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The intention of food safety is to prevent food poisoning, (the transmission of disease through
food) and to maintain the wholesomeness of the food product through all stages of processing,
until it is finally eaten.
In the private home where food is prepared for a small number of people the results of food
contamination are restricted.
However, food contaminated in a restaurant kitchen for example, can result in a large number of
people being affected.
The presence of food spoilage bacteria, taints or foreign material, may not cause food poisoning,
but can still result in considerable loss if the product cannot be used.
This booklet provides basic information on micro-organisms and on food poisoning and how to
prevent it, to help you, the foodworker, produce a cleaner, safer product.
FOOD SAFETY
Food safety involves more than just cleanliness; it includes all practices involved with -
•Protecting food from the risk of contamination, including harmful bacteria, poisons and
foreign objects.
•Preventing any bacteria present in the food multiplying to a level that would result in food
poisoning, or the early spoilage of the food.
•Destroying any harmful bacteria in the food by thorough cooking or processing.
FOOD SAFETY EDUCATION
A good knowledge of safe food handling practices is essential for all those involved in food
processing, storage, distribution and sale.
All food handlers MUST receive adequate food safety education and training that ensures -
•they are aware of the dangers of poor food handling,
•they have the knowledge to break the chain of events that results in food poisoning.
A good standard of food safety depends on foodworkers knowing -
•how the job is done,
•why it should be done,
and then by doing it properly.
HIGH RISK FOODS
High Risk Foods are those perishable foods which can support the growth of harmful bacteria and
are intended to be eaten without further treatment such as cooking, which would destroy such
organisms. They include -
•All cooked meat and poultry.
BACTERIA
Bacteria are the main cause of food-borne illness or food poisoning and are an important cause of food
spoilage.
They thrive where food and water are present and the temperature is suitable, as in the nose, throat,
skin, bowel and lower urinary tract of man and animals.
They are single cell organisms usually having a definite outer envelope or capsule for protection. They
multiply by dividing into two, which can occur very quickly, (eg. every 20 minutes). They can actively
move and some link themselves together in chains or in bunches.
To resist harm, some bacteria can form spores (tough reproductive cells that are able to survive under
adverse conditions), that can resist damage by heat (as in cooking), by cold (as in freezing) and by
chemicals such as disinfectants. A spore can survive in dust, on vegetation and in soil for weeks, months
or even years until it finds itself in a suitable environment for growth.
VIRUSES
Viruses are organisms much smaller than bacteria. In their pre-infective stage they are just like a
chemical with none of the requirements for life, but once in a living cell they take over and begin to
multiply. They can grow only in living tissue, but can be carried in food from one person to another.
FUNGI -
YEASTS
Yeasts are single cell organisms much larger than bacteria and can be found in the soil, on plants and on
the skin and body of man. They multiply by forming offspring as buds which grow and then detach
themselves.
Some can produce disease, some cause skin infections in man and others cause diseases in plants. Some
yeasts spoil food, but beneficial uses are in the making of beer, wine and bread.
MOULDS
Moulds grow as single cell filaments that can branch together making a strongly knit structure like a
mat, that can often be seen with the naked eye. Usually they look fluffy, being a familiar sight on foods
like jam, cheese and bread. They multiply by producing clusters of dry spores which are blown by the air
like seeds.
Many moulds spoil food and a few can cause disease in plants and man, but beneficial uses are in the
ripening of cheeses and production of antibiotics.
GROWTH OF MICRO-ORGANISMS
There are certain environmental conditions that must be met for micro-organisms to grow and multiply
and when these conditions exist they can very quickly increase in number. These conditions are -
Time pH Food Water Temperature Oxygen Anything less than optimum conditions will lead to a
slowing down or a stopping of growth and then possibly their death.
TIME
Time is needed for the organism to grow and reach maturity.
In most cases we try to prevent an organism from maturing by making its environment unsuitable for
growth.
FOOD
All organisms need food for growth and energy.
TEMPERATURE
Each micro-organism has an optimum temperature where it grows most rapidly and a maximum and
minimum temperature at which it will grow. Outside this range it will grow very slowly, or not at all.
TEMPERATURE RELATIONSHIP TO GROWTH AND DESTRUCTION OF BACTERIA
pH
The numbers on the pH scale, as shown in the following diagram, indicate the acidity or alkalinity of a
fluid. Micro-organisms can grow and multiply only within a certain pH range.
Most prefer to live in a neutral environment around pH 7. A small group of micro-organisms prefer an
acid environment and do not grow in the neutral range.
Low pH generally inhibits microbial growth.
Yeasts and moulds are the most capable of growth at low pH.
Other acid-producing bacteria such as lactic acid bacteria also predominate at low pH.
Approximate pH Growth Ranges for some Food-borne Illness Causing Micro-Organisms
WATER
Without water, Dehydration (loss of moisture) occurs and the life and growth processes of micro-
organisms slow down and may stop. The micro-organisms might not be destroyed however.
The use of salt or syrups (sugar) in various foods is a way of activating this process. These salts and
sugars are crystals that compete with the micro-organisms for the available water that they need for
survival.
WATER ACTIVITY (aw)
It is now generally accepted that the water requirements of micro-organisms should be defined in terms
of the water activity (aw) in the environment. This is a measure of the availability of water to micro-
organisms for metabolism (the processes of life). The (aw) of pure water is 1.00, - a 22% salt solution
has an (aw) of 0.86 and a saturated salt solution is 0.75. The (aw) value for most fresh foods is above
0.99.
Approximate Minimum (aw) Values for Growth
ORGANISMSWATER ACTIVITYGROUPSMOST SPOILAGE BACTERIA0.90MOST SPOILAGE
YEASTS0.88MOST SPOILAGE MOULDS0.80OXYGEN
AVAILABILITY OF OXYGEN
Micro-organisms respire. That is, they get energy by breaking down chemicals, usually sugars, inside the
cell.
Aerobic organisms must use oxygen obtained from their environment (usually air) before they can
produce energy for life and growth. Anaerobic organisms can produce this energy only in the absence
of oxygen. Facultative organisms can respire in either aerobic or anaerobic conditions.
OXYGEN TENSION
This is the availability of oxygen to micro-organisms, and can be controlled by packaging, eg. by gas
flushing.
CONTROL OF MICRO-ORGANISMS
Control of micro-organisms is needed to prevent -
•The spread of disease and infection.
•The spoilage of foodstuffs.
•Contamination of food.
The most common ways of killing micro-organisms are by heat and by chemicals.
Other less common means include, irradiation, ultrasonic sound and very high pressure.
Some bacteria, and almost all virus, yeast and mould cells are killed by a temperature of 60°C for 10 to
20 minutes.
Yeast and mould spores, and most other bacteria are destroyed at temperatures between 70 - 100°C for
5 to 10 minutes exposure.
Bacterial spores however, are very difficult to destroy. Some for example, need at least 10 minutes at
100 to 120°C.
The following terms are commonly used in cleaning -
•Sterilisation - The process of destroying or removing all microbial life.
•Disinfection - The killing of disease causing bacteria as well as other living micro-organisms, but
not usually bacterial spores.
Disinfection does not necessarily kill all micro-organisms, but reduces them to a level not usually
harmful to health. In this group are the fungicides (kills fungi), bactericides (kills bacteria) and
virucides (kills viruses).
•Sanitising - A term meaning that an article or surface is visibly clean and is free of disease
producing organisms.
IMPORTANT TEMPERATURES IN FOOD SAFETY
QUALITY CONTROL
The general purpose of quality control is to ensure that a maximum amount of the product being
processed reaches the desired level of quality with minimum variation and that this is achieved as
economically as possible.
The products of natural raw materials are never exactly the same, so control is necessary to keep
product quality within the standards set. Raw materials should be purchased from reliable suppliers who
hold a current food manufacturer's registration.
Quality control generally involves inspections of three kinds -
•Raw materials
•Materials in process
•Finished product
If effective raw material and process controls are not put in place and only examination of the finished
product is done, then quality control stops being a control and becomes merely an inspection.
A good control system rejects substandard ingredients before the process begins and once it has begun,
prevents wastage of good raw material.
FOOD SAFETY PROGRAMMES
HAZARD ANALYSIS CRITICAL CONTROL POINT- (HACCP)
It is recommended that every food business adopt the HACCP approach to identify all potential hazards
and control them before they result in problems.
Setting up a HACCP system will involve the following -
•Set up a HACCP team - of those people who fully understand the product.
•Draw up flow charts - that define all stages in the preparation process, from raw materials through
to consumption or sale.
•Identify all potential hazards - (eg. physical, chemical, bacterial) etc.
•Identify the critical control points - consider all preventive measures and decide which are
needed to eliminate or reduce potential hazards to acceptable levels.
•Determine target levels and tolerances for control points - (eg. time).
•Establish monitoring systems for critical control points - (eg. work out who should act and
when, where and what action should be taken).
•Establish a recording and documentation system.
•Review the HACCP system - annually and when changes are made to any process.
references
www.ccc.govt.nz/Health/foods3.asp - 39k