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CHAPTER 42 NOTES:

CIRCULATION AND GAS EXCHANGE


CONCEPT 42.1: Circulatory systems link exchange
surfaces with cells throughout the body.
The molecular trade that an animal carries out with its environment -- gaining O 2
and nutrients while releasing CO2 and other waste products -- must ultimately
involve every cell in the body. Small molecules in and around cells undergo
diffusion, which is random thermal motion. Where there is a difference in
concentration, diffusion can result in net movement. The time it takes for a
substance to diffuse from one place to another is proportional to the square of the
distance.

One adaptation for efficient exchange is a simple body plan that places many or
all cells in direct contact with the environment. Animals that lack a simple body
have a circulatory system, which move fluid between each cell’s immediate
surroundings and the body tissues.

GASTROVASCULAR CAVITIES
In hydras, jellies, and other cnidarians, a central gastrovascular cavity functions in
the distribution of substances throughout the body, as well as in digestion. An
opening at one end connects the cavity to the surrounding water, and the cavity
branches into the tentacles nadn the rest of the body. In animal with a
gastrovascular cavity, fluid bathes both the inner and outer tissue layers,
facilitating exchange of gases and cellular waste.

Planarians and most other flatworms also survive with a combination of a


gastrovascular cavity and a flat body. A flat body increases surface area and
minimizes diffusion distances.

OPEN AND CLOSED CIRCULATORY SYSTEMS


Circulatory systems have three basic components: a circulatory fluid, a set of
interconnecting vessels, a muscular pump, the heart. The heart powers circulation
by using metabolic energy to elevate the circulatory fluid hydrostatic pressure, the
pressure the fluid exerts on surrounding vessels. The fluid then flows through the
vessels and back to the heart.

By transporting fluid through the body, the circulatory system functionally


connects the aqueous environment of the body cells to the organs that exchange
gases, absorb nutrients, and dispose of wastes.

Open circulatory system: the circulatory fluid, called hemolymph, is also the
interstitial fluid that bathes body cells. Arthropods, such as grasshoppers, and
some molluscs have open circulatory systems. Contraction of the heart pumps
the hemolymph through the circulatory vessels into interconnected sinuses,
spaces surrounding the organs. Within the sinuses, the hemolymph and body
cells exchange gases and other chemicals; relaxation of the heart drawn
hemolymph hack in through pores, which have values that close when the heart
contracts.

Closed circulatory system: the circulatory fluid, blood, is confined to vessels and is
distinct from the interstitial fluid. One or more hearts pump blood into large
vessels that branch into smaller ones that infiltrate the tissues and organs.
Chemical exchange occurs between the blood and interstitial fluid.

The lower hydrostatic pressure typically associated with open circulatory systems
allow them to use less energy than closed systems. Spiders also use open
circulatory systems to extend their legs. Meanwhile, closed circulatory systems
provides benefits such as blood pressure high enough to enable the effective
delivery of O2 and nutrients in larger and more active animals.

ORGANIZATION OF VERTEBRATE CIRCULATORY SYSTEMS


Cardiovascular system: the heart and blood vessels in vertebrates. Blood
circulates to and from the heart through an extensive network of vessels.

Arteries: carry blood form the heart of organs throughout the body. ithin organs,
arteries branch into arterioles, which convey blood to capillaries. Networks of
capillaries, capillary beds, infiltrate tissues.

Veins: the vessels that carry blood back to the heart. At the “downward” end,
capillaries converge into venules, which converge into veins.

The hearts of all vertebrates contain two or more muscular chambers -- the atria
receive blood entering he heart, and the ventricles pump blood out of the heart.

SINGLE CIRCULATION

Single circulation: blood travels through the body and returns to its starting point
in a single circuit, found in sharks, rays, and bony fishes. Animals with single
circulation have a heart that consists of one atrium and one ventricle.

Blood entering the heart collects in the atrium before transfer to the ventricle --
contraction of the ventricle pumps blood to a capillary bed in the gills, where there
is a net diffusion of O2 into the blood and of CO2 out of the blood. The capillaries
converge into a vessel that carries oxygen-rich blood to capillary beds throughout
the body.

DOUBLE CIRCULATION

Double circulation: the circulatory system of amphibians, reptiles, and mammals.


There are two circuits of blood flow, with the pumps for both combined into one
organ, the heart. In one circuit, the right side of the heart pumps oxygen-poor
blood fo the capillary beds of the gas exchange tissues -- in most vertebrates, this
is the pulmonary circuit (lungs), and the pulmocutaneous circuit (lungs and skin)
in amphibians. The systemic circuit begins with the left side of the heart pumping
oxygen-enriched blood form the gas exchange tissues to capillary beds in organs
and tissues throughout the body.

Double circulation provides vigorous flow of blood to the brain, muscles, and other
organs as the heart pressurizes the blood afte rist passses through the capillary
beds of the lungs or skin. Meanwhile, in single circulation, the blood flows under
reduced pressure directly form the gas exchange organs to other organs.
EVOLUTIONARY VARIATION IN DOUBLE CIRCULATION

Some vertebrates with double circulation are intermittent breathers -- amphibians


and many reptiles fill their lungs with air periodically, passing long periods either
without gas exchange or by relying on another gas exchange tissue, typically the
skin. In many animals with three-chambered hearts (two atria and one ventricle),
blood flow can be shut from the lungs temporarily when it is useless under water.

CONCEPT 42.2: Coordinated cycles of heart


contraction drive double circulation in mammals.
MAMMALIAN CIRCULATION

1. Contraction of the right ventricles pumps blood to the lungs.

2. The pulmonary arteries transports blood to the lungs.

3. As the blood flows through capillary bed in the left and right lungs, it loads O 2
and unloads CO2.

4. Oxygen-rich blood returns from the lungs via the pulmonary veins to the left
atrium of the heart.

5. The oxygen-rich blood flow into the hearts’ left ventricle, which pumps the
oxygen-rich blood out to body tissues through the systemic circuit.
6. Blood leaves the left ventricle via the aorta, which conveys blood to arteries
leading throughout the body.

7. Branches of the aorta lead to capillary beds in the head and arms.

8. The aorta descends into the abdomen supplying oxygen-rich blood to arteries
leading to capillary beds in the abdominal organs and legs. There is a net diffusion
of O2 from the blood to the tissues and of CO2 into the blood.

9. Capillaries rejoin, forming venules, which convey blood to veins. Oxygen-poor


blood from the heat, nek, and forelimbs is channeled into the superior vena cava.

10. The inferior vena cava drains blood form the trunk and hind limbs.

11. The two venae cavae empty their blood into the right atrium, form which the
oxygen-poor blood flows into he right ventricle.

THE MAMMALIAN HEART

The two atria serve as collection chambers for blood returning to the heart form
the lungs or other body tissues. Much of the blood that enters the atria flows into
the ventricles while all four heart chambers are relaxed. The remainder is
transferred by contraction of the area before the ventricles begin to contract.

The ventricles have thicker walls and contract much more forcefully than the atria.
Both the left and right ventricles pump the same volume of blood during each
contraction.

Cardiac cycle: one complete sequence of pumping and filling of the heart. The
contraction phase is called systole, and the relaxation phase is called diastole.

The volume of blood each ventricle pumps per minute is the cardiac output.
Cardiac output is determined by heart rate and the stroke volume.
Four valves in the heart prevent backflow and keep blood moving in the correct
direction -- made of flaps of connective tissues, the valves open when pushed
from one side and close when pushed from the other. The atrioventricular (AV)
valve lies between each atrium and ventricle, and are anchored by strong fibers
that prevent them form turning inside out during ventricular systole. Semilunar
valves are located at the two exits of the heart, are are pushed open by the
pressure generated during contraction of the ventricles.

Heart murmur: an abnormal sound produced when blood squirts backward


through a defective valve.

MAINTAINING THE HEART’S RHYTHMIC BEAT


In vertebrates, the heartbeat originates in the heart itself -- some cardiac muscle
cell are autorhythmic. Groups of autorhythmic cells located in the wall of the right
atrium, the sinoatrial (SA) node, sets the rate and timing at which all cardiac
muscle cells contract.

The SA node produces electrical impulses like those produced by nerve cells -- as
cardiac muscle cells are electrically coupled through gap junctions, impulses from
the SA node spread rapidly within heart tissue. These impulses can be measured
by an electrocardiogram (ECG / EKG), where electrodes placed on the skin record
the currents.

Impulses form the SA node first spread rapidly through the walls of the atria,
causing both atria to contract in unison. The impulses originating at the SA node
then reach the atrioventricular (AV) node, which signals the ventricles to contract
through sending signals through bundle branches and Purkinje fibers.

The sympathetic and parasympathetic division of the nervous system are largely
responsible for regulation of the pacemaker function of the SA node. The
sympathetic division speeds up the pacemaker, while the parasympathetic
division slows it down.

CONCEPT 42.3: Patterns of blood pressure and flow


reflect the structure and arrangement of blood vessels.
BLOOD VESSEL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION
Endothelium: a single layer of flattened epithelial cells that line the central lumen
of all blood vessels. The smooth endothelium minimizes resistance to fluid flow.
Surrounding the endothelium are tissue layers that differ among capillaries,
arteries, and veins.

Capillaries are the smallest blood vessels, and have very thin walls that consist of
just an endothelium and a surrounding extracellular layer called the basal lamina.
The exchange of substances between the blood and interstitial fluid occurs only
in capillaries.

Both arteries and veins have walls that consist of two layers of tissue surrounding
the endothelium -- the outer layer is formed by connective tissue that contains
elastic fibers, which allow the vessel to stretch and recoil, and collagen, which
provides strength. The inner layer contains smooth muscle and more elastic
fibers.

Arterial walls are thick, strong, and elastic, allowing it to accommodate blood
pumped at high pressure by the heart. The smooth muscles in walls of arteries
and arterioles help regulate the path of blood flow -- signals from the nervous
system and hormones act on the smooth muscle, cause dilation or constriction
that modulates blood flow.

BLOOD FLOW VELOCITY


As there are roughly 7 billion arteries in the human body, each artery conveys
blood to so many capillaries that the total cross-sectional area is much greater in
capillary beds than in the arteries or any other part of the circulatory system. This
results in a dramatic decrease in velocity from the arteries to the capillaries. After
passing through the capillaries, the blood speeds up as it enters the venules and
veins, which have smaller total cross-sectional areas.

BLOOD PRESSURE
Contraction of a heart ventricle generates blood pressure, which exerts a force in
al directions. The part of the force directed lengthwise in an artery causes the
blood to flow away from the heart, the site of highest pressure. Meanwhile, the
part of the force exerted sideways stretches the wall of the artery. Following
contraction, the recoil of the arterial walls maintains blood pressure, and blood
flow. After the blood enters the arterioles and capillaries, the narrow diameter
generates resistance to flow, dissipating the pressure generated by the heart.

CHANGES IN BLOOD PRESSURE DURING THE CARDIAC CYCLE

Systolic pressure: the pressure at which the heart contracts during ventricular
systole. Arterial blood pressure is highest at this point.

Pulse: the rhythmic bulging of the artery walls with each heartbeat. This coincides
with the systolic pressure level.

Diastolic pressure: the pressure at which the ventricles are relaxed. It is lower, but
still substantially high, than the systolic pressure.

REGULATION OF BLOOD PRESSURE

Vasoconstriction: the process by which the smooth muscles in the arteriole walls
contract, narrowing the arterioles. Vasoconstriction increases blood pressure
upstream in the arteries.

Vasodilation: the process by which the smooth muscles relax, and the arteriole
diameter increases, causing blood pressure to fall.

Nitric oxide (NO) is the major inducer of vasodilation and endothelin, a peptide.
Cues form the nervous and endocrine systems regulate production of NO and
endothelin in blood vessels, where their opposing activities provide homeostatic
regulation of blood pressure.

BLOOD PRESSURE AND GRAVITY

Blood pressure is generally measured in the arm at the same height as the heart.
For a healthy adult, arterial blood pressure is usually 120 / 70.

Gravity plays a significant effect on blood pressure -- when standing, the head is
roughly 0.35 m higher than the chest, causing arterial blood pressure in the brain
to be around 27 mm Hg less than near the heart. The fainting response is
triggered when the nervous system detects that the blood pressure in the brain is
below the level needed to provide adequate blood flow.

Gravity also affects blood flow in veins, especially those in the legs. When
standing or sitting, gravity draws blood downward to the feet and impedes its
upward return to the heart. As blood pressure in veins are relatively low, valves
inside the veins have to maintain the unidirectional flow of blood within the
vessels; the return of blood to the heart is further enhanced by rhythmic
contractions of smooth muscles in the walls of venules and veins and by the
contraction of skeletal muscles during exercise.

CAPILLARY FUNCTIOn
At any given time, only around 5 to 10% of the body’s capillaries have blood
flowing through them; however, each tissue has many capillaries so every part of
the body is constantly supplied with blood.

Blood flow in capillary beds are altered through constriction or dilation of the
arterioles that supply capillary beds, or through the opening and closing of
precapillary sphincters, rings of smooth muscle located at the entrance to the
capillary beds, which regulates and redirects the passage of blood into particular
sets of capillaries.

Blood pressure tends to drive fluids out of the capillaries, and the presence of
blood proteins tends to pull fluid back. Many blood proteins are too large to pass
readily through the endothelium, so they remain in the capillaries. These proteins
are responsible for the blood’s osmotic pressure, the pressure produced by the
difference in solute concentration across a membrane.
FLUID RETURN BY THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
Lymphatic system: the organ system that recovers and returns lost fluid and
proteins within the blood to the blood.

luid diffuse in the lymphatic system via a network of tiny vessels intermingled
with capillaries. The recovered fluid, lymph, circulates within the lymphatic system
before draining into a pair of large veins of the cardiovascular system at the base
of the neck.

The movement of lymph from peripheral tissues to the heart relies on the same
mechanisms that assist blood flow in veins. Disruption in lymph movement often
results in fluid accumulation, or edema, in affected tissue.

Along lymph vessels are small, lymph-filtering organs called lymph nodes. Inside
each lymph node is a honeycomb of connective tissue with spaces filled by white
blood cells, which function in defense -- when he body is fighting an infection, the
white blood cells multiply, and the lymph nodes become swollen and tender.

CONCEPT 42.4: Blood components function in


exchange, transport, and defense.
BLOOD COMPOSITION AND FUNCTION
Vertebrate blood is connective tissue consisting of cells suspended in plasma.

PLASMA

Plasma contains dissolved ions and proteins that function in osmotic regulation,
transport, and defense.

1. Water serves as the solvent.


2. Ions, including sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, chloride, and
bicarbonate serve in osmotic balance, pH buffering, and regulation of
membrane permeability.
3. Albumin (plasma protein) serves in osmotic balance and pH buffering
4. Immunoglobulins (antibodies) serve for defense.
Apolipoproteins serve in lipid transport
5. Fibrinogen serves in clotting.

Plasma also contains many other substances in transit, including nutrients,


metabolic wastes, respiratory gases, and hormones. Plasma has a much higher
protein concentration than interstitial fluid, although the two fluids are otherwise
similar.

CELLULAR ELEMENTS

Platelets: cell fragments that are involved in the clotting process.

Erythrocytes (red blood cells): the most numerous blood cells. Their main function
is transport of O2. Human erythrocytes are small disks that are biconcave (thinner
in the center than a the edges). The shape increases surface area, enhancing the
rate of diffusion of O2 across the plasma membrane. Mature mammalian
erythrocytes lack nuclei.

Hemoglobin: the iron-containing protein that transports O2. Hemoglobin is found


in erythrocytes.

Erythrocytes do not have nuclei. They also lack mitochondria and generate ATP
through anaerobic metabolism.

Sickle-cell disease: an abnormal form of hemoglobin (HbS) polymerizes into


aggregates, which can distort the erythrocyte into an elongated, curved shape
that resembles a sickle. This is due to an alteration in the amino acid sequence of
hemoglobin at a single position.

Leukocytes (white blood cells): functions in fighting infections. Some are


phagocytic (engulf and digest), while others, lymphocytes, mount immune
responses against foreign substances.

Platelets: pinched-off cytoplasmic fragments of specialized bone marrow cells.


They serve both structural and molecular functions in blood clotting.

STEM CELLS AND THE REPLACEMENT OF CELLULAR ELEMENTS

Stem cell: a cell that can reproduce indefinitely, divide mitotically to produce one
daughter cell that remains a stem cell and another that adopts a specialized
function. The stem cells that produce the cellular elements of blood cells are
located in the red marrow inside bones.

Stem cells give rise to two sets of progenitor cells with a more limited capacity for
self-renewal. Lymphoid progenitor cells: produces lymphocytes (B and T cells),
while myeloid progenitors produces all other blood-related cells.

Erythropoietin (EPO): a hormone synthesized and secreted by the kidneys that


stimulates the generation of more erythrocytes when O2 levels fall. Recombinant
EPO can be used to treat anemia, a condition of lower-than-normal erythrocyte or
hemoglobin levels that decreases the oxygen carrying capacity of the blood.

BLOOD CLOTTING

When blood vessels are broken by an injury, a chain of events quickly seals the
break, halting blood loss and exposure to infection. The key mechanical event is
coagulation, the conversion of the liquid components of blood into a solid -- the
blood clot.

In the absence of injury, the coagulant (sealant) circulates in an inactive form


called fibrinogen. Blood clotting begins when injury exposes the proteins in a
broken blood vessel wall to blood constituents. Thee exposed proteins attract
platelets, which release clotting factors, triggering the formation of thrombin from
its inactive form, prothrombin. Thrombin converts fibrinogen to fibrin, which
aggregates ito threads that forms the framework of the clot.

Thrombus: a clot that forms within a blood vessel blocking the flow of blood.

CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE
ATHEROSCLEROSIS, HEART ATTACKS, AND STROKE

Atherosclerosis: the hardening of the arteries by accumulation of fatty deposits.


Individuals with a high ratio of low-density lipoprotein (LDL) to high-density
lipoprotein (HDL) are at high risk for atherosclerosis. LDL delivers cholesterol to
cells for membrane production, while HDL scavenges excess cholesterol for
return to the liver.

In atherosclerosis, damage to the arterial lining results in inflammation, the body’s


reaction to injury. Leukocytes are attracted to the inflamed area and begin to take
up lipids, including cholesterol. A plaque (fatty deposit) grows; as the plaque
grows, the walls of the artery become thick and stiff, and obstruction of the artery
increases.

Heart attack (myocardial infarction): the damage or death of cardiac muscle


tissue resulting form blockage of one or more coronary arteries, which supply
oxygen-rich blood to the heart muscle. The coronary arteries are very thin and
prone to bloackate by atheroscelrotic plaques or thrombi.

Stroke: the death of nervous tissue in the brain due to a lack of O2. Strokes
usually result from rupture or blockage of arteries in the head.

RISK FACTORS AND TREATMENT OF CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE

Consumption of trans fats and smoking increases the LDL/HDL ratio, while
exercise decreases the ratio.

Aspirin, which inhibits the inflammatory response, has been found to help prevent
the recurrence of heart attacks and stroke.

Hypertension (high blood pressure): a condition that contributes to heart attack


and stroke. Chronic high blood pressure damages the endothelium that lines the
arteries, promoting plaque formation. Hypertension is defined as 140/90 or higher.

CONCEPT 42.5: Gas exchange occurs across


specialized respiratory surfaces.
Gas exchange: the uptake of molecular O2 from the environment and the
discharge of CO2 to the environment.

PARTIAL PRESSURE GRADIENTS IN GAS EXCHANGE


Partial pressure: the pressure exerted by a particular gas in a mixture of gasses.
Determining partial pressures enables us to predict the net movement of a gas at
an exchange surface.

Partial pressure is calculated by multiplying the percentage volume a certain gas


is in the mixture by the total pressure of the mixture. For example, the partial
pressure of atmospheric O2 is 21% * 760 mm Hg, which is around 160 mm Hg.

RESPIRATORY MEDIA
Because air is much less dense and less viscous than water, it's easier to move
and to force through small passageways. Therefore, breathing air is relatively easy
and does not need to be particularly efficient.

Water Is much more demanding gas exchange medium than air -- water has
lower O2 content, greater density, and greater viscosity. Therefore, sea animals
must expend considerable energy to respire underwater.

RESPIRATORY SURFACES
The movement of O2 and CO2 across respiratory surface stakes place by diffusion
-- the rate of diffusion is proportional to the surface area across which it occurs
and inversely proportional th square of the distance through which molecules
must move. In simple animals, every cell in the body is close enough the external
environment that gases can diffuse quickly. However, the bulk of body cells in
most animal lack immediate access -- the respiratory surface in these animals are
a thin, moist epithelium that constitutes a respiratory organ.

GILLS IN AQUATIC ANIMALS


Gills: outfoldigns of the body surface that are suspended in the water.

Ventilation: movement of the respiratory medium over the respiratory surface.


Ventilation maintains the partial pressure gradients of O2 and CO2 across the gill
that are necessary for gas exchange.

To promote ventilation, most gill-bearing animals either move their gills through
the water or move water over the gills. In octopi, squids, and fishes, a current of
water enters the mouth of the fish, aspses thouhg slits int eh pharynx, flows over
the hills, and then exits the body.

Countercurrent exchange: the exchange of a substance or heat between two


fluids flowing in opposite directions. In a fish gill, the two fluids are lodo and water;
as blood flows in the direction opposite to that of water passing over gills, at each
point in its travel blood is less saturated with O2 than the water it meets.

TRACHEAL SYSTEM IN INSECTS


Tracheal system: a network of air tubes that branch throughout the body in
insets. The largest tubes, tracheae, open to the outside. At the tips of the finest
branches, a moist epithelial lining enables gas exchange by diffusion. As the
tracheal system brings air within a very short distance of virtually every body cell
in the insect, the efficient exchange of O2 and CO2 does not require the
participation of the animal’s open circulatory system.

LUNGS
Lungs: localized respiratory organs. Lungs are typically subdivided into numerous
pockets. As the respiratory surface of a lung is not in direct contact with all other
parts of the body, the gap must be bridged by the circulatory system.

Amphibians rely heavily on diffusion across external body surfaces; lungs, if


present, are relatively small. In contrast, most reptiles and all mammals depend
entirely on lungs for gas exchange. Turtles supplement lung breathing with gas
exchange across moist epithelial surfaces continuous with their mouth or anus.

MAMMALIAN RESPIRATORY SYSTEMS

In mammals, branching ducts convey air to the lungs, which are located in the
thoracic cavity enclosed by the ribs and diaphragm.

Air enters through the nostrils and is filtered by hairs, warme, humidified, and
sample for odors as it flows through the nasal cavity. The nasal cavity leads to the
pharynx, which then leads to the trachea. When the epiglottis is not covering the
glottis, breathing is enabled.

The trachea branches into two bronchi, each leading to one lung. The bronchi
branch into finer tubes, bronchioles. Gas exchange in mammals occurs in the
alveoli, air sacs clustered at the tips of the smallest bronchioles. Oxygen in the air
entering the alveoli dissolves in the moist film lining their inner surfaces and
rapidly diffuse across the epithelium into a web of capillaries that surround the
alveoli. Net diffusion of carbon dioxide occurs in the opposite direction.

The film of liquid that lines alveoli is subject to surface tension. In order to prevent
collapse under the surface tension, alveoli produce a mixture of phospholipids and
proteins called surfactant (surface-active agent), which reduces surface tension.
CONCEPT 42.6: Breathing ventilates the lungs.
HOW AN AMPHIBIAN BREATHES
Positive pressure breathing: inflating the lungs with forced air flow. Inhalation
begins when the muscles lower he floor of an amphibian’s oral cavity drawing in
air through its nostrils. Afterwards, with the nostrils and mouth closed, the floor o f
the oral cavity rises, forcing air down the trachea. Exhalation occurs as air is
expelled by the elastic recoil of the lungs and by compression of the muscular
body wall.

HOW A BIRD BREATHES


When a bird breathes, it passes air over the gas exchange surface in only one
direction -- air sacs situated on either id of the lung act as bellows that direct air
flow through the lungs. In the lungs, parabronchi serve as the sites of gas
exchange. Passage of air through he air sacs and lungs requires two cycles of
inhalation and exhalation.

HOW A MAMMAL BREATHES


Negative pressure breathing: air is pulled into the lungs. Using muscle contraction
to actively expand the thoracic cavity, mammals lower air pressure in their lungs
below that of the air outside the body,

Diaphragm: a sheet of skeletal muscle that forms the bottom wall of the cavity.
Contracting the rib muscles pulls the ribs upward and the sternum outward,
expanding the rib cage. At the same time, the diaphragm contracts, expanding the
thoracic cavity downard.

During exhalation, the muscles controlling the thoracic cavity relax, and the
volume of the cavity is reduced. The increases air pressure in the alveoli forces air
up the breathing tubes and out of the body.

A double membrane surrounds the lungs -- the inner layer adheres to the outside
of the lungs, and the outer layer adheres to the wall fo the cavity. A thin space
filled with solid separates the two laws. Surface tension in fluid causes the two
layers to stick together.

Tidal volume: the volume of air inhaled and exhaled with each breath.

Vital capacity: the tidal volume during maximal inhalation and exhalation.

Residual volume: the air that remains after a forced exhalation.

CONTROL OF BREATHING IN HUMANS


Most of the time, breathing is regulated by involuntary mechanisms, ensuring that
gas exchange is coordinated with blood circulation and metabolic demand.

The neurons mainly responsible for regulating breathing are in the medulla
oblongata, near the base of the brain. Neural circuits in the medulla form a pair of
breathing control centers that establish the breathing rhythm. A negative-
feedback mechanisms prevents lungs form over expanding when a person
breathes deeply.

In regular breathing, he medulla uses the pH of the fluid in which it is bathed as an


indicator of blood CO2 concentration. Increased metabolism raises the
concentration of CO2 in the blood and cerebrospinal fluid. The higher CO2
concentration leads to an increase in the H+ concentration, lowering pH.

CONCEPT 42.7: Adaptations for gas exchange


include pigments that bind and transport gases.
COORDINATION OF CIRCULATION AND GAS EXCHANGE
1. During inhalation, fresh air mixes with air remaining in the lungs.

2. The resulting mixture formed in the alveoli has a higher O2 concentration than
the blood flowing through the alveolar capillaries. This results in a net diffusion of
O2 down its gradient. Meanwhile, higher CO2 concentration in the blood diffuses
into the air.

3. By the time blood leave the lungs in the pulmonary veins, its oxygen and
carbon dioxide concentrations match the values for the air in alveoli. After
returning to the heart, the blood i pumped through the systemic circuit.

4. In the systemic capillaries, gradients of partial pressure favor net diffusion of


oxygen out of the blood and CO2 into the blood.

5. After unloading O2 and loading CO2, the blood is returned to the heart an
dumped to the lungs.

6. Exchange occurs across the alveolar capillaries, resulting in exhaled air


enriched in CO2 and partially depleted of O2.

RESPIRATORY PIGMENTS
Animals transport most of their O2 bound to proteins called respiratory pigments,
which circulate with the blood or hemolymph and are often contained within
specialized cells. Respiratory pigments greatly increase the amount of oxygen
that can be carried in the circulatory fluid.

Respiratory pigments generally have a distinctive color and consist of a metal


bound to a protein. One example is hemocyanin, which has copper and is found in
arthropods and many molluscs.

In vertebrates and many invertebrates, the respiratory pigment is hemoglobin.


Hemoglobin is especially efficient at delivering O2 to tissues activele consuming
O2. This increased efficiency results form CO2 production -- as CO2 reacts with
water, forming carbonic acid, it lowers the pH of its surroundings. This decreases
the affinity of hemoglobin for O2, known as the Bohr shift.

CARBON DIOXIDE TRANSPORT

Most of the carbon dioxide released by respiring cells diffuses from plasma into
erythrocytes and reacts with water, forming H2CO3, which dissociates into H+ and
HCO3-. Most H+ binds to hemoglobin, minimizing change in blood pH, while HCO3.
diffuses out of the erythrocytes and is transported to the lungs in the plasma.

RESPIRATORY ADAPTATIONS OF DIVING MAMMALS


Myoglobin: an oxygen-storing protein found in seals and other diving mammals
that allow then to store about twice as much oxygen as humans by body mass.

Diving mammals swim with little muscular effort and glide passively for prolonged
periods; during a dive, their heart rate and O2 consumption decrease, and most
blood is routed to vital tissues. Blood supply to the muscles is restricted or shut
off altogether during drives.
CHAPTER 42 REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. The (C) tracheal system of an inset is not closely associated with a blood supply.

2. Blood returning to the mammalian heart in a pulmonary vein drains first into the (A) left atrium.

3. Pulse is a direct measure of (D) heart rate.

4. When a person holds his breath, (C) rising CO2 first leads to the urge to breathe.

5. One feature that amphibians and humans have in common is (C) the name of circuits for circulation.

6. If a molecule of CO2 released into the blood in your left toe is exhaled from your nose, it must pass through (A) the
trachea, right atrium, and right ventricle.

7. Compared with the interstitial fluid that bathes active muscle cells, blood reaching these cells in arterioles has a (A)
higher oxygen concentration.

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