Physical Basis & Classification of

Welding Processes By Welding

Knowledge
Table of Contents
Introduction
......................................................................................................... 3
Types of Elementary Bonds in Solids & Monolithic Compounds
..................... 4

Physico-Chemical Features of the Producing of Welded, Soldered & Glued

Joints..............................................................................................................................
7

Thermodynamic Definition of the Welding Process ........................................

12
Classification of Welding Processes .................................................................
13
Evaluation of Efficiency and Requirements for Energy Sources for Welding.
25
Conclusion.........................................................................................................
26

Introduction

The ideas about the physics of processes occurring in welding arcs, especially
about the mechanism of cathode processes, in the existing scientific literature
are based on numerous hypotheses, which have not yet been sufficiently
confirmed by experiments. Therefore, this book briefly discusses only the
main hypotheses.

Welding processes nowadays mean a fairly wide group of technological

processes of joining, disconnecting (cutting) and local processing of
materials, as a rule, using local heating of products. Examples of welding
processes include: welding, surfacing, soldering, soldering-welding, welding-
gluing, spraying, sintering, thermal cutting, etc.

A distinctive feature of welding processes is that they are thermal and usually
come with the introduction of thermal or thermomechanical energy to the
processing site. If only mechanical energy is introduced, then to a large
extent the effect of its conversion to thermal form is used.

Since the forms of energy input are the most common and essential features
of welding processes, these features form the basis of their classification
proposed in this book.

Types of Elementary Bonds in Solids & Monolithic Compounds

Various types of detachable and one-piece connections are widely used in

technology. Permanent joints, in turn, can be monolithic (solid) and non-
monolithic (for example, rivets). Monolithic compounds are obtained by
welding, soldering or gluing. Welding and soldering are currently used to join
metals and non-metals both among themselves and in various combinations.

The monolithicity of welded joints of solids is ensured by the appearance of

atomic-molecular bonds between elementary particles of joined substances. A
solid is a complex of atoms in interaction. The type of chemical bonding of
atoms and the nature of their mutual arrangement determine the
physicochemical and strength properties of a solid.

The nature and magnitude of the energy (strength) of elementary bonds

depends on the nature of the substance and the type of crystal lattice of a
solid. According to modern concepts, the chemical bonding of atoms occurs
as a result of the movement of electrons of the outer (valence) shells of an
atom in a field between nuclei.

In physics, four types of elementary bonds are distinguished: covalent, ionic,

intermolecular, and metal. Depending on the prevailing elementary bonds,
crystals are also distinguished respectively in four groups: atomic, ionic,
molecular and metal. The most typical chemical bonds are the first two
bonds: covalent and ionic.
A covalent chemical bond is often called a valence, atomic, exchange bond. It
can be formed by the interaction or “pairing” of valence electrons. In the case
of identical atoms, for example, in hydrogen molecules, alkali metals in a
gaseous state, halogens, nitrogen, the bond is non-polar. When different
atoms interact, for example, HCl, the bond is polar.

A strong covalent bond with an energy of the order of 105 J / mol determines
the high melting point and crystal strength. The covalent bond determines the
structure of the so-called atomic crystals: diamond, silicon, germanium, gray
tin, etc.

The number of covalent bonds formed by an atom in a first approximation

can serve as a quantitative measure of valency. Each covalent bond between
atoms is formed by pairing their valence electrons with opposite spins. Since
the valence potential of atoms is limited, the most important property of a
covalent bond is the saturation of the chemical forces of affinity.

It is important for welders to bear in mind that strong covalent bonds are
established not only in atomic crystals, but also when metals are combined
with metalloids, metal oxides, as well as semiconductors or intermetallic
compounds with semiconductor properties. Intermetallic compounds are
compounds of typical metals with metals having weak metallic properties.

When the substances to be joined are capable of donor-acceptor interaction,

the so-called coordination-covalent bond is established. An example is the
combination of basic oxides, such as Ca+2O-2, where the oxygen ion is a
donor to an atom forming an acidic oxide, such as Si+4O2-4.

With the direct connection of metals with ceramics containing acid oxides,
coordination covalent bonds are more easily formed when a thin layer of
lower basic oxides with donor properties is created on the metal surface.

An ionic or heteropolar bond is typical of molecules and crystals formed

from different ions: anions and cations. The formation of a positive cation is
the result of ionization of the atom. A measure of the bond strength of an
electron in an atom can be the atom's ionization potential. A typical
representative of ionic crystals is the NaCl salt.
The formation of negative anions occurs as a result of the attachment of an
electron to an atom. A measure of the ability to such an attachment is the so-
called electron affinity.

The ionic bond is also strong with an energy of about 105-107 J / mol. A
feature of the ionic bond is the lack of saturation and spatial orientation.
The notions of purely covalent and purely ionic bonds are largely idealized. If
in an ionic bond one atom completely gives up an electron to another, and in
a covalent bond each electron belongs equally to both bound atoms, then in
intermediate cases bonds with any percentage of ionicity are possible.
In addition to the two most typical chemical bonds, covalent and ionic,
molecular bonds are distinguished by the universal forces of Van der Waals
and metal bonds.
Van der Waals forces act between any atoms and molecules, but they are very
small - on the order of 103 J / mol. Therefore, molecular crystals, solid inert
gases, oxygen, nitrogen molecules, etc., due to these forces, have a very low
melting point. The formation of strong structures is mainly due to strong,
typically chemical bonds, such as covalent bonds, and the van der Waals
forces are only a small addition. The forces of Van der Waals are usually
associated with adhesive bonds when bonding, wetting solids with liquids,
etc.
Metallic bonds form structures through the interaction of positive lattice ions,
atomic residues, and delocalized, socialized electrons. They essentially do not
belong to chemical ones, and the concept of a metal bond can be considered
qualitative, since metals usually do not have a molecular structure, and their
atoms combine into crystalline formations. This type of connection
determines the high strength, ductility and electrical conductivity of metals.
The binding energy is about 105 J / mol. A strong metal bond is observed
during the formation of intermetallic compounds and some solid solutions.
One of its features is the lack of saturation, determined by the valency of the
corresponding atoms.
The metallic bond, by its nature, has significant similarities to the covalent
bond. In both cases, the electron orbits merge, but in the metal there is a
generalization not of individual, but of all valence electron orbits. In this
case, the general energy levels are established in the entire volume of the
crystal. The number of levels will be of the same order as the number of
atoms in a given volume of metal. The levels are very close to each other and
form energy bands, which are sometimes considered as splitting of valence
levels - orbits of individual atoms.
Since there is a cloud of generalized electrons in a metal, a metal bond allows
a greater displacement of atoms than other types of bonds. This determines
the high plasticity of metal crystals in comparison with valence or ionic
crystals.
All four types of bonds in crystals: atomic, ionic, molecular and metallic,
rarely exist in their pure form. Usually there are combinations of different
bonds at the same time, and, as noted above, molecular bonds are weak
compared to the other three. It should also be noted that the surfaces of solids
under atmospheric conditions are usually inert, since the valencies of their
atoms are saturated with a bond with the atoms of the environment. An
example of saturation is the oxidation of substances in a gaseous medium. On
the surface, processes such as physical adsorption, due to the forces of Van
der Waals, can also occur.

Physico-Chemical Features of the Producing of Welded,

Soldered & Glued Joints

We begin this chapter with the mechanism of the formation of monolithic

compounds. At first glance, it seems that the formation of a monolithic
compound of two identical single crystals with perfectly smooth and clean
surfaces is possible at any temperature and without the application of external
energy. To do this, it is enough to bring their surfaces closer to a distance
commensurate with the parameters of the crystal lattice - of the order of
several angstroms. Then bonds will arise between the conjugated atoms, the
interface will disappear and welding will occur. Such a process seems
probable and does not contradict the second law of thermodynamics, since
the free energy of the system in this case should decrease by the amount of
energy of the two disappeared interfaces.

In fact, even in the ideal case, energy is required to connect surfaces. The fact
is that any stable state of the system corresponds to a certain minimum
energy per atom. Each atom is, as it were, in a potential well and the
transition from one stable state to another is possible only by overcoming the
energy barrier.
Inside the crystal, each atom is held by symmetrically directed binding
forces. On the free surface of a crystal or liquid, an atom is unbalanced due to
the absence of a bond on one side or due to its weakening. This causes an
increase in the energy of the surface layer of the crystal. If an atom needs a
certain energy to move inside the body, then an atom needs even more energy
to exit into the environment. Therefore, to connect two single crystals into
one, deformation or thermal energy is required externally.

External deformation energy will be spent on overcoming the repulsive

forces arising between adjacent surface atoms. When the distances between
them are equal to the interatomic distances in the crystal lattice, quantum
processes of interaction between the electron shells of atoms arise. After that,
the total energy of the system will begin to decrease to a level corresponding
to the energy of atoms in the lattice of the whole crystal, and there will be a
gain in energy by an amount equal to the excess energy of the surface atoms
of the crystals before their connection— the activation energy.

The thermal energy imparted to surface atoms with increasing temperature

increases the likelihood of the development of quantum processes of
electronic interaction in the compound.

Now let's talk about the fact that the welding process takes place in two
stages. Experimental material and theoretical analysis show that welding and
soldering can be attributed to the class of so-called topochemical reactions,
which are distinguished by the two-stage process of the formation of strong
bonds between the atoms of the substances being joined. At the same time,
two-stage is characteristic only for microareas of the connected surfaces.

At the first stage, physical contact develops, that is, the substances to be
joined are brought closer to the distances required for interatomic interaction,
and surfaces are also prepared for interaction. In the second stage, the stage
of chemical interaction, the process of formation of a strong compound ends.

In practice, the preparation of monolithic compounds is complicated by two

factors. The surfaces processing, measured surfaces, contacting is possible
only at individual points. The surfaces to be welded are contaminated, since
atoms of the environment are adsorbed on any surface of the solid.
For high-quality materials joining, it is necessary to ensure contact for the
most part of the joined surface and activate it. Surface activation consists in
the fact that some energy is communicated to the surface atoms of a solid,
which is necessary to break the bonds between the atoms of the body and the
atoms of the environment, saturating their free bonds, and to increase the
energy of surface atoms to the level of the energy barrier of grasping, that is,
to translate them into active state.

Such activation energy can generally be communicated in the form of heat

(thermal activation), elasto-plastic deformation (mechanical activation),
electronic, ionic and other types of radiation (radiation activation).

When welding in the liquid phase (fusion welding and soldering), the atoms
of solid bodies come together by wetting the surfaces of the bodies with
liquid material (solder, melt), and the surface of a solid material is activated
by communicating thermal energy to its particles. Liquid material can spread
over the entire surface of the body and provide contact and adhesion of its
molecules and the surface layer of solids.

Upon solidification of the molten material, weak adhesive bonds are replaced
by strong chemical bonds corresponding to the nature of the materials being
joined and their type of crystal lattice. When welding in the liquid phase, the
input energy must ensure the melting of the main and filler materials, the
fusion of the joint, heating of the edges, etc. In this case, enhanced diffusion
of the components in the molten and solid materials, their mutual dissolution
occurs. These processes, as well as crystallization of the molten metal of the
weld pool or solder, provide a shear structure of the weld zone, which usually
increases the strength of the welded joint.

Welding in the liquid phase is carried out without the application of

sedimentary pressure by spontaneous merging of the volumes of liquid metal.
It usually does not require thorough preparation and cleaning of the surfaces
to be joined.

In fusion welding, both stages of the joining process: physical adhesion

contact and chemical interaction, accompanied by diffusion, proceed quite
quickly. For homogeneous metals, this is not dangerous. But in the case of
dissimilar materials with limited solubility, it is practically difficult to obtain
compounds without brittle intermetallic layers in the contact.

In the case of the rapid formation of physical contact of a solid with a melt,
for example, during welding by melting one of the materials to be joined, at
first a peak of interfacial energy will be observed at the interface between the
solid and liquid phases, since the transition of the atomic system to a new
state does not occur to be welded have microroughnesses even with careful in
thousands of angstroms. Therefore, when combining instantaneously, but for
some finite time interval. The duration of the retardation of the peak of the
interface, as this delay period is called, can be calculated approximately as
the lifetime of the atom in front of the potential barrier or determined
experimentally. Based on these data, it is possible to determine the
permissible duration of contact between the solid and liquid phases and the
optimum temperature for welding or soldering.

When welding in the solid state, the approach of atoms and the activation of
surfaces are achieved due to the joint elastic-plastic deformation of the
materials being joined in contact, often simultaneously with additional
heating.

The duration of the formation of physical contact and chemical interaction

here is significantly longer than during fusion welding, and depends on a
number of factors: the physicochemical and mechanical properties of the
materials being joined, the state of their surface, the composition of the
environment, the nature of the application of pressure and other means of
activation (ultrasound, friction etc.).

Recently, methods have been proposed for approximate calculation of the

parameters of the welding mode by statistical pressure, which are confirmed
by experience. The duration of the process of formation of physical contact,
which consists in crushing microroughnesses, is calculated by the creep rate.
The duration of the second stage - chemical interaction - is estimated by the
Boltzmann equation as the duration of the activation period.

The calculations are based on the ideas about the seizure of materials as a
result of creep on contact surfaces and the formation of strong chemical
bonds at the places of exit and movement of vacancies, dislocations, and their
clusters. The exit of dislocations to the contact surface activates it by
breaking saturated bonds, which leads to the formation of active centers.

However, it is generally accepted that when metals are combined in the solid
state, not only setting, but also sintering is important. Sintering is a complex
of diffusion processes that occur in time at elevated temperatures. Setting is a
diffusionfree phenomenon, the union of crystal lattices in contact of bodies as
a result of their joint plastic deformation. The relative role of setting and
sintering in different methods of joining metals is different and is determined
mainly by the temperature, time and pressure in the contact. For example,
diffusion welding with a long exposure time can be considered based on the
sintering phenomenon. In all other cases, the setting is primary, and the
diffusion and recrystallization processes, if they occur at all, are secondary.

Now let's talk about soldering and bonding. Soldering is usually called the
process of joining materials without melting them, using solder. Welding and
brazing processes are often difficult to distinguish, for example, when
welding dissimilar metals, in combinations of steel and copper, tungsten and
molybdenum and others, when only one of the most low-melting metals is
melted. Therefore, in the future, when analyzing energy sources, it is
advisable to combine welding and soldering with one term - welding.
Soldering can be performed using the same energy processes as welding.

The formation of a continuous interatomic bond during soldering occurs in

the process of wetting the surface of the connected parts by solder. The
wetting and bonding of a solid with a liquid can be determined by the
electrostatic forces of Van der Waals and the forces of chemical interaction.

Like physical adsorption, the first type of contact is called physical,

reversible, wetting. The second type of contact, like chemisorption, is called
chemical, irreversible, wetting. The adhesion work in the second case is a
thousand times greater than in the first.

To carry out chemical wetting during soldering, heating of parts and solder is
necessary, as well as surface activation. The latter is achieved by heating in
vacuum, in special environments or by surface treatment with flux.

Bonding can occur with little or no energy introduced into the joint due to the
adhesion forces between the liquid glue and the molecules of the surface
layers of the solid and chemical reactions. The ability of the adhesive to
connect products is also explained by the forces of residual chemical affinity
between the molecules of glue and the material to be bonded on the surface.
These forces are approximately 10-100 times less than the basic chemical
bonding forces in simple molecules. For example, they give rise to the
phenomenon of surface tension in liquids, the ability to wet or not wet the
surfaces of various materials. In the case of high molecular weight
compounds, where a monomer molecule repeats a macromolecule in the
polymer thousands of times, the adhesion forces increase in proportion to the
increase in molecular weight. These forces, having an electrical nature,
largely depend on the chemical structure of the adhesive and the material to
be bonded.

Such polar groups as carboxylic, alcoholic, amino, epoxy and others

significantly increase the adhesion of glue to polar materials. To increase the
adhesion forces during bonding of some non-polar materials, the latter are
subjected to heat or chemical treatment in order to obtain a certain amount of
polar groups on their surface. The presence or absence of adhesion of the
adhesive to the material to be bonded is easily determined by the wettability
of this material by the adhesive.

To improve adhesion in all cases, the bonded surface is thoroughly cleaned

and degreased, and sometimes its roughness is artificially increased.
However, the strength of the adhesive joint is determined not only by
adhesion, but also by cohesion, that is, by the forces of interaction between
the molecules of the glue itself. The cohesion forces of thermoplastic
adhesives are of the same nature as the adhesion forces. In adhesives based
on thermosetting binders, the cohesive forces inside the adhesive joint after
hardening will also be strengthened by the formation of ordinary chemical
bonds.
Thus, the strength of adhesive joints is determined by the chemical and
intermolecular forces of attraction of the elementary particles of glue and
glued material. In the initial stage of the process, when the interaction forces
due to wetting and intermolecular interaction of the particles are mostly
weak, the strength of the adhesive bond is small. Further, when chemical
bonds occur, the strength increases.
For example, when polyamide glue comes into contact with steel, chemical
compounds arise where the nitrogen atom (polyamide) divides its two
electrons with the atoms of iron (steel). At the same time, an additional ionic
bond arises between the atoms of the keto group C = O and the oxygen atoms
in iron oxide. Thus, a socalled chelating compound arises. Other adhesives
based on toluene diisocyanites interact with silicon (glass) atoms to form
covalent bonds.
A significant difference between bonding and most welding and soldering
processes is that when the glue hardens due to cooling, polymerization and
other physicochemical phenomena, the mutual dissolution and diffusion of
the materials being joined are usually completely absent.

Thermodynamic Definition of the Welding Process

Now let's talk about the thermodynamic definition of the welding process. An
analysis of the physicochemical characteristics of the production of welded
and soldered joints allows us to establish the presence in the welding zone of
two main physical phenomena associated with an irreversible change in the
state of energy and matter: introduction and conversion of energy; motion
(transformation) of matter.

The type, intensity and nature of the conversion of the input energy is the
main thing that determines the type of welding process. Moreover, the
introduction of energy is always a necessary condition for the welding
process, since without this it is impossible to activate the connected surfaces.
The introduction of the substance is necessary only in some cases of fusion
welding and soldering, and energy in these cases can also be introduced with
the molten material.

The nature of the movement of the substance in the weld zone can vary
greatly from process to process. The movement is significant when welding
in the liquid phase and soldering, especially in the presence of filler material.
In pressure welding with heating, the material in the joint zone experiences
insignificant transformations and only the movement of the material through
the joint as a result of diffusion is significant. Cold welding is realized
practically without the movement of substances, if you do not take into
account the movement of dislocations and their exit to the surface.
Based on the foregoing, we can give the following thermodynamic definition
of the welding process. Welding is the process of obtaining a monolithic
compound of materials due to the introduction of irreversible thermodynamic
conversion of energy and matter at the junction.

Bonding, cementing, and other joining processes that ensure a monolithic

joint, unlike welding and soldering, as a rule, do not require the introduction
of energy. They are usually transformed through the introduction and
transformation of a substance: glue, cement, etc.

In addition to the most general, thermodynamic, other definitions of welding

are possible. For example, welding, as a technological process for creating
welded structures, or as a metallurgical process, etc. However, it is energy
and the ways of its transformation that are the dominant factors that
determine the nature of the welding process as a physicochemical
phenomenon.

Consideration of the thermodynamic structure of welding processes allows us

to classify them according to the type of input energy into thermal,
thermomechanical and mechanical processes.

The substance may be administered with a consumable electrode or as an

additive. In pressure welding, mainly only deformation, diffusion and
structural transformations of the substance occur. The analysis of mass
transfer and substance transformations during welding processes is very
complicated and is not included in the objectives of this book.

Classification of Welding Processes

When classifying welding processes, it is advisable to distinguish three main

physical attributes: the presence of pressure, the form of the input energy, and
the type of tool - the energy carrier. The remaining signs can be conditionally
attributed to technical and technological. The pressure classification feature
applies only to welding and soldering. By the energy introduced into the
product, all welding processes, including welding, soldering, cutting, and
others, can be divided into thermal, thermomechanical, mechanical, and
special ones.
Thermal processes occur without pressure (fusion welding), the rest usually
with pressure (pressure welding).
The terms class, method, type, method are conditional, but, having entered
the classification, they allow in the future to maintain a clear typification
system for welding processes. The term process is used as independent of
classification groups.
We will touch upon the classification of welding methods by physical
features. Physical attributes are common to all welding methods. Technical
features can only be defined for individual welding methods.
Pressure-free welding by fusion is a thermal process: gas welding, thermite
welding, arc welding, induction welding, electron beam welding, laser
welding, plasma welding.
Pressure welding is a thermomechanical and mechanical process.
Thermomechanical processes: resistance welding, gas-pressure welding,
induction pressure welding, arc-pressure welding, pressure furnace, thermite
pressure welding, thermo-compression welding, diffusion welding.
Mechanical processes: cold welding, friction welding, ultrasonic welding,
explosion welding, vacuum setting welding.
Energy analysis shows that all currently known metal welding processes are
carried out by introducing only two types of energy - thermal and
mechanical, or a combination thereof. Therefore, so far only neutron welding
and conditionally bonding can be included in the group of special processes,
which practically occurs without the introduction of energy. Vacuum setting
welding is possible only in the presence of compression, therefore, it is also
referred to mechanical processes, although during welding here energy can
even be released, and not introduced from outside.
The term pressure welding, which has developed over the years, is not
entirely accurate, since pressure in these processes is not the only source of
external influence. Pressure is always necessary when there is no molten
metal bath during welding, and the approach of atoms is achieved due to the
elastic-plastic deformation of the surface material. Therefore, pressure
usually determines at what phase state the material is connected.
It should be noted that even in the presence of pressure, metal can melt, for
example, during thermite welding with pressure, spot and seam welding with
the formation of a cast core, flash butt welding, friction welding, etc.
It is highly desirable that the order of the processes in the classification be
determined by any quantitative technical and economic features. Such signs
may be the values of specific energies, welding, or introduced into the
product, specific costs for welding.
Specific indicators can be calculated separately for each group of joints,
materials to be welded, etc. Costs should be attributed to the so-called
working area of the joint, which in the case of butt welding corresponds to
the longitudinal section of the weld without reinforcement. For lap joints, the
area corresponds to the cross section of the smaller of the connected
elements. For arc welding in one pass of a material of a certain thickness, the
specific energy will be equal to the multiplication of the current and welding
voltage divided by the thickness of the material and the welding speed.
Calculations of the specific welding energies and the energy introduced into
the product show that the specific energy consumption of the welding process
per unit area of the joint tends to decrease with the transition from thermal to
mechanical processes. The amount of energy introduced into the product is
equal to the amount of welding energy multiplied by the efficiency of the
welding process and also characterizes the amount of remelted or heated
material per unit area of the weld, and therefore the size of the active zone of
the welded joint, in which there are significant changes in the state of the
material, deformation of the joint, etc. This indicator can be used along with
linear energy characterizing the ratio of welding energy to welding speed.
Also, the analysis of typical structural schemes of energy transfer during
different welding processes allows us to justify the classification. For
example, during arc welding, electric energy from the network goes the
following way: it is transformed in a welding transformer or generator to
obtain the necessary current and voltage parameters; is converted in an arc
discharge into thermal energy, electromagnetic energy, plasma electrical
energy; the thermal energy of the plasma and the potential energy of the
electrons are converted on the surface of the anodized item into the thermal
energy of the molten material of the weld pool; changes the internal energy of
the compound, expending on the formation of new atomic bonds, new
material structures, deformation and heating of the product, etc.
It should be noted that the arc, beam, gas flame are external carriers of
energy, from which energy is transferred to the product by convection or
contact. In thermite welding, heating occurs due to an internal source by
converting the termite chemical energy into heat.
However, for all thermal welding processes, regardless of the type of energy
carrier, the tool, it is always introduced into the joint through molten material.
The energy of randomly moving particles of molten material is called thermal
in thermodynamics, which justifies the name of these processes.
Gas Welding

Gas welding is used to heat metal with a high-temperature flame resulting

from the combustion of acetylene gas in a mixture with oxygen. In some
cases, substitutes can be used instead of acetylene: propane-butane, methane,
gasoline or kerosene vapors, methylacetylene-allene fraction. Recently, the
volume of using hydrogen as a combustible gas obtained by electrolysis of
water has been increasing. Combustible gas from a cylinder or a special gas
generator enters the welding torch. Oxygen is supplied from the cylinder to
the torch. In the torch, they are mixed in a certain ratio and are ignited at the
outlet of the nozzle. The flame melts the edges of the welded product, filler
inflow, and also performs the functions of protecting molten metal from the
atmosphere. The adjustment of the flow of oxygen and combustible gas is
carried out by the corresponding valves.
Thermite Welding

Thermite welding is based on self-propagating combustion of exothermic

mixtures of metal oxides and reducing agents. Unlike conventional (flame)
combustion, it can occur in confined volumes or even in vacuum, since
termite reactions proceed with the participation of oxygen contained in the
oxides. The main advantages of thermite welding are its speed, energy
autonomy, ease of implementation and high productivity.
Electric Arc Welding

Electric arc welding is performed with the obligatory use of a high current
source, which at the same time has a low voltage. Such voltage is
simultaneously supplied both to the welding electrode (one contact) and to
the workpiece to be welded (second contact). As a result of the interaction of
the workpiece and the electrode, an electric arc is formed between them, it is
due to it that the edges of the connected parts melt. The use of such an arc,
which is necessary for converting electric current energy into heat, allows one
to obtain a temperature of the order of 5000 degrees in the zone of electric arc
welding, which is quite enough to melt any of the metals known to mankind.
Submerged Arc Welding

Submerged arc welding is the most common method of mechanized arc

welding with a consumable electrode. For submerged arc welding a long
electrode wire is used, which is rolled onto a cassette or into a coil. Its
feeding into the arc zone as it melts, as well as moving along the edges to be
welded, are mechanized and carried out by a welding machine having special
devices - a hopper for introducing flux into the welding zone and recovery
system for sucking out unmelted part of flux from the weld and return it to
the hopper. Before the start of the process, flux is poured along the welded
edges in the form of a roller 50–60 mm thick. The arc arising when the
machine is turned on burns between the end of the electrode and the product.
Under the action of the heat of the arc, the electrode wire, the base metal and
part of the flux melt. The arc burns in a closed cavity (gas bubble), bounded
in the upper part by the slag shell, and in the lower part by the weld pool. The
cavity is filled with vapors of metals, flux and gases. The arising static
pressure is supported by the flux arch, which prevents liquid metal from
splashing and disturbance in the formation of the weld.
Electroslag Welding

The main feature of electroslag welding is the fundamental difference

between the process of electroslag welding in its beginning and further
course, when the welding circuit of an electric current passes through the
electrode, liquid slag and base metal, ensuring the melting of the base and
filler metals, as well as a special flux constantly entering the bath. The bath of
molten slag due to the density lower than that of the molten metal, constantly
located in the upper part of the melt, eliminates the influence of ambient air
on the liquid metal and cleans the droplets of electrode metal passing through
the slag from harmful impurities.
Beam Welding
The essence of electron beam exposure is the conversion of the kinetic
energy of a directed electron beam in the treatment zone into heat. When
welding a metal surface using laser welding, the entire process is carried out
by a laser beam, which is generated by a quantum laser generator.

The principle of laser welding is reduced to the fact that the laser radiation is
sent to the focus, where a beam is created from it, which gets onto the parts to
be welded. The beam enters the metal, is absorbed by it, heats the metal, as a
result of which melting occurs and a weld occurs.

In thermomechanical and mechanical processes, internal energy carriers

predominate, since its conversion into heat occurs mainly near the contact of
the connected products - the joint.

The pressure of the energy flow - a beam or arc - on the weld pool will
certainly also have a very large effect on the formation of the joint. However,
in the energy balance, the influence of the energy of pressure forces is small.

Thermomechanical processes include processes involving the introduction of

heat and the mechanical energy of pressure forces during shrinking. Heat can
be generated when electric current flows, flame or induction heating, the
introduction of a hot tool in the welding zone, etc. Welding can be carried out
both with melting of the metal, partially or throughout the compound, and
without melting, in the solid state.
Flash Butt Welding
Resistance Spot Welding

Resistance welding applies only to metals. The main source of energy is the
heat released by electric current in the contact zone of the connected parts,
the electrical resistance of which is higher than the resistance of the base
metal. The pressure compressing the parts forms a welded joint, which takes
only a few percent of the total input energy.

Depending on the characteristics of the connection, contact welding is

distinguished: butt, spot and seam. Butt and spot welding of rods can go as
resistance welding in the solid phase. In flash butt welding, a joint is also
formed during plastic deformation, however, abutting surfaces are activated
by flash and are protected by a film of molten metal before shrinking begins.
Spot welding of sheets is usually accompanied by the formation of a molten
metal core. When the core is melted under the action of electrodynamic
forces, movement occurs - mixing of the liquid metal and the interface
between the parts to be connected disappears, that is, a continuous
interatomic bond of the liquid and solid phases appears. Therefore, the
appearance of a molten core can be considered as a well-known guarantee of
a high-quality connection. The pressure in this process creates an electrical
contact and some deformation of the spot at the time of crystallization, and
also keeps the liquid metal from flowing out.
Gas-Pressure Welding

The essence of the gas-pressure welding process is that the edges or ends of
the parts to be joined are heated by the flame of a special multi-nozzle torch
to a plastic or molten state and then connect them using compressive force.
Induction Welding

Induction welding of metals includes a method of heat treatment of metal, in

which the workpiece is heated by electromagnetic induction, as a result of
which it is compressed. For this, high-frequency currents from tens of Hz to
hundreds of kHz are used, they are most convenient for introduction into the
metal. In practice, such current from machine or tube generators is always
used. Such welding lasts only a few seconds for the reason that the heating
process is not associated with either the thickness of the material or its
thermal conductivity. More economical consumption is due to the fact that
heat is released on the connected surfaces.

Mechanical processes usually go without heating. Let's note their main

features.
Cold Welding

Cold welding is based on the use of plastic deformation of materials at the

junction during compression or shift. So far, it has found wide application
only for sufficiently ductile materials, such as aluminum, copper, etc. The
welding process takes place at room temperature and even at subzero
temperatures. At the junction, heat is released due to the energy of plastic
deformation of the metal. It is necessary to clean the connected elements
from fat and remove oxide films during deformation. Cold welding is a
practically diffusion-free process based only on the setting phenomenon.
Promising pulsed cold welding by explosion, electro-hydraulic effect,
electromagnetic field.
Friction Stir Welding

Friction welding is commonly used for bar products. During welding, one
part of the product remains stationary, and the other rotates. When both parts
are reduced and axial force is applied due to friction forces, heating and
plastic deformation of the metal occurs. The molten and heated metal is
partially squeezed out of the joint. Welding is used both for metals and for
plastics.
Ultrasonic Welding

Ultrasonic welding can be considered as a special case of cold welding with

imposing pulsating forces. When welding materials, usually with a thickness
of less than 1 mm, a waveguide in which standing waves, longitudinal,
bending, torsional and other waves are excited, introduces these ultrasonic
vibrations with a frequency of 18 - 80 kHz into the contact zone of the
products. Shear ultrasonic vibrations are usually used for welding metals, and
vibrations, normal surfaces of products, for plastics. To excite ultrasonic
vibrations of the waveguide, high-frequency generators and magnetostrictive
transducers are used.

Explosion Welding

In explosion welding, the energy from detonation of explosives is supplied to

the welded surfaces of the products located with a gap and at a certain angle
to each other. The fuse is located at the top of the corner. When the surfaces
collide, a cumulative jet is formed between them, cleansing the parts of
contaminants and oxides. Mutual tangential movements of the surfaces to be
welded and the formation of waves at the points of impact provide a reliable
connection of parts.
Vacuum Setting Welding

Vacuum setting welding can be done with the least energy and even
theoretically with the release of energy at the junction. The setting of metals
is possible under high vacuum, subject to careful fitting and contact of parts
on a significant surface. A little pressure is also practically necessary, as a
perfect fit is difficult to achieve. Oxide films and contaminants in a vacuum
evaporate and clean surfaces come into contact.

Evaluation of Efficiency and Requirements for Energy Sources

for Welding

When choosing an energy source for welding specific products, one should
take into account the technical feasibility of using this source, process
efficiency, energy and economic, as well as the number and reliability of the
compounds obtained.

The energy concentration of thermal sources can be estimated by the specific

power in the heating spot. The highest energy intensity in the heating spot
can have photon and electron beams. However, large specific powers can
lead to splashes and evaporation of the material, useful only when cutting and
dimensional processing of products. Specific beam power and other energy
indicators, such as linear energy, various efficiency, deposition, melting, and
others, are suitable for evaluating only certain types of energy sources or
welding methods. To evaluate the effectiveness of different classes of
welding processes and different methods of welding and soldering, it is
advisable to use the values of specific energy required for welding a
particular joint.

For many types of joints and materials, mechanical and thermomechanical

welding processes require significantly less energy than fusion welding.
The calculation of the specific welding energy values for different methods of
welding stainless steel melts showed that with an increase in the thickness of
the product, the specific welding energy increases sharply when using multi-
pass welding.
A comparison of the criteria for single-pass welding of steel shows that the
specific energy of the product with a decrease in source intensity increases
from units of joules per mm2 for beam welding methods to hundreds for a gas
flame. At the same time, the total energy consumption, which takes into
account the vacuum for the electron beam and the laser efficiency of 0.1%, is
hundreds and thousands of times higher for these sources than for a free arc
in argon or for a gas flame.
The above classification shows that each group of welding processes can be
implemented using a specific technological tool, which can conditionally be
considered an integral part of the energy source.
To perform high-quality welding, this source must meet the requirements of
technological and constructive expediency of application, the efficiency of
energy conversion, the limitation of harmful side effects during welding, etc.
Energy sources of thermal fusion welding processes: beam, arc, flame, etc.
must provide the concentration of thermal energy and temperature in the
welding zone or heating spot of a given size, sufficient to melt the material
and penetrate it to the required depth, but without intensive evaporation.
Energy sources of thermomechanical and mechanical processes of pressure
welding: contact, thermopress, cold, etc. - must provide a concentration of
thermal or mechanical energy in the welding zone, as well as a pressure
sufficient to create physical contact, activation and chemical interaction of
atoms of the surfaces to be joined.

Conclusion

I hope that this brief physical basis and classification of welding processes
will be useful for you. I plan to write some more books for Welding
Knowledge series. The main purpose of these books is to promote reader’s
competence in welding. I may bring to you some simple knowledge but this
knowledge is a foundation for any good welding engineer or welder. My
main aim is to bring qualified welders to this world, who would have a deep
understanding of the process.