centrifuge

A centrifuge is a piece of equipment, generally driven by an electric motor (som

e older models were spun by hand), that puts an object in rotation around a fixe
d axis, applying a force perpendicular to the axis. The centrifuge works using t
he sedimentation principle, where the centripetal acceleration causes more dense
substances to separate out along the radial direction (the bottom of the tube).
By the same token, lighter objects will tend to move to the top (of the tube; i
n the rotating picture, move to the centre).
In the picture shown, the rotating unit, called the rotor, has fixed holes drill
ed at an angle (to the vertical). Test tubes are placed in these slots and the r
otor is spun. As the centrifugal force is in the horizontal plane and the tubes
are fixed at an angle, the particles have to travel only a little distance befor
e they hit the wall and drop down to the bottom. These angle rotors are very pop
ular in the lab for routine use.
Deionizers
The Process of Deionization or Ion-exchange
In the context of water purification, ion-exchange is a rapid and reversible pro
cess in which impurity ions present in the water are replaced by ions released b
y an ion-exchange resin. The impurity ions are taken up by the resin, which must
be periodically regenerated to restore it to the original ionic form. (An ion i
s an atom or group of atoms with an electric charge. Positively-charged ions are
called cations and are usually metals; negatively-charged ions are called anion
s and are usually non-metals).
The following ions are widely found in raw waters:
Cations Anions
Calcium (Ca2+) Chloride (Cl-)
Magnesium (Mg2+) Bicarbonate (HCO3-)
Sodium (Na+) Nitrate (NO3-)
Potassium (K+) Carbonate (CO32-)
Iron (Fe2+) Sulfate (SO42-)
Ion Exchange Resins
There are two basic types of resin - cation-exchange and anion-exchange resins.
Cation exchange resins will release Hydrogen (H+) ions or other positively charg
ed ions in exchange for impurity cations present in the water. Anion exchange re
sins will release hydroxyl (OH-) ions or other negatively charged ions in exchan
ge for impurity anions present in the water.
The application of ion-exchange to water treatment and purification
There are three ways in which ion-exchange technology can be used in water treat
ment and purification: first, cation-exchange resins alone can be employed to so
ften water by base exchange; secondly, anion-exchange resins alone can be used f
or organic scavenging or nitrate removal; and thirdly, combinations of cation-ex
change and anion-exchange resins can be used to remove virtually all the ionic i
mpurities present in the feedwater, a process known as deionization. Water deion
izers purification process results in water of exceptionally high quality.
Deionization
For many laboratory and industrial applications, high-purity water which is esse
ntially free from ionic contaminants is required. Water of this quality can be p
roduced by deionization.The two most common types of deionization are:
 * Two-bed deionization
* Mixed-bed deionization
Two-bed deionization
The two-bed deionizer consists of two vessels - one containing a cation-exchange
resin in the hydrogen (H+) form and the other containing an anion resin in the
hydroxyl (OH-) form. Water flows through the cation column, whereupon all the ca
tions are exchanged for hydrogen ions.To keep the water electrically balanced, f
or every monovalent cation, e.g. Na+, one hydrogen ion is exchanged and for ever
y divalent cation, e.g. Ca2+, or Mg2+, two hydrogen ions are exchanged. The same
principle applies when considering anion-exchange. The decationised water then
flows through the anion column. This time, all the negatively charged ions are e
xchanged for hydroxide ions which then combine with the hydrogen ions to form wa
ter (H2O).
Mixed-bed deionization
In mixed-bed deionizers the cation-exchange and anion-exchange resins are intima
tely mixed and contained in a single pressure vessel. The thorough mixture of ca
tion-exchangers and anion-exchangers in a single column makes a mixed-bed deioni
zer equivalent to a lengthy series of two-bed plants. As a result, the water qua
lity obtained from a mixed-bed deionizer is appreciably higher than that produce
d by a two-bed plant.
Although more efficient in purifying the incoming feedwater, mixed-bed plants ar
e more sensitive to impurities in the water supply and involve a more complicate
d regeneration process. Mixed-bed deionizers are normally used to polish the water
to higher levels of purity after it has been initially treated by either a two-
bed deionizer or a reverse osmosis unit.
Electrodeionization
EDI Electrodeionization Systems remove ions from aqueous streams, typically in c
onjunction with reverse osmosis (RO) and other purification devices. Our high-qu
ality deionization modules continually produce ultrapure water up to 18.2MW/cm.
EDI may be run continuously or intermittently

Electrophoresis
is the motion of dispersed particles relative to a fluid under the influence of
a spatially uniform electric field.[1][2][3][4][5][6] This electrokinetic pheno
menon was observed for the first time in 1807 by Reuss,[7] who noticed that the
application of a constant electric field caused clay particles dispersed in wate
r to migrate. It is ultimately caused by the presence of a charged interface bet
ween the particle surface and the surrounding fluid.The dispersed particles have
an electric surface charge, on which an external electric field exerts an elect
rostatic Coulomb force. According to the double layer theory, all surface charge
s in fluids are screened by a diffuse layer of ions, which has the same absolute
charge but opposite sign with respect to that of the surface charge. The electr
ic field also exerts a force on the ions in the diffuse layer which has directio
n opposite to that acting on the surface charge. This latter force is not actual
ly applied to the particle, but to the ions in the diffuse layer located at some
distance from the particle surface, and part of it is transferred all the way t
o the particle surface through viscous stress. This part of the force is also ca
lled electrophoretic retardation force.
A fume hood or fume cupboard is a type of local[1] ventilation device that is de
signed to limit exposure to hazardous or noxious fumes, vapors or dusts. A fume
hood is typically a large piece of equipment enclosing five sides of a work area
, the bottom of which is most commonly located at a standing work height.
Two main types exist, ducted and recirculating. The principle is the same for bo
th types: air is drawn in from the front (open) side of the cabinet, and either
expelled outside the building or made safe through filtration and fed back into
the room.
Other related types of local ventilation devices include: clean benches, biosafe
ty cabinets, glove boxes and snorkel exhausts. All these devices address the nee
d to control airborne hazards or irritants that are typically generated or relea
sed within the local ventilation device. All local ventilation devices are desig
ned to address one or more of three primary goals:
1. protect the user (fume hoods, biosafety cabinets, glove boxes and pictures
are now);
2. protect the product or experiment (biosafety cabinets, glove boxes);
3. protect the environment (recirculating fume hoods, certain biosafety cabin
ets, and any other type when fitted with appropriate filters in the exhaust airs
tream).
Secondary functions of these devices may include explosion protection, spill con
tainment, and other functions necessary to the work being done within the device
.
A general but non-specific term for some of these local ventilation devices is L
aminar flow cabinet. This category may include clean benches, biosafety cabinets
and other devices characterized simply by the laminar nature of their airflow.
The term laminar flow cabinet, however, is insufficient to identify their actual
design and use - some will protect the product but not the user, and others wil
l protect both. Terminology for local ventilation devices has been, and remain,
unclear and non-specific, and the reader is advised to take special care in thei
r selection and specification based upon which of the three primary goals (liste
d above) are to be met.
Fume hoods typically protect only the user, and are most commonly used in labora
tories where hazardous or noxious chemicals are released during testing, researc
h, development or teaching. They are also used in industrial applications or oth
er activities where hazardous or noxious vapors, gases or dusts are generated or
released.
Because one side (the front) of a fume hood is open to the room occupied by the
user, and the air within the fume hood is potentially contaminated, the proper f
low of air from the room into the hood is critical to its function. Much of fume
hood design and operation is focused on maximizing the proper containment of th
e air and fumes within the fume hood.
As most fume hoods are designed to connect to exhaust systems that expel the air
directly to the exterior of a building, large quantities of energy are required
to run fans that exhaust the air, and to heat, cool, filter, control and move t
he air that will replace the air exhausted. Significant recent efforts in fume h
ood and ventilation system design have focused on reducing the energy used to op
erate fume hoods and their supporting ventilation systems.

An analytical balance is used to measure mass to a very high degree of precision

and accuracy. The measuring pan(s) of a high precision (0.1 mg or better) analy
tical balance are inside a transparent enclosure with doors so that dust does no
t collect and so any air currents in the room do not affect the balance's operat
ion. The use of a vented balance safety enclosure, which has uniquely designed a
crylic airfoils, allows a smooth turbulence-free airflow that prevents balance f
luctuation and the measure of mass down to 1 µg without fluctuations or loss of pr
oduct. Also, the sample must be at room temperature to prevent natural convectio
n from forming air currents inside the enclosure, affecting the measure of mass.
Analytical precision is achieved by maintaining a constant load on the balance b
eam, by subtracting mass on the same side of the beam to which the sample is add
ed. The final balance is achieved by using a small spring force rather than subt
racting fixed masses. This makes calling it an "analytical balance" a misnomer,
because it should actually be called an "analytical scale", due to it measuring
force, rather than gravitational mass.
A pH meter is an electronic instrument used to measure the pH (acidity or alkali
nity) of a liquid (though special probes are sometimes used to measure the pH of
semi-solid substances). A typical pH meter consists of a special measuring prob
e (a glass electrode) connected to an electronic meter that measures and display
s the pH reading.pH meters range from simple and inexpensive pen-like devices to
complex and expensive laboratory instruments with computer interfaces and sever
al inputs for indicator (ion-sensitive, redox), reference electrodes, and temper
ature sensors such as thermoresistors or thermocouples. Cheaper models sometimes
require that temperature measurements be entered to adjust for the slight varia
tion in pH caused by temperature. Specialty meters and probes are available for
use in special applications, harsh environments, etc. Pocket pH meters are readi
ly available today for a few tens of dollars that automatically compensate for t
emperature (ATC, Automatic Temperature Compensation).