stage occurs between the ages of 18 months to approximately 3 years. According to
Erikson, children at this stage are focused on developing a sense of personal control over physical skills
and a sense of independence.

Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of will. If children in this stage are encouraged and supported
in their increased independence, they become more confident and secure in their own ability to survive
in the world.

If children are criticized, overly controlled, or not given the opportunity to assert themselves, they begin
to feel inadequate in their ability to survive, and may then become overly dependent upon others, lack
self-esteem, and feel a sense of shame or doubt in their abilities.

What Happens During This Stage?

The child is developing physically and becoming more mobile, and discovering that he or she has many
skills and abilities, such as putting on clothes and shoes, playing with toys, etc. Such skills illustrate the
child's growing sense of independence and autonomy.

For example, during this stage child begin to assert their independence, by walking away from their
mother, picking which toy to play with, and making choices about what they like to wear, to eat, etc.

The second stage of Erikson's theory of psychosocial development takes place during early childhood
and is focused on children developing a greater sense of personal control.

The Role of Independence

At this point in development, children are just starting to gain a little independence. They are starting to
perform basic actions on their own and making simple decisions about what they prefer. By allowing
kids to make choices and gain control, parents and caregivers can help children develop a sense of
autonomy.2

Potty Training

The essential theme of this stage is that children need to develop a sense of personal control over
physical skills and a sense of independence. Potty training plays an important role in helping children
develop this sense of autonomy.

Like Freud, Erikson believed that toilet training was a vital part of this process. However, Erikson's
reasoning was quite different than that of Freud's. Erikson believed that learning to control one's bodily
functions leads to a feeling of control and a sense of independence. Other important events include
gaining more control over food choices, toy preferences, and clothing selection.

Outcomes

Children who struggle and who are shamed for their accidents may be left without a sense of personal
control. Success during this stage of psychosocial development leads to feelings of autonomy; failure
results in feelings of shame and doubt.

Finding Balance
Children who successfully complete this stage feel secure and confident, while those who do not are left
with a sense of inadequacy and self-doubt. Erikson believed that achieving a balance between autonomy
and shame and doubt would lead to will, which is the belief that children can act with intention, within
reason and limits.

What Can Parents Do to Encourage a Sense of Control?

Erikson states it is critical that parents allow their children to explore the limits of their abilities within an
encouraging environment which is tolerant of failure.

For example, rather than put on a child's clothes a supportive parent should have the patience to allow
the child to try until they succeed or ask for assistance.

So, the parents need to encourage the child to become more independent while at the same time
protecting the child so that constant failure is avoided.

A delicate balance is required from the parent. They must try not to do

A delicate balance is required from the parent. They must try not to do everything for the child, but if
the child fails at a particular task they must not criticize the child for failures and accidents (particularly
when toilet training).

The aim has to be “self-control without a loss of self-esteem” (Gross, 1992).

 3. Initiative vs. Guilt

Initiative versus guilt is the third stage of Erik Erikson's theory of psychosocial development. During the
initiative versus guilt stage, children assert themselves more frequently through directing play and other
social interaction.

These are particularly lively, rapid-developing years in a child’s life. According to Bee (1992), it is a “time
of vigor of action and of behaviors that the parents may see as aggressive."

During this period the primary feature involves the child regularly interacting with other children at
school. Central to this stage is play, as it provides children with the opportunity to explore their
interpersonal skills through initiating activities.
Children begin to plan activities, make up games, and initiate activities with others. If given this
opportunity, children develop a sense of initiative and feel secure in their ability to lead others and make
decisions.

Conversely, if this tendency is squelched, either through criticism or control, children develop a sense of
guilt. The child will often overstep the mark in his forcefulness, and the danger is that the parents will
tend to punish the child and restrict his initiatives too much.

It is at this stage that the child will begin to ask many questions as his thirst for knowledge grows. If the
parents treat the child’s questions as trivial, a nuisance or embarrassing or other aspects of their
behavior as threatening then the child may have feelings of guilt for “being a nuisance”.

Too much guilt can make the child slow to interact with others and may inhibit their creativity. Some
guilt is, of course, necessary; otherwise the child would not know how to exercise self-control or have a
conscience.

A healthy balance between initiative and guilt is important. Success in this stage will lead to the virtue
of purpose, while failure results in a sense of guilt.

The third stage of psychosocial development takes place during the preschool years. At this point in
psychosocial development, children begin to assert their power and control over the world through
directing play and other social interactions.

Children who are successful at this stage feel capable and able to lead others. Those who fail to acquire
these skills are left with a sense of guilt, self-doubt, and lack of initiative.

Outcomes

The major theme of the third stage of psychosocial development is that children need to begin asserting
control and power over the environment. Success in this stage leads to a sense of purpose. Children who
try to exert too much power experience disapproval, resulting in a sense of guilt.

When an ideal balance of individual initiative and a willingness to work with others is achieved, the ego
quality known as purpose emerges.
4. Industry vs. Inferiority
Erikson's fourth psychosocial crisis, involving industry (competence) vs. Inferiority occurs during
childhood between the ages of five and twelve.

Children are at the stage where they will be learning to read and write, to do sums, to do things on their
own. Teachers begin to take an important role in the child’s life as they teach the child specific skills.

It is at this stage that the child’s peer group will gain greater significance and will become a major source
of the child’s self-esteem. The child now feels the need to win approval by demonstrating specific
competencies that are valued by society and begin to develop a sense of pride in their accomplishments.

If children are encouraged and reinforced for their initiative, they begin to feel industrious (competent)
and feel confident in their ability to achieve goals. If this initiative is not encouraged, if it is restricted by
parents or teacher, then the child begins to feel inferiour, doubting his own abilities and therefore may
not reach his or her potential.

If the child cannot develop the specific skill they feel society is demanding (e.g., being athletic) then they
may develop a sense of Inferiority.

Some failure may be necessary so that the child can develop some modesty. Again, a balance between
competence and modesty is necessary. Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of competence.

The fourth psychosocial stage takes place during the early school years from approximately ages 5 to 11.
Through social interactions, children begin to develop a sense of pride in their accomplishments and
abilities.

Children need to cope with new social and academic demands. Success leads to a sense of competence,
while failure results in feelings of inferiority.

Outcomes

Children who are encouraged and commended by parents and teachers develop a feeling of
competence and belief in their skills. Those who receive little or no encouragement from parents,
teachers, or peers will doubt their abilities to be successful.
Successfully finding a balance at this stage of psychosocial development leads to the strength known
as competence, in which children develop a belief in their abilities to handle the tasks set before them.

5. Identity vs. Role Confusion

The fifth stage of Erik Erikson's theory of psychosocial development is identity vs. role confusion, and it
occurs during adolescence, from about 12-18 years. During this stage, adolescents search for a sense of
self and personal identity, through an intense exploration of personal values, beliefs, and goals.
During adolescence, the transition from childhood to adulthood is most important. Children are
becoming more independent, and begin to look at the future in terms of career, relationships, families,
housing, etc. The individual wants to belong to a society and fit in.

The adolescent mind is essentially a mind or moratorium, a psychosocial stage between childhood and
adulthood, and between the morality learned by the child, and the ethics to be developed by the adult
(Erikson, 1963, p. 245)

This is a major stage of development where the child has to learn the roles he will occupy as an adult. It
is during this stage that the adolescent will re-examine his identity and try to find out exactly who he or
she is. Erikson suggests that two identities are involved: the sexual and the occupational.

According to Bee (1992), what should happen at the end of this stage is “a reintegrated sense of self, of
what one wants to do or be, and of one’s appropriate sex role”. During this stage the body image of the
adolescent changes.

Erikson claims that the adolescent may feel uncomfortable about their body for a while until they can
adapt and “grow into” the changes. Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of fidelity.

Fidelity involves being able to commit one's self to others on the basis of accepting others, even when
there may be ideological differences.

During this period, they explore possibilities and begin to form their own identity based upon the
outcome of their explorations. Failure to establish a sense of identity within society ("I don’t know what
I want to be when I grow up") can lead to role confusion. Role confusion involves the individual not
being sure about themselves or their place in society.

In response to role confusion or identity crisis, an adolescent may begin to experiment with different
lifestyles (e.g., work, education or political activities).

Also pressuring someone into an identity can result in rebellion in the form of establishing a negative
identity, and in addition to this feeling of unhappiness.

The fifth psychosocial stage takes place during the often turbulent teenage years. This stage plays an
essential role in developing a sense of personal identity which will continue to influence behavior and
development for the rest of a person's life. Teens need to develop a sense of self and personal identity.
Success leads to an ability to stay true to yourself, while failure leads to role confusion and a weak sense
of self.

During adolescence, children explore their independence and develop a sense of self. 2 Those who
receive proper encouragement and reinforcement through personal exploration will emerge from this
stage with a strong sense of self and feelings of independence and control. Those who remain unsure of
their beliefs and desires will feel insecure and confused about themselves and the future.

What Is Identity?
When psychologists talk about identity, they are referring to all of the beliefs, ideals, and values that
help shape and guide a person's behavior. Completing this stage successfully leads to fidelity, which
Erikson described as an ability to live by society's standards and expectations.

While Erikson believed that each stage of psychosocial development was important, he placed a
particular emphasis on the development of ego identity. Ego identity is the conscious sense of self that
we develop through social interaction and becomes a central focus during the identity versus confusion
stage of psychosocial development.

According to Erikson, our ego identity constantly changes due to new experiences and information we
acquire in our daily interactions with others. As we have new experiences, we also take on challenges
that can help or hinder the development of identity.

Why Identity Is Important

Our personal identity gives each of us an integrated and cohesive sense of self that endures through our
lives. Our sense of personal identity is shaped by our experiences and interactions with others, and it is
this identity that helps guide our actions, beliefs, and behaviors as we age.

6. Intimacy vs. Isolation

Intimacy versus isolation is the sixth stage of Erik Erikson's theory of psychosocial development. This
stage takes place during young adulthood between the ages of approximately 18 to 40 yrs. During this
stage, the major conflict centers on forming intimate, loving relationships with other people.

During this stage, we begin to share ourselves more intimately with others. We explore relationships
leading toward longer-term commitments with someone other than a family member.
Successful completion of this stage can result in happy relationships and a sense of commitment, safety,
and care within a relationship.

Avoiding intimacy, fearing commitment and relationships can lead to isolation, loneliness, and
sometimes depression. Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of love.

Young adults need to form intimate, loving relationships with other people. Success leads to strong
relationships, while failure results in loneliness and isolation. This stage covers the period of early
adulthood when people are exploring personal relationships. 2

Erikson believed it was vital that people develop close, committed relationships with other people.
Those who are successful at this step will form relationships that are enduring and secure.

Building On Earlier Stages

Remember that each step builds on skills learned in previous steps. Erikson believed that a strong sense
of personal identity was important for developing intimate relationships. Studies have demonstrated
that those with a poor sense of self tend to have less committed relationships and are more likely to
struggler with emotional isolation, loneliness, and depression.

Successful resolution of this stage results in the virtue known as love. It is marked by the ability to form
lasting, meaningful relationships with other people.

7. Generativity vs. Stagnation

Generativity versus stagnation is the seventh of eight stages of Erik Erikson's theory of psychosocial
development. This stage takes place during during middle adulthood (ages 40 to 65 yrs).

Psychologically, generativity refers to "making your mark" on the world through creating or nurturing
things that will outlast an individual. During middle age individuals experience a need to create or
nurture things that will outlast them, often having mentees or creating positive changes that will benefit
other people.

We give back to society through raising our children, being productive at work, and becoming involved
in community activities and organizations. Through generativity we develop a sense of being a part of
the bigger picture.

Success leads to feelings of usefulness and accomplishment, while failure results in shallow involvement
in the world.

By failing to find a way to contribute, we become stagnant and feel unproductive. These individuals may
feel disconnected or uninvolved with their community and with society as a whole. Success in this stage
will lead to the virtue of care.

Adults need to create or nurture things that will outlast them, often by having children or creating a
positive change that benefits other people. Success leads to feelings of usefulness and accomplishment,
while failure results in shallow involvement in the world.

During adulthood, we continue to build our lives, focusing on our career and family. Those who are
successful during this phase will feel that they are contributing to the world by being active in their
home and community.2 Those who fail to attain this skill will feel unproductive and uninvolved in the
world.

Care is the virtue achieved when this stage is handled successfully. Being proud of your
accomplishments, watching your children grow into adults, and developing a sense of unity with your
life partner are important accomplishments of this stage.
8. Ego Integrity vs. Despair
Ego integrity versus despair is the eighth and final stage of Erik Erikson’s stage theory of psychosocial
development. This stage begins at approximately age 65 and ends at death. It is during this time that we
contemplate our accomplishments and can develop integrity if we see ourselves as leading a successful
life.

Individuals who reflect on their life and regret not achieving their goals will experience feelings of
bitterness and despair.

Erikson described ego integrity as “the acceptance of one’s one and only life cycle as something that had
to be” (1950, p. 268) and later as “a sense of coherence and wholeness” (1982, p. 65).

As we grow older (65+ yrs) and become seniour citizens, we tend to slow down our productivity and
explore life as a retired person.

Erik Erikson believed if we see our lives as unproductive, feel guilt about our past, or feel that we did not
accomplish our life goals, we become dissatisfied with life and develop despair, often leading to
depression and hopelessness.

Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of wisdom. Wisdom enables a person to look back on their
life with a sense of closure and completeness, and also accept death without fear.

Wise people are not characterized by a continuous state of ego integrity, but they experience both ego
integrity and despair. Thus, late life is characterized by both integrity and despair as alternating states
that need to be balanced.
The final psychosocial stage occurs during old age and is focused on reflecting back on life. 2 At this point
in development, people look back on the events of their lives and determine if they are happy with the
life that they lived or if they regret the things they did or didn't do.

Erikson's theory differed from many others because it addressed development throughout the entire
lifespan, including old age. Older adults need to look back on life and feel a sense of fulfillment. Success
at this stage leads to feelings of wisdom, while failure results in regret, bitterness, and despair.

At this stage, people reflect back on the events of their lives and take stock. Those who look back on a
life they feel was well-lived will feel satisfied and ready to face the end of their lives with a sense of
peace. Those who look back and only feel regret will instead feel fearful that their lives will end without
accomplishing the things they feel they should have.

Outcomes

Those who are unsuccessful during this stage will feel that their life has been wasted and may
experience many regrets. The person will be left with feelings of bitterness and despair.

Those who feel proud of their accomplishments will feel a sense of integrity. Successfully completing
this phase means looking back with few regrets and a general feeling of satisfaction. These individuals
will attain wisdom, even when confronting death.

Critical Evaluation

By extending the notion of personality development across the lifespan, Erikson outlines a more realistic
perspective of personality development (McAdams, 2001).

Based on Erikson’s ideas, psychology has reconceptualized the way the later periods of life are viewed.
Middle and late adulthood are no longer viewed as irrelevant, because of Erikson, they are now
considered active and significant times of personal growth.

Strengths and Weaknesses of Erikson's Theory

Erikson's theory also has its limitations and attracts valid criticisms. What kinds of experiences are
necessary to successfully complete each stage? How does a person move from one stage to the next?

Criticism

One major weakness of psychosocial theory is that the exact mechanisms for resolving conflicts and
moving from one stage to the next are not well described or developed. The theory fails to detail exactly
what type of experiences are necessary at each stage in order to successfully resolve the conflicts and
move to the next stage.

Support
One of the strengths of psychosocial theory is that it provides a broad framework from which to view
development throughout the entire lifespan. It also allows us to emphasize the social nature of human
beings and the important influence that social relationships have on development.

Researchers have found evidence supporting Erikson's ideas about identity and have further identified
different sub-stages of identity formation.4 Some research also suggests that people who form strong
personal identities during adolescence are better capable of forming intimate relationships during early
adulthood. Other research suggests, however, that identity formation and development continues well
into adulthood.5

A Word From Verywell

It is important to remember that the psychosocial stages are just one theory of how personality
develops. Some research may support certain aspects of this theoretical framework, but that does not
mean that every aspect of the theory is supported by evidence. The theory can, however, be a helpful
way to think about some of the different conflicts and challenges that people may face as they go
through life.