Question # (1)

Explain the following with examples. (1) Grounded theory (2) Ethnography
(3) Generalizability (4) Survey (5) Explanatory studies
(1) Grounded Theory:
The grounded theory involves the gathering and analysis of knowledge. the idea is
“grounded” in actual data, which suggests the analysis and development of theories happens
after you've got collected the info. it had been introduced by Glaser & Strauss in 1967 to
legitimize qualitative research. to start out the grounded theory process, you should: Identify
the world of interest, Avoid preconceived theories and specialize in the info only, Use
theoretical sensitivity— an awareness of subtle messages and meanings in data. Research
stops once you have reached theoretical saturation: the purpose where you've got sampled
and analyzed your data until you've got exhausted all theories and uncovered all data.
Classic grounded theory (Glaser and Strauss 1967) is usually thought of because the best
example of the inductive approach, although this conclusion would be too simplistic. it's
better to consider it as ‘theory building’ through a mixture of induction and deduction. A
grounded theory strategy is, consistent with Goulding (2002), particularly helpful for
research to predict and explain behavior, the stress is upon developing, and building theory.
the maximum amount of business and management is about people’s behaviors, for instance,
consumers’ or employees’, a grounded theory strategy are often wont to explore a good
range of business and management issues. In grounded theory, data collection starts without
the formation of an initial theoretical framework. The theory is developed from data
generated by a series of observations. the overall theory is often weakened into two parts:
methods and products.
Methods:
The grounded theory provides qualitative researchers with guidelines for collecting and
analyzing data. Although there are “probably as many versions of grounded theory as there
have been grounded theorists” (Dey, 1999), all of the versions have the subsequent aspects
in common (Charmaz, 2006). Coding (labeling and categorizing) from collected data rather
than counting on theories not grounded in data, Social processes are discovered within the
data, Abstract categories are constructed inductively, Categories are refined using
theoretical sampling, The gap between coding and writing is bridged with analytical memos,
Categories are integrated into a theoretical framework.
Products:
1. Data Collection
2. Open Coding
3. Axial Coding
4. Selective Coding
(2) Ethnography:
Ethnography may be a qualitative research method that involves an in-depth study of a
specific cultural group. The word ethnography comes from Greek words Ethnos meaning
people and graphene meaning writing. Ethnographic research may be a qualitative method
where researchers observe and/or interact with a study’s participants in their real-life
environment. Ethnography was popularized by anthropology but is employed across a good
range of social sciences. The aim of an ethnographic study within a usability project is to
urge ‘under the skin’ of a design problem. Their true value comes from developing an early
understanding of the relevant domain, audience, processes, goals, and context of use. for
instance: An insurance firm wanted to re-design its system handling the processing of
insurance claims. this technique had evolved over a few years and truly represented a
patchwork of previous systems. The ‘claim processing’ supported by this ‘system of
systems’ is itself a highly complex process. During this example, ethnographic research
should probably be considered. Ethnography is rooted firmly within the inductive approach.
It emanates from the sector of anthropology. the aim is to explain and explain the social
world the research subjects inhabit within the way during which they might describe and
explain it. this is often obviously a search strategy that's very time consuming and takes
place over an extended period because the researcher must immerse herself or himself
within the social world being researched as completely as possible. Ethnography emphasizes
that an ethnographic strategy is naturalistic. this suggests that in adopting an ethnographic
strategy, you'll be researching the phenomenon within the context during which it occurs
and, additionally, not using data collection techniques that oversimplify the complexities of
lifestyle.

(3) Generalizability:
Generalizability is applied by researchers in a tutorial setting. It is often defined because of
the extension of research findings and conclusions from a study conducted on a sample
population to the population at large. While the dependability of this extension isn't
absolute, it's statistically probable. Because sound generalizability requires data on large
populations, quantitative research -- experimental as an example -- provides the simplest
foundation for producing broad generalizability. The larger the sample population, the more
one can generalize the results. for instance, a comprehensive study of the role computers
plays within the writing process might reveal that it's statistically probable that students who
do most of their composing on a computer will move chunks of text around quite students
who don't compose on a computer. There are two features or dimensions of generalizability
when it's considered in research: generalizability because it is said to the precise population
on which the research is conducted; and its universal application. Specific population:
Specifically a search is weighed on the idea of its generalizability to the precise population
on which the study is conducted. More generalizable research is often applied to the general
population. Universal application: The researchers are considerably curious about knowing
the universal appeal of the research and its findings. Once research outcomes look
promising more and more researcher s want to duplicate such studies to authenticate the
findings. The results thus become more generalizable to the general similar populations
universally. this is often sometimes mentioned as external validity. a priority you'll have
within the design of your research is that the extent to which your research results are
generalizable: that's, whether your findings could also be equally applicable to other
research settings, like other organizations. this might be a specific worry if you're
conducting case study research in one organization or a little number of organizations. it's
going to even be important if the organization is markedly ‘different’ in how. In such cases,
the aim of your research won't be to supply a theory that's generalizable to all or any
populations. Your task is going to be simple to undertake to elucidate what's happening in
your particular research setting.

(4) Survey:
Survey Research is defined because of the process of conducting research using surveys that
are sent to survey respondents. the info collected from surveys is then statistically analyzed
to draw meaningful research conclusions. Creditable survey research can give these
businesses access to a huge information bank. Organizations in media, other businesses, and
even governments believe survey research to get accurate data. This research type includes
the recruitment of people, collection, and analysis of knowledge. It’s useful for researchers
who aim at communicating new features or trends to their respondents. The survey strategy
is typically related to the deductive approach. it's a well-liked and customary strategy in
business and management research and is most often wont to answer who, what, where,
what proportion and the way many questions. It, therefore, tends to be used for exploratory
and descriptive research. Surveys are popular as they permit the gathering of an outsized
amount of knowledge from a sizeable population in a highly economical way. Often
obtained by employing a questionnaire administered to a sample, these data are
standardized, allowing easy comparison. additionally, the survey strategy is perceived as
authoritative by people generally and is both comparatively easy to elucidate and to know. a
day a piece of information or a replacement paper reports the results of a new survey that
indicates, for instance, that a particular percentage of the population thinks or behaves
during a particular way. The survey strategy allows you to gather quantitative data which
you'll analyze quantitatively using descriptive and inferential statistics. the info collected by
the survey strategy is unlikely to be as wide-ranging as those collected by other research
strategies. For example, there's a limit to the number of questions that any questionnaire can
contain if the goodwill of the respondent isn't to be presumed on an excessive amount of.
Despite this, perhaps the most important drawback with employing a questionnaire as a part
of a survey strategy is that the capacity to try to it badly.

(5) Explanatory studies:

Studies that establish causal relationships between variables could also be termed
explanatory research. the stress here is on studying a situation or a drag to elucidate the
relationships between variables. you'll find, for instance, that a cursory analysis of
quantitative data on manufacturing scrap rates shows a relationship between scrap rates and
therefore the age of the machine being operated. you'll plow ahead and subject the info to
statistical tests like correlation to urge a clearer view of the connection. Alternatively, or
additionally, to, you would possibly collect qualitative data to elucidate the explanations of
why customers of your company rarely pay their bills consistent with the prescribed
payment terms. explanatory research aims to extend the understanding of a researcher on a
particular subject. It doesn't provide conclusive results due to the shortage of its statistical
strength, but it makes the researcher determine how and why things happen. Secondary
sources, like published literature or data, are commonly utilized in the explanatory sort of
research. Care needs to be taken to settle on a scope of fair-minded sources to offer a good
and balanced comprehension of the topic. Exp-Research is often very advantageous in
directing subsequent research approaches. an excellent understanding of the topic allows the
researcher to hone subsequent research questions and may greatly increase the usefulness of
a study’s conclusions. a number of the favored methods of explanatory research design
include literature searches, depth interviews, focus groups, and case analysis. Literature
Research, In-depth study of every single problem, Focus Group Research, and Case
Analysis Research are the key features of explanatory research. The Explanatory Research
allows the researcher to supply deep insight into a selected subject, which provides birth to
more subjects and provides more opportunities for the researchers to review new things and
questions new things.
Question # (2)
Write a comprehensive note on “Negotiating Access and Research Ethics”.
Access and ethics are critical aspects for the success of any scientific research . Insufficient
attention is probably going to be paid to the very real problem of gaining access and
likelihood of ethical concerns arising in reference to the scientific research and therefore
the implications of those . the power to get both primary and secondary data will depend
upon you gaining access to an appropriate source, or sources where  there's a choice. The
appropriateness of a source will, of course, depend upon your research question, related
objectives and research design.
Physical Access:
The first level of access is physical access or entry. Whilst the web has undoubtedly made
accessing some secondary data easier, for much secondary and first data gaining physical
access are often still difficult. First, organizations, groups or individuals might not be
prepared to interact in additional, voluntary activities due to the time and resources required.
Second, the request for access and cooperation may fail to interest the one that receives it or
to succeed in the gatekeeper or broker who controls research access and makes the ultimate
decision on whether or to not allow the researcher to undertake the research. this might be
for a variety of reasons, related to a scarcity of perceived value about the work of the
organization, group or the individual, the character of the subject due to its potential
sensitivity, or due to concerns about the confidentiality of the knowledge that might be
required, perceptions about your credibility and doubts about your competence. Finally, the
organization or group may find itself during a difficult situation due to external events
unrelated to any perceptions about the character of the request of the person making it, so
that they need no choice but to refuse access. Physical access to a corporation or group is
going to be formally granted through its management.
Cognitive Access:
Access may impact upon your ability to pick a stratified sample of participants, or
secondary data, to aim to answer your research question and meet your objectives in an
unbiased way and to supply reliable and valid data. This broader meaning of access is
mentioned as cognitive access. It means not only is vital to realize physical access but then
to get information that might assist you in your research to succeed in your research
objective. physical access is granted by management while cognitive access will depend
upon how the participants in your research accept you, trust you, and supply you with the
needed correct information. Where you achieve this you'll have gained access to the precise
data that you simply need your intended participants to share with you to be ready to
address your research question and objectives. Simply obtaining physical access to a
corporation is probably going to be inadequate unless you're also ready to negotiate yourself
into an edge where you'll collect data that reveal the truth of what's occurring about your
research question and objectives. This fundamental point requires you to possess established
precisely what data you would like to gather and therefore the method or methods you plan
to use to gather it.
Virtual Access:
Access is therefore likely to be problematic in terms of gaining permission for physical or (in the case of
Internet-mediated research) virtual access, maintaining that access, and being able to make sufficient
scope to answer fully the research question and meet the objectives that guide your research . With the
increased use of the web to enable research, issues related to gaining virtual access have needed to be
addressed. Gaining access to online communities requires first identifying those online forums (such as
user groups) that are most appropriate to your research question. Five sorts of the online community are:
Bulletin boards for particular products and services, Independent sites, Social media pages and groups,
Themed email lists, Multiuser chat rooms

Strategies to realize access:
Strategies to assist you to realize access are: allowing yourself sufficient time, using existing and
developing new contacts, providing a transparent account of purpose and sort of access required,
overcoming organizational concerns, highlighting possible benefits to the organization, using suitable
language, facilitating replies, developing access incrementally, establishing credibility.
Even your initial request for access involves a conversation, it's advisable to follow this with an
introductory letter to verify your requirements. Always provide a transparent account of your
requirements when requesting access. Outlining the aim of your scientific research and demonstrating
clarity of thought should help to determine your credibility and therefore the goal of gaining access. the
development, tone, and presentation of an introductory letter also will assist the establishment of your
credibility and therefore the goal of gaining access. any request for access will be got to consider and
address organizational concerns concerning the quantity of your time or resources which might be
involved in the part of the organization, sensitivity about the subject, and confidentiality and anonymity.

Research Ethics:
Ethics refers to the appropriateness of your behavior about the rights of these who become the topic of
your work or are suffering from it. Cooper and Schindler (2008:34) define ethics because the ‘norms or
standards of behavior that guide moral choices about our behavior and our relationships with others’ .
Research ethics, therefore, relates to questions about how we formulate and clarify our research topic,
design our research and gain access, collect data, process and store our data, analyze data and write up our
research findings during a moral and responsible way. variety of key ethical issues arise across the stages
and duration of a search project, it's worth summarizing these key ethical issues. They relate to moral
issues around the: privacy of possible and actual participants, voluntary nature of participation, and
therefore the right to withdraw partially or completely from the method. consent and possible deception
of participants, maintenance of the confidentiality of knowledge provided by individuals or identifiable
participants and their anonymity, reactions of participants to the way during which you seek to gather
data, effects on participants of the way during which you employ, analyze and report your data, behavior,
and objectivity of the researcher.

Ethical issues during data collection:

The data collection stage is related to a variety of ethical issues. a number of these are
general issues that will apply to whichever technique is getting used to gather data. Other
issues are more specifically associated with a specific data collection technique. regardless
of the data collection technique, there are a variety of ethical principles to which you would
like to stick. During the info collection stage, this suggests ensuring that you simply collect
your data accurately. Confidentiality and anonymity could also be important in gaining
access to organizations and individuals. Once such promises are given, it's of great
importance to form sure that these are maintained. Where confidentiality has been promised,
then you want to make sure the data collected remain confidential. this is often particularly
important about names, addresses, and other personal information. Ways of ensuring
anonymity are inevitably research method specific. The use of the web and email during
data collection will cause the likelihood of great ethical, or netiquette, issues associated with
confidentiality and anonymity. for instance, it might be technically possible to forward the
e-mail (or interview notes) of 1 research participant to a different participant to ask this
person to discuss the problems being raised. Such an action would infringe the proper to
confidentiality and anonymity, perhaps causing harm. It should be avoided.
Ethical issues related to processing and storage:
Personal data is defined as any information concerning identified or identifiable persons.
Where you process and control this sort of knowledge your research will become subject to
the provisions of the info protection legislation of the country during which you reside.
Personal data must be: processed fairly and lawfully, obtained for specified, explicit and
lawful purposes and not processed further during a manner incompatible with those
purposes, adequate, relevant and not excessive about the aim that they're processed, accurate
and, where necessary, maintained so far, kept (in a form that permits identification of
knowledge subjects) for not than is important, processed following the rights granted to data
subjects by the Act, kept securely, not transferred to a rustic outside the ECU Economic
Area unless it ensures an adequate level of protection about the rights of knowledge
subjects. These principles have implications for all research projects that involve the
processing of private data. There are certain, limited exemptions to the second, fifth, and
seventh data principles associated with the processing and use of private data for research
purposes. additionally, there's an extra category of private data, referred to as sensitive
personal data, which covers information held a few data subject’s racial or ethnic origin,
politics, religious or other similar beliefs, union membership, and therefore the like.
Related issues:
1. Confidentiality and anonymity
2. Protection of research participants
3. Ethical use of knowledge analysis and conclusion
Question # (3)
Define sampling and discuss in detail the sampling techniques (probability
and non-probability based sampling).
Sampling may be a process utilized in statistical analysis during which a predetermined number
of observations are taken from a bigger population. once you conduct research a few groups of
individuals, it’s rarely possible to gather data from every one therein group. Instead, you decide
on a sample. A sample is a group of people who will participate in the research. There are two
sorts of sampling methods: Probability sampling involves random selection, allowing you to
form statistical inferences about the entire group. Non-probability sampling involves non-
random selection supported convenience or other criteria, allowing you to simply collect initial
data. the method of probability sampling is often divided into four stages: Identity an appropriate
sampling frame supported your research questions or objectives, choose an appropriate sample
size, Select the foremost appropriate sampling technique and choose the sample, make sure the
sample is representative of the population.

Probability Sampling:
The sampling frame for any probability sample may be a complete list of all the cases within the
population from which your sample is going to be drawn. Five main techniques are often wont to
select a probability sample:
Simple Random Sampling:
In a simple random sample, every member of the population has an equal chance of being
selected. Your sampling frame should include the entire population. To conduct this sort of
sampling, you'll use tools like random number generators or other techniques that are based
entirely on chance. for instance, you would like to pick an easy random sample of 100 employees
of Company X. You assign variety to each employee within the company database from 1 to
1000, and use a random number generator to pick 100 numbers.
Systematic sampling:
Systematic sampling involves selecting the sample at regular intervals from the sampling frame.
to try to this you: Number each of the cases in your sampling frame with a singular number. The
primary case is numbered 0, the second 1 then on, Select the primary case employing a random
number, Calculate the sampling fraction, Select subsequent cases systematically using the
sampling fraction to work out the frequency of selection. for instance, all employees of the
corporate are listed in alphabetical order. From the primary 10 numbers, you randomly select a
starting point: number 6. From number 6 onwards, every 10th person on the list is chosen (6, 16,
26, 36, then on), and you finish up with a sample of 100 people.

Stratified random sampling:

This sampling method is acceptable when the population has mixed characteristics, and you
would like to make sure that each character is proportionally represented within the sample. You
divide the population into subgroups (called strata) supported the relevant characteristic (e.g.
gender, age range, tax bracket, job role). From the general proportions of the population, you
calculate what percentage of people should be sampled from each subgroup. Then you employ
random or systematic sampling to pick a sample from each subgroup.
Cluster sampling:
Cluster sampling is, on the surface, almost like representative sampling as you would like to
divide the population into discrete groups before sampling. The groups are termed clusters
during this sort of sampling and may be supported any present grouping. The technique has three
main stages: choose the cluster grouping for your sampling frame, Number each of the clusters
with a singular number. the primary cluster is numbered 0, the second 1 then on, Select your
sample using some sort of sampling. This method is sweet for handling large and dispersed
populations, but there's more risk of error within the sample. for instance, the corporate has
offices in 10 cities across the country (all with roughly an equivalent number of employees in
similar roles). You can’t visit every office to gather your data, so you employ sampling to pick 3
offices – these are your clusters.
Multi-stage sampling:
Multi-stage sampling, sometimes called multi-stage cluster sampling, maybe a development of
cluster sampling. it's normally wont to overcome problems related to a geographically dispersed
population when face-to-face contact is required or where it's expensive and time-consuming to
construct a sampling frame for an outsized geographic area. However, like cluster sampling,
you'll use it for any discrete groups, including people who aren't geographically based. The
technique involves taking a series of cluster samples, each involving some sort of sampling. This
aspect is represented by the dotted lines.

Non-probability sampling:
In a non-probability sample, individuals are selected supported non-random criteria, and not
every individual features a chance of being included. Having decided on the likely suitable
sample size, you would like to pick the foremost appropriate sampling technique to enable you to
answer your research question from the range of non-probability sampling techniques.
Quota sampling:
Quota sampling is entirely non-random and is generally used for interview surveys. It is based on
the premise that your sample will represent the population because the variability in your sample
for various quota variables is that the same as that within the population. to pick a quota sample
you: Divide the population into specific groups, Calculate a quota for every group supported
relevant and available data, Give each interviewer an ‘assignment’, which states the number of
cases in each quota from which they need to collect data, Combine the info collected by
interviewers to supply the complete sample. Quota sampling is generally used for giant
populations. for little populations, it's usually possible to get a sampling frame. Your choice of
quota depends on two main factors: usefulness as a way of stratifying the info, ability to beat
likely variations between groups in their availability for interview. quota sampling is split into
two groups: controlled and uncontrolled. Controlled quota sampling involves the introduction of
certain restrictions to limit the researcher’s choice of samples. Uncontrolled quota sampling, on
the opposite hand, resembles a convenience sampling method during a way that researcher is
liberal to choose sample group members consistent with his/her will.
Purposive sampling:
This type of sampling involves the researcher using their judgment to pick a sample that's most
useful to the needs of the research. it's often utilized in qualitative research, where the researcher
wants to realize detailed knowledge of a few specific phenomena instead of making statistical
inferences. For Example, you would like to understand more about the opinions and experiences
of disabled students at your university, so you purposefully select a variety of scholars with
different support needs to collect a varied range of knowledge on their experiences with student
services. this type of sample is usually used when working with very small samples like just in
case study research and once you wish to pick particularly informative cases. The more common
purposive sampling strategies are discussed below:
Extreme case:
Extreme case or deviant sampling focuses on unusual or special cases on the idea that the info
collected about these unusual or extreme outcomes will enable you to find out the foremost and
to answer your research question(s) and to satisfy your objectives most effectively. This is often
supported the premise that findings from extreme cases are going to be relevant in understanding
or explaining more typical cases.
Heterogeneous:
Heterogeneous or maximum variation sampling enables you to gather data to explain and explain
the key themes which will be observed. Although this might appear a contradiction, as a little
sample may contain cases that are completely different, Patton (2002) argues that this is often
actually a strength. Any patterns that do emerge are likely to be of particular interest and value
and represent the key themes. additionally, the info collected should enable you to document
unique.
Homogeneous sampling:
Homogeneous sampling focuses on one particular sub-group during which all the sample
members are similar. this permits you to review the group in great depth.
Critical case sampling:
Critical case sampling selects critical cases on the idea that they will make some extent
dramatically or because they're important. the main target of knowledge collection is to know
what's happening in each critical case so that logical generalizations are often made. Patton
(2002) outlines a variety of clues that suggest critical cases.
Typical case sampling:
Typical case sampling is typically used as a part of a search project to supply an illustrative
profile employing a representative case. Such a sample enables you to supply an illustration of
what's ‘typical’ to those that are going to be reading your research report and should be
unacquainted with the topic matter. it's not intended to be definitive.
Snowball sampling:
Snowball sampling is usually used when it's difficult to spot members of the specified
population, for instance, people that are working while claiming unemployment benefits. You,
therefore, need to: Make contact with one or two cases within the population, Ask these cases to
spot further cases, Ask these new cases to spot further new cases (and so on), Stop when either
no new cases are given or the sample is as large as is manageable.
Self-selection sampling:
Self-selection sampling occurs once you allow each case, usually individuals, to spot their desire
to require part within the research. You, therefore: Publicize your need for cases, either by
advertising through appropriate media or by asking them to require a part. Collect data from
those that respond. Publicity for convenience samples can take many forms. These include
articles and advertisements in magazines that the population is likely to read, postings on
appropriate Internet newsgroups and discussion groups, hyperlinks from other websites also as
letters or emails of invitation to colleagues and friends.
Convenience sampling:
Convenience sampling (or haphazard sampling) involves selecting haphazardly those cases that
are easiest to get for your sample as the person interviewed randomly during a plaza for a
television program or the book about entrepreneurship you discover at the airport. The sample
selection process is sustained until your required sample size has been reached. Although this
system of sampling is employed widely, it's susceptible to bias and influences that are beyond
your control, because the cases appear within the sample only due to the convenience of
obtaining them.