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CHAPTER II

Literature Review

A. Literature Review

1. English Language Teaching and Learning

There are some definitions of language. Language is a systemic

means of communicating ideas or feelings by the use of conventionalized

signs, sounds, gestures, or marks, having under understood meanings

(Webster’s Thirds New International Dictionary of English Language

(1961) in Brown (2000: 5). Meanwhile, Brown gives a concise definition

of language. He defines a language as follows:

1. Language is systematic.

2. Language is a set of arbitrary symbols.

3. Those symbols are primary vocal, but may also be visual.

4. The symbols have conventionalized meanings to which they

refer.

5. Language is used for communication.

6. Language operates in a speech community or culture.

7. Language is essentially human, although possible not limited to

human.

8. Language is acquired by all people in much the same way

language and language learning both have universal

characteristic.
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Then, Brown (2000:6) states that learning is the process of

acquiring or getting knowledge of a subject or a skill by studying

experience or instruction. Based on the previous statement, Brown

classifies learning into some components as follow:

1. Learning is acquisition or “getting”.

2. Learning is retention of information or skill.

3. Retention implies storage systems, memory, and cognitive

organization.

4. Learning involves active, conscious focus on and acting upon

events outside the organism.

5. Learning is relatively permanent but subject to forgetting.

6. Learning involves some form of practice, perhaps reinforced

practice.

7. Learning is change in behavior

Language learning is a long and complex way. Language learning

is the steps where the learners explore all their competence to think, feel,

and act. In addition, he also states that language learning is not a set of

easy steps that can be programmed in a quick kit. It needs regular training

in order to succeed in learning process.

In relation to learning, he states that teaching is the process of guiding

and facilitating learning (2000: 7). Teaching also enables the learners to

learn and setting the condition for learning. It implies that teaching cannot
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be separated from learning. The teachers’ understanding of what learning

will determine his or her understanding of what teaching is. Teachers’

understanding of how students learn will determine the teacher’s

philosophy of education, teaching style, approaches, methods, and the

classroom techniques. The approach, the methods, and the techniques that

are used in the classroom depend on the teacher’s understanding of what

learning is. In other words, the concept of teaching is interpreted in line

with the concept of learning.

Richards (1985:11) says that language teaching is hence a complex

issue, encompassing socio-cultural linguistic, psycholinguistics, as well as

curricula and instructional dimensions. Concerning to the foreign language

teaching, there are some experts point out that second or foreign language

teaching is any activity on the part of one person intended to facilitate the

learning by another person of a language which is not his native one.

In the foreign language teaching, there is an obligation for the teacher

to provide exposures to the language and opportunities for learning

through classroom activities (Cameron, 2001: 11-12). Teachers are

expected to be able to provide a good classroom atmosphere for the

learning process. Then, it should be followed by designing the appropriate

learning materials which can enhance the teaching and learning process.

In some cases, many teachers do not think their objectives in relation

to the situation in which they are teaching and to the goals of the students
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in their classes. They teach without thinking about the appropriate

materials, methods, and techniques. In consequence, their students do not

find particularly exciting lessons. Thus, it is important for the teachers to

know the objectives of their teaching. Rivers (1981:8) proposes the

objective of teaching as follows:

1. To develop the student’s intellectual powers through the study of

another language.

2. To increase the student’s personal culture through the study of the

great literature and philosophy to which the new language is the

key.

3. To increase the student’s understanding of how language functions

and to bring them, through the study of another language, to a

greater awareness of the functioning of their own language.

4. To teach students to read another language with comprehension so

that they may keep abreast of modern writing, research, and

information.

5. To give students the experience of expressing themselves within

another framework, linguistically, kinetically, and culturally.

6. To bring students to a greater understanding of people across

national barriers, by giving them sympathetic insight into the ways

of life and way of thinking of the people who speak the language

they are learning.

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7. to provide students with the skills that will enable them to

communicate orally, and to some degree in writing, in personal or

career contexts, with the speakers of another language and with

people of other nationalities who have also learned this language.

Based on the statements above, language teaching and learning

involves a lot of aspects in order to get a success. Teachers are expected to

be able to set the objectives and modify their teaching style in order to

accommodate the learners’ needs.

2. Instructional Media

Instructional Media is one of the class equipments which can

improve the students’ involvement; attracts them to participate in the

teaching and learning activities. Here is discussion on how instructional

media can be utilized for promoting students’ involvement in EFL

teaching and learning process.

a. Definition of Instructional Media

Another term of instructional media is educational media. There

are a number of definitions about media proposed by many experts.

Kemp (1977: 73), for instance, says that educational media are

supporting materials that can motivate students and can effectively

explain and illustrate the subject content. His concern is on the use of

materials in order to make students motivated to learn something and to

make clear the content of a subject.

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Additionally, Hamalik (1985: 23) defines educational media as any

tools and techniques used to make the communication and interaction

between the teacher and the students more effective in the teaching and

learning process. Here, media can be anything, material and

non-material, physical and non-physical, that are useful to support the

communication and interaction in the teaching and learning process. It

can be for explaining, motivating, or making clear the thing being

discussed or talked about.

Moreover, Heinich (1982) in Arsyad (2002: 4) defines media as the

means for transmitting or delivering messages. Here, messages can be

transmitted or delivered to students by using media.

From the discussion above, it can be concluded that educational

media are any supporting materials, methods, or techniques for

transmitting or delivering messages and making the subject content

easy to understand.

b. Types of Instructional Media

Instructional media can be classified into several types, namely

printed media, graphic media, which include overhead transparencies,

charts/graphs, models/dioramas, maps, globes, and drawings,

photographic media, audio media, television/video, computers,

simulations and games.

For small-group interaction, media that are based on sensory

experience can be classified into five types (Kemp, 1977: 79). They are
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simulation activity, which includes games, role playing, simulations,

visual form which includes photographic, graphic, and graphic and

photographic combination, audio form, audiovisual or multimedia

technique, and media that can be used by other senses which include

objects, specimens and models. Seels and Glasgow (1990) in Arsyad

(2002: 33). Based on the technology development, media are

categorized into two: traditional and modern.

Above all, the main purpose of using media in language teaching is

to enable the message of the information being communicated to be

absorbed, to a maximum by the learners.

c. The Roles of Instructional Media in Teaching and Learning Process

As stated by Hamalik (1986) in Arsyad (2002: 15), utilizing

instructional media in teaching and learning process can encourage the

students’ new interest stimulate their activeness, and attracts their

involvement.

During the warming-up, the media utilization can help the teacher

introduce the learning material more easily. Next to arousing the

students’ interest and motivation, it can also help the students improve

their understanding since it facilitates interpretation to the lesson

materials in a more effective way.

d. Instructional Media Selection

Instructional media selection is a factor of many factors which

success the teaching and learning process. In the case of instructional

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media selection Strauss and Frost (1999) state that there are nine key

factors that should influence media selection. Those factors are

institutional resource constraints, course content appropriateness,

learner characteristics, professor attitudes and skill levels, course

learning objectives, the learning relationships, learning location, time,

and media richness level.

Reiser and Dick (1996) distill those nine factors down to three

major criteria for selecting instructional media: practicality, student

appropriateness, and instructional appropriateness.

1. Practicality: Is the intended media practical in that the media is

available, cost efficient, time efficient, and understood by the

instructor?

2. Student Appropriateness: Is the intended media appropriate for the

developmental and experiential levels of the students?

3. Instructional Appropriateness: Is the intended media appropriate for

the planned instructional strategy? Will the media allow for the

presentation of the proposed lesson in an efficient and effective

manner? Will the media facilitate the students’ acquisition of the

specific learning objectives?

Kemp (1977, 80) lists criteria to consider in making a selection

about what kind of media is better to use in a teaching and learning

process.
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i. Does the needed material already exist in suitable form and quality?

ii. What would the cost of purchase or preparation be?

iii. What does the reproduction or duplicating cost, if any?

iv. How much time will be required to locate or prepare each item?

v. What are the requirements for equipment facilities technical skills

or services in preparation?

vi. Is one medium more suitable than the others because of ease of

viewing or handling by students?

vii. Will there be problems regarding equipment, facilities,

supervisions, and scheduling?

viii. Will there be problems in maintenance and storage of the materials

for future use?

ix. Do students prefer one kind of material to others?

x. What is the teacher's preference?

In brief, it can be said that the criteria for the selection of an

instructional media are availability, preparation cost, reproduction

cost, time to prepare, skills/services required, viewing and handling,

maintenance and storage, students' preference and teachers’

preference. Effective media are measured from the extent on how they

transfer messages so the information can be absorbed well and

effectively by students.
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3. Multimedia

a. Definition of Multimedia

According to Philips (2007:8), the multimedia component is

characterized by the presence of text, pictures, sound, animation, and

video; some or all of which are organized into some coherent program.

In addition, Bates and Poole (2003:60) state that the term

multimedia is used to describe the combination of text, still graphics,

animation, audio, and video within a single technology, such as a

computer or television.

In line with Bates and Poole, Chapman (2004:7) states that

multimedia is any combination of two or more media, represented in a

digital form, sufficiently well integrates to be presented via a single

interface, or manipulated by a single computer program.

The term of multimedia adopted in this research is software which

is used in the learning process. The software consists of texts, pictures,

sounds, animation, and videos. The software is used in the computer for

the purpose of learning.

4. Multimedia Instruction

Elliot, Kratochwill, Cook, and Travers (2000: 550) state that

multimedia instruction is the integration and simultaneous use of several

different types of technology to improve instruction. They also give

example such as a computer software program might be written using

some specialized language that controls not only the presentation of the
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text and graphics on the computer screen, but also controls the use laser

videodisc, audio compact disc, videotape, audiotape, voice synthesis,

digitized voice, or animated graphics.

5. Communication

Altur (2005: 11) in his book says that communication means to

give or exchange information, news, ideas, or opinions by speech or

writing. He also states that communication is the sending of information or

news from one person to another or the exchange of such information or

news between people. Here, in the communication there are two elements

that make the communication run those are the sender and the receiver or

sometime they are called the transmitter and receiver. In the teaching

learning process allows teacher and students make communication and

communication itself allows the teaching and learning run. Between

communication and the process of teaching and learning affect each other.

We have known that the effective communication in the teaching and

learning is two-way communication. Little (1973: 7) states that the type

communication is two-way communication where the parties concerned

take the communication in turns to be transmitter and receiver. Both of the

parties receive and transmit the information each other. The good

transmitter always tries to see everything from the receiver’s point of

view. In the classroom, the teacher also should try to see the material

delivered from the point of view of students. The bad communicator is one

who in a dialogue situation resents losing the transmitter role and will not
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give the receiver a chance to become transmitter for more than a few

moments. The kind of this communicator always goes on talking all the

time himself, or interrupts the other man as soon as he has uttered a few

words. The bad communicator also takes no notice of how the receiver is

receiving what he or she is trying to communicate and gives him no

chance to ask questions or otherwise indicate his or her reaction to the

information transmitted.

In line with Altur, Little (1973: 5) says that by doing

communication we may wish to make somebody (1) act in certain way (or

stop acting in a certain way), or (2) change his attitude toward us or

somebody else, or (3) change his attitude towards some object or idea. In

short, we want a ‘response’. He also proposes the process of

communication as the process by which information is transmitted

between individuals and/or organizations so that understanding response

results (1973: 6). He makes the illustration of the communication as

follows.

Medium

Converted Interpreted
Information into chosen from Information
Response
at Tx medium by medium by at Rx
Tx Rx

E
Channel
A B C D

Figure 1. Illustration of Communication

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From the figure above, it can be seen that information from the

transmitter is converted into chosen medium then it is sent to the receiver.

From the receiver, the transmitter or communicator will get responses. In

the process of communication needs media to carry out the messages of

the transmitter as the figure above.

The channel has the role as the connector between the transmitter

and receiver. Channel here is the path through which the medium moves or

the situation that gives a chance the transmitter to communicate with the

receiver. In the educational system, as in school, the communication’s

channel used by the teachers is the timetabling system of the school which

ensures that the students and the teacher go to the same classroom at the

same time, so that the communication can take place. This is an example

of channel of communication in the school’s system that often breaks

down at the beginning of a session. No communication can take place at

all if the teacher has been sent to class A but the students have been sent to

class B.

In the part E, response, to be exactly what the transmitter hoped

for, or in the classroom context, the transmitter is the teacher itself,

communication must be perfect. For perfect communication, the

information at D (receiver) must be identical with that at A or transmitter.

In fact, this is very difficult to achieve because of distortion at B and C.

when the transmitter or the teacher wants to put the idea into the medium

he may misrepresents the idea through lack of skill in using the medium
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even the idea is clear enough in the transmitter’s head. Similarly may the

receiver misinterpret the medium, bringing in a second level of distortion.

In short, the more both the transmitter and the receiver know about how to

use the chosen medium the less the distortion will be and the nearer to

perfection the operation of communication process.

The effectiveness of communication process is affected not only by

the transmitter, but also the receiver and the choosing of media. All of the

elements of communication must work together in order to achieve what is

sent by the transmitter. However, the ideal condition where all the

elements can work properly as their role is hardly to achieve.

6. Student’s Response

a. Definition of Response

Response is an act or feeling produced in answer to a stimulus.

McKechnie states that response is an act or action of responding (as

by an answer), a responsive or corresponding act or feeling, or a

responding act to a motivating force or situation (1981: 1935). While

Hulse (1975: 38) defines the psychological response as the action of

nerve cells or the action of single muscle movements that go into

some complicated bit of behavior like walking, closing the door,

operating a crane or saying the word psychology. More commonly,

the psychologists use the term response to label the function or to end

result that can be described as behavior. In line with Hulse, Berube

(1982) says that a response is the act of responding and a reply or an

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answer. The term of responses here is deal with any behaviour of

students during the English teaching and learning process.

b. Type of Response

Borich states in his book that response of students in

classroom consists of two kind of responses they are desired and

undesired responses (2000: 257-266). Those responses are seen from

the point of view of the teacher as the center or stick holder of the

teaching and learning process. While Linsey, Hall, Delguardi,

Greenwood, and Thurston in Borich (1996: 267) also states that

responses typically divided in verbal and nonverbal responses. In line

with Borich, Yelon (1977:175) says that response is not only

desirable, it is essential as an indication that learning has taken place,

that behavior has been modified. If students do not respond, do not

indicate by performance that they have learned, we have no way of

knowing whether learning has taken place. So, we need to evoke

students’ responses since responses are essential in teaching and

learning process.

B. Conceptual Framework

The success of teaching learning process is affected by many

factors such as teacher, students, media, place, material, teacher’s

technique etc. Those factors have to join together and work as a unity

not separately. Media is seen as one factor that determines the success of
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the teaching and learning process especially English teaching learning

process. Media can grab students’ attention, motivation, and interest. The

more attractive media is used the more students’ interested will be. Such

media needs high technology and high technology means lot of cost.

Media that can presents graphics, text, sounds, animation, in one

technology. Bates and Poole (2003: 60) say that the term multimedia to

describe the combination of text, still graphics, animation, audio, and

video within a single technology, such as computer or television. The

high cost spent for the teaching and learning process is meaningless

unless students interested and actively react to the teaching and learning

process by using such media. Here, students will response to the teaching

and learning process. However, what kinds of response those appear in

the teaching and learning process? Is it supporting the process or not?

That is the question.

No responses mean no learning. High cost spent for gaining the

success will be useless if there are no responses from the students.

Learning happens if students response or react to the process itself by

paying attention, questioning, answering etc. However, not all responses

will bring to the success. A teacher has to be able to know the students’

responses in order to determine the media, technique etc.

By knowing the importance of students’ responses to the English

teaching and learning process by using multimedia, the research revealed

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the students’ responses toward English teaching and learning by using

multimedia.
 Encourage learner’s interest 25
Arouse motivation
Stimulate activeness
Media’s roles Answering questions

Traditional Performing speaking

Media Type of Media
Modern Chatting

Visual
Student’s/learner’s Auditory Paying attention
Verbal
Student Tactile/ kinesthetic Doing the exercise
Nonverbal Walking in the room
Student’s Responses
Disturbing a friend
Understanding daily conversation
Keeping silent
The Understanding monologue
Process Listening Understanding short funct. text Thanking
of Reading
English Material Expressing idea in recount text Feedback to student
Writing
Teaching Expressing idea in narrative text Change of seat assignment
Speaking
and
Learning Expressing in monologue
Mild
Expressing something Behavior contract
Teacher’s responses Moderate Feedback to student
Resource
Teacher
Organizer Giving compliment
Teacher’s Role Severe
Controller
Lead-in
Showing the topic Telephone to parent
Presentation Parent conference
Giving cues
Technique Practice
Giving feedbacks Giving a prize
Production
Giving tasks
Giving score