Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
One adaptation for efficient exchange is a simple body plan that places many or
all cells in direct contact with the environment. Animals that lack a simple body
have a circulatory system, which move fluid between each cell’s immediate
surroundings and the body tissues.
GASTROVASCULAR CAVITIES
In hydras, jellies, and other cnidarians, a central gastrovascular cavity functions in
the distribution of substances throughout the body, as well as in digestion. An
opening at one end connects the cavity to the surrounding water, and the cavity
branches into the tentacles nadn the rest of the body. In animal with a
gastrovascular cavity, fluid bathes both the inner and outer tissue layers,
facilitating exchange of gases and cellular waste.
Open circulatory system: the circulatory fluid, called hemolymph, is also the
interstitial fluid that bathes body cells. Arthropods, such as grasshoppers, and
some molluscs have open circulatory systems. Contraction of the heart pumps
the hemolymph through the circulatory vessels into interconnected sinuses,
spaces surrounding the organs. Within the sinuses, the hemolymph and body
cells exchange gases and other chemicals; relaxation of the heart drawn
hemolymph hack in through pores, which have values that close when the heart
contracts.
Closed circulatory system: the circulatory fluid, blood, is confined to vessels and is
distinct from the interstitial fluid. One or more hearts pump blood into large
vessels that branch into smaller ones that infiltrate the tissues and organs.
Chemical exchange occurs between the blood and interstitial fluid.
The lower hydrostatic pressure typically associated with open circulatory systems
allow them to use less energy than closed systems. Spiders also use open
circulatory systems to extend their legs. Meanwhile, closed circulatory systems
provides benefits such as blood pressure high enough to enable the effective
delivery of O2 and nutrients in larger and more active animals.
Arteries: carry blood form the heart of organs throughout the body. ithin organs,
arteries branch into arterioles, which convey blood to capillaries. Networks of
capillaries, capillary beds, infiltrate tissues.
Veins: the vessels that carry blood back to the heart. At the “downward” end,
capillaries converge into venules, which converge into veins.
The hearts of all vertebrates contain two or more muscular chambers -- the atria
receive blood entering he heart, and the ventricles pump blood out of the heart.
SINGLE CIRCULATION
Single circulation: blood travels through the body and returns to its starting point
in a single circuit, found in sharks, rays, and bony fishes. Animals with single
circulation have a heart that consists of one atrium and one ventricle.
Blood entering the heart collects in the atrium before transfer to the ventricle --
contraction of the ventricle pumps blood to a capillary bed in the gills, where there
is a net diffusion of O2 into the blood and of CO2 out of the blood. The capillaries
converge into a vessel that carries oxygen-rich blood to capillary beds throughout
the body.
DOUBLE CIRCULATION
Double circulation provides vigorous flow of blood to the brain, muscles, and other
organs as the heart pressurizes the blood afte rist passses through the capillary
beds of the lungs or skin. Meanwhile, in single circulation, the blood flows under
reduced pressure directly form the gas exchange organs to other organs.
EVOLUTIONARY VARIATION IN DOUBLE CIRCULATION
3. As the blood flows through capillary bed in the left and right lungs, it loads O 2
and unloads CO2.
4. Oxygen-rich blood returns from the lungs via the pulmonary veins to the left
atrium of the heart.
5. The oxygen-rich blood flow into the hearts’ left ventricle, which pumps the
oxygen-rich blood out to body tissues through the systemic circuit.
6. Blood leaves the left ventricle via the aorta, which conveys blood to arteries
leading throughout the body.
7. Branches of the aorta lead to capillary beds in the head and arms.
8. The aorta descends into the abdomen supplying oxygen-rich blood to arteries
leading to capillary beds in the abdominal organs and legs. There is a net diffusion
of O2 from the blood to the tissues and of CO2 into the blood.
10. The inferior vena cava drains blood form the trunk and hind limbs.
11. The two venae cavae empty their blood into the right atrium, form which the
oxygen-poor blood flows into he right ventricle.
The two atria serve as collection chambers for blood returning to the heart form
the lungs or other body tissues. Much of the blood that enters the atria flows into
the ventricles while all four heart chambers are relaxed. The remainder is
transferred by contraction of the area before the ventricles begin to contract.
The ventricles have thicker walls and contract much more forcefully than the atria.
Both the left and right ventricles pump the same volume of blood during each
contraction.
Cardiac cycle: one complete sequence of pumping and filling of the heart. The
contraction phase is called systole, and the relaxation phase is called diastole.
The volume of blood each ventricle pumps per minute is the cardiac output.
Cardiac output is determined by heart rate and the stroke volume.
Four valves in the heart prevent backflow and keep blood moving in the correct
direction -- made of flaps of connective tissues, the valves open when pushed
from one side and close when pushed from the other. The atrioventricular (AV)
valve lies between each atrium and ventricle, and are anchored by strong fibers
that prevent them form turning inside out during ventricular systole. Semilunar
valves are located at the two exits of the heart, are are pushed open by the
pressure generated during contraction of the ventricles.
The SA node produces electrical impulses like those produced by nerve cells -- as
cardiac muscle cells are electrically coupled through gap junctions, impulses from
the SA node spread rapidly within heart tissue. These impulses can be measured
by an electrocardiogram (ECG / EKG), where electrodes placed on the skin record
the currents.
Impulses form the SA node first spread rapidly through the walls of the atria,
causing both atria to contract in unison. The impulses originating at the SA node
then reach the atrioventricular (AV) node, which signals the ventricles to contract
through sending signals through bundle branches and Purkinje fibers.
The sympathetic and parasympathetic division of the nervous system are largely
responsible for regulation of the pacemaker function of the SA node. The
sympathetic division speeds up the pacemaker, while the parasympathetic
division slows it down.
Capillaries are the smallest blood vessels, and have very thin walls that consist of
just an endothelium and a surrounding extracellular layer called the basal lamina.
The exchange of substances between the blood and interstitial fluid occurs only
in capillaries.
Both arteries and veins have walls that consist of two layers of tissue surrounding
the endothelium -- the outer layer is formed by connective tissue that contains
elastic fibers, which allow the vessel to stretch and recoil, and collagen, which
provides strength. The inner layer contains smooth muscle and more elastic
fibers.
Arterial walls are thick, strong, and elastic, allowing it to accommodate blood
pumped at high pressure by the heart. The smooth muscles in walls of arteries
and arterioles help regulate the path of blood flow -- signals from the nervous
system and hormones act on the smooth muscle, cause dilation or constriction
that modulates blood flow.
BLOOD PRESSURE
Contraction of a heart ventricle generates blood pressure, which exerts a force in
al directions. The part of the force directed lengthwise in an artery causes the
blood to flow away from the heart, the site of highest pressure. Meanwhile, the
part of the force exerted sideways stretches the wall of the artery. Following
contraction, the recoil of the arterial walls maintains blood pressure, and blood
flow. After the blood enters the arterioles and capillaries, the narrow diameter
generates resistance to flow, dissipating the pressure generated by the heart.
Systolic pressure: the pressure at which the heart contracts during ventricular
systole. Arterial blood pressure is highest at this point.
Pulse: the rhythmic bulging of the artery walls with each heartbeat. This coincides
with the systolic pressure level.
Diastolic pressure: the pressure at which the ventricles are relaxed. It is lower, but
still substantially high, than the systolic pressure.
Vasoconstriction: the process by which the smooth muscles in the arteriole walls
contract, narrowing the arterioles. Vasoconstriction increases blood pressure
upstream in the arteries.
Vasodilation: the process by which the smooth muscles relax, and the arteriole
diameter increases, causing blood pressure to fall.
Nitric oxide (NO) is the major inducer of vasodilation and endothelin, a peptide.
Cues form the nervous and endocrine systems regulate production of NO and
endothelin in blood vessels, where their opposing activities provide homeostatic
regulation of blood pressure.
Blood pressure is generally measured in the arm at the same height as the heart.
For a healthy adult, arterial blood pressure is usually 120 / 70.
Gravity plays a significant effect on blood pressure -- when standing, the head is
roughly 0.35 m higher than the chest, causing arterial blood pressure in the brain
to be around 27 mm Hg less than near the heart. The fainting response is
triggered when the nervous system detects that the blood pressure in the brain is
below the level needed to provide adequate blood flow.
Gravity also affects blood flow in veins, especially those in the legs. When
standing or sitting, gravity draws blood downward to the feet and impedes its
upward return to the heart. As blood pressure in veins are relatively low, valves
inside the veins have to maintain the unidirectional flow of blood within the
vessels; the return of blood to the heart is further enhanced by rhythmic
contractions of smooth muscles in the walls of venules and veins and by the
contraction of skeletal muscles during exercise.
CAPILLARY FUNCTIOn
At any given time, only around 5 to 10% of the body’s capillaries have blood
flowing through them; however, each tissue has many capillaries so every part of
the body is constantly supplied with blood.
Blood flow in capillary beds are altered through constriction or dilation of the
arterioles that supply capillary beds, or through the opening and closing of
precapillary sphincters, rings of smooth muscle located at the entrance to the
capillary beds, which regulates and redirects the passage of blood into particular
sets of capillaries.
Blood pressure tends to drive fluids out of the capillaries, and the presence of
blood proteins tends to pull fluid back. Many blood proteins are too large to pass
readily through the endothelium, so they remain in the capillaries. These proteins
are responsible for the blood’s osmotic pressure, the pressure produced by the
difference in solute concentration across a membrane.
FLUID RETURN BY THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
Lymphatic system: the organ system that recovers and returns lost fluid and
proteins within the blood to the blood.
luid diffuse in the lymphatic system via a network of tiny vessels intermingled
with capillaries. The recovered fluid, lymph, circulates within the lymphatic system
before draining into a pair of large veins of the cardiovascular system at the base
of the neck.
The movement of lymph from peripheral tissues to the heart relies on the same
mechanisms that assist blood flow in veins. Disruption in lymph movement often
results in fluid accumulation, or edema, in affected tissue.
Along lymph vessels are small, lymph-filtering organs called lymph nodes. Inside
each lymph node is a honeycomb of connective tissue with spaces filled by white
blood cells, which function in defense -- when he body is fighting an infection, the
white blood cells multiply, and the lymph nodes become swollen and tender.
PLASMA
Plasma contains dissolved ions and proteins that function in osmotic regulation,
transport, and defense.
CELLULAR ELEMENTS
Erythrocytes (red blood cells): the most numerous blood cells. Their main function
is transport of O2. Human erythrocytes are small disks that are biconcave (thinner
in the center than a the edges). The shape increases surface area, enhancing the
rate of diffusion of O2 across the plasma membrane. Mature mammalian
erythrocytes lack nuclei.
Erythrocytes do not have nuclei. They also lack mitochondria and generate ATP
through anaerobic metabolism.
Stem cell: a cell that can reproduce indefinitely, divide mitotically to produce one
daughter cell that remains a stem cell and another that adopts a specialized
function. The stem cells that produce the cellular elements of blood cells are
located in the red marrow inside bones.
Stem cells give rise to two sets of progenitor cells with a more limited capacity for
self-renewal. Lymphoid progenitor cells: produces lymphocytes (B and T cells),
while myeloid progenitors produces all other blood-related cells.
BLOOD CLOTTING
When blood vessels are broken by an injury, a chain of events quickly seals the
break, halting blood loss and exposure to infection. The key mechanical event is
coagulation, the conversion of the liquid components of blood into a solid -- the
blood clot.
Thrombus: a clot that forms within a blood vessel blocking the flow of blood.
CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE
ATHEROSCLEROSIS, HEART ATTACKS, AND STROKE
Stroke: the death of nervous tissue in the brain due to a lack of O2. Strokes
usually result from rupture or blockage of arteries in the head.
Consumption of trans fats and smoking increases the LDL/HDL ratio, while
exercise decreases the ratio.
Aspirin, which inhibits the inflammatory response, has been found to help prevent
the recurrence of heart attacks and stroke.
RESPIRATORY MEDIA
Because air is much less dense and less viscous than water, it's easier to move
and to force through small passageways. Therefore, breathing air is relatively easy
and does not need to be particularly efficient.
Water Is much more demanding gas exchange medium than air -- water has
lower O2 content, greater density, and greater viscosity. Therefore, sea animals
must expend considerable energy to respire underwater.
RESPIRATORY SURFACES
The movement of O2 and CO2 across respiratory surface stakes place by diffusion
-- the rate of diffusion is proportional to the surface area across which it occurs
and inversely proportional th square of the distance through which molecules
must move. In simple animals, every cell in the body is close enough the external
environment that gases can diffuse quickly. However, the bulk of body cells in
most animal lack immediate access -- the respiratory surface in these animals are
a thin, moist epithelium that constitutes a respiratory organ.
To promote ventilation, most gill-bearing animals either move their gills through
the water or move water over the gills. In octopi, squids, and fishes, a current of
water enters the mouth of the fish, aspses thouhg slits int eh pharynx, flows over
the hills, and then exits the body.
LUNGS
Lungs: localized respiratory organs. Lungs are typically subdivided into numerous
pockets. As the respiratory surface of a lung is not in direct contact with all other
parts of the body, the gap must be bridged by the circulatory system.
In mammals, branching ducts convey air to the lungs, which are located in the
thoracic cavity enclosed by the ribs and diaphragm.
Air enters through the nostrils and is filtered by hairs, warme, humidified, and
sample for odors as it flows through the nasal cavity. The nasal cavity leads to the
pharynx, which then leads to the trachea. When the epiglottis is not covering the
glottis, breathing is enabled.
The trachea branches into two bronchi, each leading to one lung. The bronchi
branch into finer tubes, bronchioles. Gas exchange in mammals occurs in the
alveoli, air sacs clustered at the tips of the smallest bronchioles. Oxygen in the air
entering the alveoli dissolves in the moist film lining their inner surfaces and
rapidly diffuse across the epithelium into a web of capillaries that surround the
alveoli. Net diffusion of carbon dioxide occurs in the opposite direction.
The film of liquid that lines alveoli is subject to surface tension. In order to prevent
collapse under the surface tension, alveoli produce a mixture of phospholipids and
proteins called surfactant (surface-active agent), which reduces surface tension.
CONCEPT 42.6: Breathing ventilates the lungs.
HOW AN AMPHIBIAN BREATHES
Positive pressure breathing: inflating the lungs with forced air flow. Inhalation
begins when the muscles lower he floor of an amphibian’s oral cavity drawing in
air through its nostrils. Afterwards, with the nostrils and mouth closed, the floor o f
the oral cavity rises, forcing air down the trachea. Exhalation occurs as air is
expelled by the elastic recoil of the lungs and by compression of the muscular
body wall.
Diaphragm: a sheet of skeletal muscle that forms the bottom wall of the cavity.
Contracting the rib muscles pulls the ribs upward and the sternum outward,
expanding the rib cage. At the same time, the diaphragm contracts, expanding the
thoracic cavity downard.
During exhalation, the muscles controlling the thoracic cavity relax, and the
volume of the cavity is reduced. The increases air pressure in the alveoli forces air
up the breathing tubes and out of the body.
A double membrane surrounds the lungs -- the inner layer adheres to the outside
of the lungs, and the outer layer adheres to the wall fo the cavity. A thin space
filled with solid separates the two laws. Surface tension in fluid causes the two
layers to stick together.
Tidal volume: the volume of air inhaled and exhaled with each breath.
Vital capacity: the tidal volume during maximal inhalation and exhalation.
The neurons mainly responsible for regulating breathing are in the medulla
oblongata, near the base of the brain. Neural circuits in the medulla form a pair of
breathing control centers that establish the breathing rhythm. A negative-
feedback mechanisms prevents lungs form over expanding when a person
breathes deeply.
2. The resulting mixture formed in the alveoli has a higher O2 concentration than
the blood flowing through the alveolar capillaries. This results in a net diffusion of
O2 down its gradient. Meanwhile, higher CO2 concentration in the blood diffuses
into the air.
3. By the time blood leave the lungs in the pulmonary veins, its oxygen and
carbon dioxide concentrations match the values for the air in alveoli. After
returning to the heart, the blood i pumped through the systemic circuit.
5. After unloading O2 and loading CO2, the blood is returned to the heart an
dumped to the lungs.
RESPIRATORY PIGMENTS
Animals transport most of their O2 bound to proteins called respiratory pigments,
which circulate with the blood or hemolymph and are often contained within
specialized cells. Respiratory pigments greatly increase the amount of oxygen
that can be carried in the circulatory fluid.
Most of the carbon dioxide released by respiring cells diffuses from plasma into
erythrocytes and reacts with water, forming H2CO3, which dissociates into H+ and
HCO3-. Most H+ binds to hemoglobin, minimizing change in blood pH, while HCO3.
diffuses out of the erythrocytes and is transported to the lungs in the plasma.
Diving mammals swim with little muscular effort and glide passively for prolonged
periods; during a dive, their heart rate and O2 consumption decrease, and most
blood is routed to vital tissues. Blood supply to the muscles is restricted or shut
off altogether during drives.
CHAPTER 42 REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. The (C) tracheal system of an inset is not closely associated with a blood supply.
2. Blood returning to the mammalian heart in a pulmonary vein drains first into the (A) left atrium.
4. When a person holds his breath, (C) rising CO2 first leads to the urge to breathe.
5. One feature that amphibians and humans have in common is (C) the name of circuits for circulation.
6. If a molecule of CO2 released into the blood in your left toe is exhaled from your nose, it must pass through (A) the
trachea, right atrium, and right ventricle.
7. Compared with the interstitial fluid that bathes active muscle cells, blood reaching these cells in arterioles has a (A)
higher oxygen concentration.