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Electron emission from diamond films seeded using kitchen-wrap polyethylene

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2011 J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys. 44 085502

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IOP PUBLISHING JOURNAL OF PHYSICS D: APPLIED PHYSICS
J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys. 44 (2011) 085502 (7pp) doi:10.1088/0022-3727/44/8/085502

Electron emission from diamond films

seeded using kitchen-wrap polyethylene
D Varshney1,2 , V I Makarov2,3 , P Saxena2 , M J F Guinel2 , A Kumar1 ,
J F Scott2,4 , B R Weiner2,3 and G Morell1,2
1
Department of Physics, University of Puerto Rico, San Juan, Puerto Rico 00931, USA
2
Institute for Functional Nanomaterials, University of Puerto Rico, San Juan, Puerto Rico 00931, USA
3
Department of Chemistry, University of Puerto Rico, San Juan, Puerto Rico 00931, USA
4
Department of Earth Science, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 1PZ, UK
E-mail: deepvar20@gmail.com

Received 18 October 2010, in final form 16 December 2010

Published 10 February 2011
Online at stacks.iop.org/JPhysD/44/085502

Abstract
Diamond has many potential electronic applications, but the diamond seeding methods are
generally harsh on the substrates rendering them unsuitable for integration in electronics.
We report a non-abrasive, scalable and economic process of diamond film seeding using
kitchen-wrap polyethylene employing hot filament chemical vapour reaction of H2 S/CH4 /H2
gas mixtures on Cu substrates. The fabricated diamond films were characterized with scanning
electron microscopy, transmission electron microscopy and Raman spectroscopy, which
confirm that the deposited film consists of a microcrystalline diamond of size in the range
0.5–1.0 µm. The synthesized diamond films exhibit a turn-on field of about 8.5 V µm−1 and
long-term stability. Diamond film synthesis using polyethylene will enable the integration of
diamond heat sinks into high-power and high-temperature electronic devices.
(Some figures in this article are in colour only in the electronic version)

1. Introduction seeded with diamond paste [20], diamond nanoparticles [21]

Diamond possesses a remarkable range of unique physical
properties, such as high thermal conductivity at room temper-
ature and the highest hardness and lowest compressibility
known [1], which renders it as an ideal material for
many applications [2–4], such as cutting tools, coatings for
magnetic discs, optical switches [5], electronic devices [6–10],
spintronics devices and quantum computational components
[11]. However, diamond nucleation on non-diamond surfaces
without pre-treatment or seeding is very inhomogeneous and
slow. Various methods are employed to improve the nucleation
density. Diamond nucleation on non-diamond surfaces
can be enhanced by the surface pretreatments including
scratching [12], seeding [13], electrical biasing [14], ion
implantation [15], ultrasonic abrasion with diamond powder
mixture suspensions [16], laser irradiation method [17, 18]
and pre-coating silicon substrate nucleation layers such as
tungsten followed by ultrasonic agitation with nanodiamond
powder [19]. Also, there have been reports on the use of
polymers to enhance the nucleation of diamond on Si substrates
and fine grained diamond powder [22].
It is a well-established fact that the nucleation density
is enhanced by various pre-treatment methods, such as those
mentioned above, but at the same time, the surface alteration
or damage (usually by the formation of nano-scale pits and
scratches and defect concentration) [23] and contamination of
the substrate surface in varying degrees as a result of any kind of
pre-treatment cannot be overruled and is inevitable. Also, these
pre-treatment methods cannot be easily applied to substrates
of complex geometries and shapes [24], and are incompatible
with many real-life applications requiring such diamond films
namely electronic devices, and optical window materials, and
they even add to the expenditure. Thus, pre-treatment of
the substrate surface to enhance nucleation density renders it
unsuitable for integration into electronics line of production.
Extensive research is being carried out worldwide on
various aspects of diamond formation on various types of
substrates [25, 26], including the ones that form carbides
(e.g. Si, Mo); those which dissolve carbon but do not form
carbides (e.g. Pt, Pb) and those which neither dissolve carbon

0022-3727/11/085502+07$33.00 1 © 2011 IOP Publishing Ltd Printed in the UK & the USA
J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys. 44 (2011) 085502
Figure 1. SEM images of polyethylene-seeded diamond films:
(a) formation of sub-micrometre nucleation centres after 1–2 h of
deposition; (b) microcrystalline diamond is formed in the next 2–4 h;
(c) a dense microcrystalline diamond film with crystallite sizes
around 1–2 µm; (d) cross-sectional view of a dense diamond film.
nor form carbides (e.g. Cu, Ag, Au). The synthesis of
well-adhered and dense diamond films on various substrates,
particularly Cu, is of significant interest with respect to present-
day electronics with copper interconnects but it is usually
considered impractical because of the poor adhesion and low
nucleation density generally observed. Hence, there exists the
need for a method of diamond nucleation on an electrically
viable surface that does not require any pre-treatment and
exhibits high nucleation density and good adhesion.
Interest in synthetic diamond films comes largely from
two device applications: coatings for machine tools, for which
adhesion, conformal coverage, thickness and mechanical
toughness are most important; and electronic applications, for
which cost and electrical properties, such as field emission
characteristics, are paramount, but adhesion and conformal
coverage are of no significance (deposition is on flat films
that are not subjected to large mechanical stresses). In this
study we emphasize electronic characteristics of the diamond
on a substrate surface that neither forms carbides nor dissolves
carbon and is electrically viable, namely Cu fabricated by such
a method that utilizes a cheap seeding material in the form of
food-wrap polyethylene. The present method overcomes the
drawbacks of the existing seeding methods and facilitates the
direct integration of diamond in electronic chips, and at the
same time reduces the production cost.
2
D Varshney et al
Figure 2. Atomic force microscopy image of polyethylene-seeded
diamond film.
Figure 3. X-ray diffractogram showing strong crystalline diamond
diffraction peaks corresponding to the {1 1 1}, {2 2 0}, {3 1 1} and
{4 0 0} planes.
2. Experiments
Multiple layers of polyethylene (commercial food wrap)
were deposited on a 14.0 mm diameter copper substrate
(Good Fellow Cambridge Limited) to get a 1.0–2.0 mm thick
polyethylene layer. This layer was melted at a temperature of
120 ◦ C with a heating rate of 20 ◦ C min−1 and cooled to room
temperature at a cooling rate of 5 ◦ C min−1 before introducing
it into a hot filament chemical vapour deposition (HFCVD)
chamber. A gas mixture, consisting of 0.3% methane in
hydrogen and 99.7% of hydrogen containing 500 ppm of H2 S
at a constant pressure of 20 Torr and a total gas flow of
100 sccm, was activated by a coiled rhenium filament (8 cm
long and 0.5 mm diameter) positioned at 9 mm above the
substrate holder in the chamber. The substrate and the filament
temperatures were kept at approximately 500 ◦ C and 2500 ◦ C,
respectively. The above procedure was reproducible and the
results were consistent each time the experiment was repeated.
The scanning electron microscopy (SEM) images were
recorded using a JEOL JSM 845A SEM. The x-ray diffraction
(XRD) measurements were taken on a Siemens D5000
J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys. 44 (2011) 085502
Figure 4. Raman spectra of the various stages of formation of diamond from food-wrap polyethylene: (a) polyethylene-coated copper
substrate prior to the deposition; (b) sub-microcrystalline diamond film after 1–2 h of deposition; (c) microcrystalline diamond film after
reaction completion.
diffractometer using a Cu Kα line source (λ = 1.5405 Å) in
a θ –2θ configuration. The atomic force microscopy (AFM)
images were obtained with a digital nanoscope III a. The
Raman spectra were obtained using a J-Y T64000 Raman
Microprobe with triple monochromator using the 514.5 nm
radiation of an Ar–ion laser and a resolution of 1.0 cm−1 . The
transmission electron microscopy (TEM) data were acquired
using a Carl Zeiss LEO 922 energy filtered TEM operated at
200 kV. The field emission I –V characteristics were measured
in a custom made system, in which a molybdenum rod of 3 mm
diameter (area: 0.071 cm2 ) serves as the anode. Using this
kind of configuration, the macroscopic surface electric field
(ES ) on the sample (i.e. cathode) can be estimated accurately
by ES = V /dCA , where V is the voltage applied to the anode
and dCA is the distance between the anode and the cathode.
The distance between the anode and the cathode is controlled
with a micropositioner with an accuracy of ±2 µm. All the
measurements were taken at dCA = 100 µm, and at a pressure
not higher than 5 × 10−7 Torr. The current was measured
with a Keithley 6517A electrometer, and the power supply
used was a Stanford Research Systems PS350. Currents lower
3
D Varshney et al
than 1 × 10−12 A were considered as the background noise
level. The turn-on field is defined here as the field necessary
to produce a current density of 1 nA cm−2 .
3. Results and discussion
Polyethylene undergoes a phase transition from polymer to
crystal upon heating [27]. The polyethylene crystallites
seem to act as nucleation sites for diamond growth in the
presence of hydrocarbon radicals and atomic hydrogen in
the chemical vapour deposition (CVD) system, resulting in
sub-micrometre diamond crystallites during the first 1–2 h
(figure 1(a)). The diamond crystallites grow into micrometre
size crystals with well-defined facets that start forming a film
over the next 2–4 h (figure 1(b)). With passage of time the
diamond film grows denser as shown (figure 1(c)). It is
composed of microcrystalline diamond crystals of diameters
ranging from 1 to 2 µm. The cross-sectional view of the
as-grown diamond film reveals the film thickness in the
range 1.0–1.3 µm (figure 1(d)). The AFM image (figure 2)
reveals the surface roughness (≈90 nm) of the diamond films.
J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys. 44 (2011) 085502
The actual formation of diamond was confirmed from XRD,
Raman spectroscopy (RS) and TEM. The x-ray diffractogram
(figure 3) shows strong crystalline diamond diffraction peaks
at ∼43.5◦ , 74◦ , 95◦ and 117◦ , corresponding to the {1 1 1},
{2 2 0}, {3 1 1} and {4 0 0} planes. The diffraction peaks at
∼51◦ and 90◦ correspond to the substrate material (Cu). XRD
gives no evidence of graphitic carbon phases.
The Raman spectrum of the polyethylene-coated substrate
(figure 4(a)) showing the typical vibrational modes of food-
wrap polyethylene, which has a simple chemical structure of
methylene chains and is one of the most common polymers
in everyday household and industrial use. The characteristic
fundamental vibrational modes observed between 1000 and
2000 cm−1 are frequently used to study morphological
structure [28] (e.g. crystallinity, orientation and molecular
stress) and can be assigned to the following internal
coordinates [29, 30]: the C–C skeletal modes between 1000
and 1200 cm−1 are highly sensitive to molecular orientation,
stress and conformations; the –CH2 – twisting vibrations
characteristically seen around 1295 cm−1 can be used as an
internal standard; and the –CH2 – bending modes between 1400
and 1470 cm−1 are considered to be sensitive to chain packing
in polyethylene.
The Raman spectrum of the emerging sub-micrometre
diamond after the first 1–2 h (figure 4(b)) reveals the
intermediate growth stage, exhibiting a shoulder around
1160 cm−1 corresponding to nanocrystalline diamond [31]
and a broad peak around 1331 cm−1 that is the signature of
sp3 bonded carbon [32, 33]. The vibrational bands obtained
confirm the presence of sub-microcrystalline diamond that
acts as nucleation centre for further diamond growth. The
band in the 1580–1620 cm−1 region corresponds to graphitic
structures [34].
The Raman spectrum of the diamond film obtained
after the completion of the reaction (figure 4(c)) shows a
sharp and intense peak at 1333 cm−1 that is the signature
of sp3 bonded C in the diamond phase [32, 33]. The broad
band in the range 1580–1608 cm−1 is much weaker and can
be explained as a convolution of the G peak (1582 cm−1 )
and the so-called D peak [35], indicating the presence of
traces of graphitic carbon. The low-intensity band around
1493 cm−1 corresponds to trans-polyacetylene (TPA) that
usually accompanies nanodiamond and presumably formed
during the initial growth phase [36].
The diamond film was further characterized using TEM.
Superficial diamond crystallites were obtained by sonicating
the film in propanol. The bright field TEM image shows small
diamond crystallites of 10–30 nm that were loosely bound to
the diamond film surface (figure 5). The inset shows a selected
area electron diffraction pattern, indexed to polycrystalline
diamond. The {1 1 1}, {2 2 0} and {3 1 1} planes are indicated,
in agreement with the XRD data discussed above. We could
not detect the presence of graphite. The results were further
confirmed by electron energy loss spectroscopy.
A study of the electron emission properties of the
deposited film reveals that the polyethylene-seeded diamond
films on Cu show a turn-on field of 8.5 V µm−1 and emission
up to 1 µA cm−2 in the 12–15 V µm−1 region (figure 6(a)).
4
D Varshney et al
Figure 5. Bright field TEM image recorded from superficial
diamond crystallites. The inset displays a selected area electron
diffraction pattern indexed to polycrystalline diamond.
The observed FE can be attributed to the initiation of electron
release from a sub-band in the energy gap of diamond [37] and
to the increased local field at the diamond–metal interface of
the metal substrate [38]. Moreover, an increased number of
electrons available at the emission site may be attributed to the
trace amounts of sulfur present in the gas mixture [39]. The
data from field emission measurements of the film was fitted to
the Fowler–Nordheim (F–N) equation (figure 6(b)). The field
enhancement factor (β) is related to the slope (m) of the F–N
plot and is identified to be directly dependent on the effective
emitter radius. This factor β is expressed by the following
equation [40]:
β = (−6.83 × 103 ϕ 3/2 )/m
where ϕ is the work function of the emitter material in eV.
Assuming the work function as 4.0 eV for diamond [41], the
calculated β value from the slopes of the F–N plot (figure 6(b))
is in the order of 103 . The high β value makes the triangular
barrier become narrower and lower, which effectively enhances
the electron tunnelling constant.
The obtained electron emission data are also indicative
of a good electrical contact between the diamond film and
the substrate. Electron emission stability is also an important
feature in the real-life application of diamond as emitter
material. The obtained stability (figure 6(c)) shows a rapid
drop in the emission current and was observed for the first 6–7 h
before attaining a constant value with no signs of degradation
even after three days (∼90 h) of continuous testing.
Diamond surfaces have remarkable energy band diagrams,
which are different from most of the other semiconductor
surfaces and their energy state spectrum yields a non-linear
slope of the F–N plot [38]. The field emission from the
wide band-gap semiconductor is, in principle, contributed
from three energy states, conduction band, valence band and
J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys. 44 (2011) 085502
Figure 6. Field emission characteristics of sulfur-doped diamond on copper: (a) current density (J ) versus electric field (E) plot, (b) F–N
plot, (c) current stability (J versus t) plot.
surface states [38]. The surface states are responsible for the
deviations in electron emission from the F–N law resulting in
three different slopes that are frequently observed for carbon
materials [42–46]. In this study, the F–N plot has three distinct
slopes representing electron emission from three different
regions with a gradation in field.
(a) Region 1: in this region, 25 < E < 10 V µm−1
which is equivalent to a high local field, (approximately
E
3000 V µm−1 ) the electrons can tunnel to diamond
conduction band from any energy level.
(b) Region 2: in this region 10 < E < 7.5 V µm−1 which
is equivalent to a moderate local field (approximately
E
500 V µm−1 ), the major contribution is due the
electrons that are present in the conduction minima of
diamond.
(c) Region 3: in this region 5 < E < 10 V µm−1 which
is equivalent to a low local field (approximately E 
400 V µm−1 ), the major contribution is made by the low
occupancy states.
We analysed the experimental data of electron field
emission of diamond film on copper substrate using quasi-
classical Wentzel–Kramers–Brillouin (WKB) approximation
5
D Varshney et al
[42, 47]. The low turn-on field of 8.5 V µm−1 can be
understood by the fact that the Schottky barrier reduces due
to defects generated near the diamond/metal (Cu) interface.
This reduced width of the depletion layer tends to increase the
emission by the tunnelling process and electrons are injected
from the Cu conduction band into the diamond conduction
band. Electrons are then transported to the diamond surface
and emitted with no additional barrier due to NEA of the
diamond surface [38, 48] as shown in the schematic diagram
(scheme 1). Schottky barrier and electron affinity values were
calculated as ∼0.38 eV and ∼−0.53 eV, respectively. These
values indicate the existence of a good diamond/Cu interface
and the absence of any barrier for the electron to escape from
the diamond surface into vacuum.
The genesis of microcrystalline diamond film from
polyethylene seeds on a non-carbide forming substrate can
be understood qualitatively through a mechanism (scheme 2)
based on the current understanding of the CVD of diamond
and the crystallization behaviour of polyethylene. Low
density polyethylene (LDPE) is a thermoplastic polymer (M.P.
120 ◦ C) consisting of long chains of the monomer ethylene
(IUPAC name: ethane) with density in the range 0.910–
0.940 g cm−3 . Both materials, the soft polymer and diamond,
J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys. 44 (2011) 085502
Scheme 1. Schematic representation of the NEA of the diamond surface.
Scheme 2. Schematic representation of the mechanism of diamond film growth from polyethylene.
consist primarily of carbon, but the polymer has (–CH2 –
CH2 –)n chains [49]. According to the mechanism involved
in the crystallization of polyethylene, when a polyethylene
melt is cooled below the equilibrium melting temperature
of polyethylene crystals, the conversion to a semi-crystalline
state becomes thermodynamically favourable. The crystallite
formation takes place via self-nucleation that is said to occur
when molten polyethylene contains tiny seed crystals that are
not destroyed during the melting process [50]. The commercial
polyethylene or the food wrap contains crystallites produced
and retained in the course of manufacturing process. These
pre-existing polyethylene crystalline entities act as nuclei upon
which diamond crystallites can develop. The polyethylene
melt of this study is cooled to room temperature resulting in
crystals of polyethylene that adopt the low energy diamond-
like shape. Another factor that influences the crystal formation
is the interactive forces on the surface. The substrate provides
a source of interaction with the individual polymer chains that
competes with the forces that drive the system to crystallization
[51]. A decrease in melting point for semi-crystalline polymers
occurs on the interactive surfaces, thus annihilating the crystals
6
D Varshney et al
during exposure to elevated temperatures. The non-carbide-
forming substrates, such as Cu, Ag and Au, provide a
surface with minimal surface interactions, thus facilitating the
formation of crystals in the lowest energy diamond shape,
which in due course of the reaction interact with the active
chemical species from the hydrocarbon gases in the CVD
chamber to result initially in nanocrystalline and finally in
microcrystalline diamond.
4. Conclusion
We expect that the direct nucleation and fabrication of diamond
from food-wrap polyethylene on copper may pave the way
for integration of diamond in electronics by utilizing the
appropriate patterning techniques, such as e-beam lithography
and dip pen nanolithography [52]. The advance hereby
reported removes a critical obstacle in the route to integrating
diamond with electronic components by providing a non-harsh
method to induce dense diamond growth on Cu, that can be
extended to other non-carbide forming substrates such as Ag
and Au. Also, the excellent field emission properties of the
J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys. 44 (2011) 085502
deposited diamond films render them as potential candidates
for the fabrication of robust power-efficient flat-panel displays,
in vacuum microelectronics, sensors and MEMS. Thus, the
present report is a step closer to expanding the use of the
superlative electrical, thermal and mechanical properties of
diamond in many fields of science and engineering [53].
Acknowledgments
This research was carried out under the auspices of
the Institute for Functional Nanomaterials (NSF Grant
0701525), PR NASA EPSCoR (NASA Cooperative Agree-
ment NNX07AO30A) and PR DOE EPSCoR (DOE Grant
DE-FG02-08ER46526).
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