SAE TECHNICAL

PAPER SERIES 2001-01-2501

Comparative Study of Hybrid

Powertrain Strategies
Jim Walters, Harry Husted and Kaushik Rajashekara
Delphi Automotive Systems

Reprinted From: New Energy Systems and Environmental Impact

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Comparative Study of Hybrid Powertrain Strategies
Jim Walters, Harry Husted and Kaushik Rajashekara
Copyright © 2001 Society of Automotive Engineers, Inc.
ABSTRACT
Hybrid electric vehicles have the potential to reduce air
pollution and improve fuel economy without sacrificing
the present conveniences of long range and available
infrastructure that conventional vehicles offer. Hybrid
vehicles are generally classified as series or parallel
hybrids. A series hybrid vehicle is essentially an electric
vehicle with an on-board source of power for charging
the batteries. In a parallel hybrid vehicle, the engine and
the electric motor can be used to drive the vehicle
simultaneously. There are various possible
configurations of parallel hybrid vehicles depending on
the role of the electric motor/generator and the engine.
In this paper, a comparative study of the drivetrains of
five different hybrid vehicles is presented. The
underlying design architectures are examined, with
analysis as to the tradeoffs and advantages represented
in these architectures. Where appropriate, comparisons
to five popular non-hybrid vehicles are made to give the
reader a sense of perspective. The primary drivetrain
components of engine, transmission, electric machine,
inverter, and battery pack are evaluated and changes to
the user interface paradigm are highlighted. Based on
the comparative study, hybrid drivetrain technology
strategies for future vehicles are proposed.
INTRODUCTION
Presently there are two production hybrid electric
vehicles (HEV) on sale in the United States: the Toyota
Prius and the Honda Insight. Both of these vehicles have
unique design approaches that were incorporated in
order to attain lower emissions and increased fuel
economy.
In addition, DaimlerChrysler, Ford, and General Motors
have developed Technology Demonstration Vehicles
(TDV) to satisfy the requirements of the Partnership for a
New Generation of Vehicles (PNGV) [1]. The primary
PNGV requirement was to develop a family sedan with a
fuel economy of 80 mpg. The three concept vehicles that
were developed for the project, ESX3, P2000 and
Precept, each differ in terms of the hybrid architecture
selected as well as the underlying electric drive
technology.
2001-01-2501
Delphi Automotive Systems
These five vehicles represent hundreds of man-years of
engineering and design effort by five of the world’s major
automakers. In addition, they are in most cases the
product of a sequence of hybrid vehicle learning
experiences and the attendant prior effort. By our
analysis, we hope to gain a view into the future of
successful hybrid electric drivetrain strategies. Keeping
in mind that these vehicles represent the
subcompact/compact class of passenger cars, the
conclusions drawn will be most relevant to this class of
vehicle, versus, for example, large sport utility vehicles.
VEHICLE COMPARISON
A comparison of the five hybrid vehicles selected for this
paper must first start with the acknowledgement that
these vehicles were developed with different goals in
mind. Therefore, we should expect the resulting
products to lie in somewhat different directions. Both the
Prius and the Insight were designed to be produced in
volume, marketed, and sold to the public in Japan and
the United States. In contrast, the PNGV vehicles were
designed to meet a set of pre-established targets that
included an especially aggressive fuel economy target.
The build volume for each was a small handful of
vehicles at most. However, if we keep these two paths
in mind, we can hold open the possibility of charting a
future path by balancing what is commercially available
in today’s market against what is possible with HEV
technology from the PNGV vehicles.
To begin our study, a comparison to five non-HEV
passenger cars is presented. This information is
included to give the reader a sense of perspective by
showing passenger cars currently sold in high volume in
North America. The five conventional (non-HEV)
vehicles are the 2001 Chevrolet Impala, DaimlerChrysler
Concorde, Ford Taurus, Honda Accord, and Toyota
Camry. The first three cars are the progeny of the three
original 1994 PNGV reference vehicles. The latter two
cars represent popular, high-volume cars in the U.S.,
and also represent non-HEV offerings by the two
manufacturers currently offering HEV vehicles for sale in
the U.S
Figure 1 shows a vehicle size and mass comparison of
the five non-HEV vehicles to the HEV vehicles in this
study. Vehicle length is used as an approximation of
 Vehicle Length vs. Curb Weight Engine Electric 5 speed
Integral Front
5.50 3-cyl. Machine Elec. Shifted
Differential Wheels
CIDI 15kW IPM M/T
5.30
5.10 (Dual Clutch)
Vehicle Length (m)

4.90
4.70 Inverter Battery
4.50 Electronics Pack
4.30
4.10 a. DaimlerChrysler ESX3
3.90
3.70
Engine Electric 5 speed
3.50 Integral Front
4-cyl. Machine Elec. Shifted
Differential Wheels
800 1000 1200 1400 1600 CIDI 8kW AC Ind. M/T

Curb Weight (kg)

Non-HEV HEV Linear Fit (Non-HEV)

Inverter Battery
Electronics Pack
Figure 1. Vehicle Length vs. Curb Weight
b. Ford P2000
vehicle size on this graph. All the HEV's are lower in
mass than the non-HEV cars. The larger of the HEV's Electric Integral
are comparable to the smaller of the conventional Front
Machine Reducer &
Wheels
passenger cars. A line was fitted through the non-HEV 25kW IPM Differential

vehicles and then extrapolated down to the minimum

Inverter
curb weight. It is notable that the 840-kilogram Honda
Electronics
Insight rests nearly on this extrapolated line, indicating it Battery
has the same length-to-mass ratio as the 2001 non-HEV Pack
Inverter
vehicles. This would indicate that it is not a lighter Electronics
vehicle per se, just smaller. The two HEV vehicles
above the line are lighter per unit length than Engine Electric 4 speed
Integral Rear
conventional vehicles, indicating that mass has been 3-cyl. Machine Elec. Shifted
Differential Wheels
CIDI 10kW IPM M/T
reduced while maintaining vehicle size.
(No Reverse)
HVAC
DRIVETRAIN COMPARISON Compressor

ARCHITECTURE - To begin the comparison of the c. GM Precept

hybrid drivetrains, we will examine the drivetrain
architectures. The architectures for the drivetrains are Engine Electric
CVT or Integral Front
shown in figure 2. As can be seen, the vehicles fall into 3-cyl. Machine 5 speed M/T Differential Wheels
two categories: mild hybrids with electric machines Gasoline 10kW IPM
mounted in the engine-transmission interface zone and
12V
medium hybrids with two electric machines and a higher Starter
level of electric propulsion capability. Inverter Battery
Electronics Pack

The DaimlerChrysler ESX3, Ford P2000, and Honda

Insight represent the mild hybrids. These vehicles have d. Honda Insight
a very similar engine and electric machine architecture,
but differ in the area of transmissions. One difference in
Inverter
the Honda Insight architecture is the use of a Battery
conventional 12V cranking motor. On the surface, this Pack
Generator Inverter
hardware appears curiously redundant with the 10kW
10kW IPM
crankshaft-mounted machine. However, this choice
allows battery pack size to be reduced by avoiding cold- Engine
Planetary Reduction
Electric
cranking issues. 3-cyl. Gearing
Machine
Gearset
CIDI 33kW IPM

The medium hybrids are the GM Precept and Toyota

Front
Prius. These vehicles each use considerably different Wheels
drivetrain arrangements. The GM Precept is unique in
offering four-wheel drive through the use of a coaxial e. Toyota Prius
electric machine driving the front wheels in conjunction
with an engine/IMG combination in the rear. Also unique Figure 2. Drivetrain Architectures
is the fact that the heat engine is rear-mounted in the

Peak Power-to-Weight Ratio
10.00
9.00
HEV
8.00
Mild Medium
7.00
Ratio (kW/100 kg)
Avg.=6.74
6.00
5.00
4.00
3.00
2.00
1.00
0.00
800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300
Vehicle Weight (kg)
Peak Engine + Electric Ratio
Engine-Only Ratio
Non-HEV Engine-Only
Figure 3. Peak Power-to-Weight Ratio
vehicle. This unconventional mounting choice allows for
reduced exhaust system length and for significant gains
in vehicle aerodynamics by allowing a full belly pan and
rear-quarter cooling openings [2]. Because the front
electric machine is adequately sized, it can provide the
propulsion for the vehicle in the reverse direction,
allowing elimination of reverse gear in the transmission.
Finally, a unique drive scheme for the HVAC compressor
on the rear electric machine allows heating and cooling
when the engine is off and direct use of regenerative
braking energy.
The Toyota Prius architecture includes an internal
combustion engine and two electric machines arranged
to allow both parallel and series hybrid operation. This
architecture uses a planetary gearset to allow “power
splitting” of the engine power between the electric
generator and the power going to the wheels. The
planetary gearset and reduction gearing take the place of
a “conventional” multi-geared transmission and
implement a continuously variable transmission (CVT)
function. The generator can draw power from the engine
to charge the battery pack or power the main propulsion
1
electric machine in a series hybrid configuration . The
propulsion electric machine can drive the wheels
simultaneously with the engine, thus implementing a
parallel hybrid function [3].
The medium hybrids have the advantage of being able to
more aggressively recapture vehicle kinetic energy
because the electric machine, inverter, and battery are
sized for higher power levels. More kinetic energy
recaptured equates to increased driving efficiency. The
penalty incurred for this benefit is increased system
complexity, cost, and mass. Such efficiency gains are
mainly visible in city driving schedules and are less
appreciable in highway cycles. For example, the 2001
Prius is rated at 52 mpg city, 45 mpg highway in the US
[4]. A significantly lower highway rating is very unusual in
non-HEV vehicles, but is understandable in the Prius
1 3
In this series configuration the power travels through
two inverters, incurring an extra efficiency loss.
because more energy is being recaptured in the city
cycle.
Avg.=8.1
DRIVETRAIN SIZING – One metric that can be used to
evaluate the size of the powertrain for a vehicle is the
power-to-weight ratio. For the purposes of comparison,
Non-HEV
the peak power of the engine and the electric machines
that provide propulsion were added together to calculate
a peak power for the hybrid vehicles. Figure 3 shows the
2
peak power-to-weight ratios for the five hybrid vehicles
3
and the five non-HEV vehicles . For the HEV vehicles in
this paper, the peak engine plus electric ratios were very
1400 1500 1600
consistent across all vehicles in a broad weight
spectrum, with an average of 6.74 kW per 100 kg. of
curb weight. This would seem to indicate a similar set of
performance goals that the vehicles were attempting to
meet in the area of acceleration and hill climbing ability.
As can be seen in figure 3, three of the five conventional
cars have a very similar power-to-weight ratio as the
hybrid vehicles. Two higher-output engines skew the
non-HEV average to 8.1 kW per 100 kg. Overall, this is
an indication that the hybrid powertrains are adequately
sized to provide performance similar to, but slightly lower
than, popular non-HEV cars in the North American
market.
By examining the engine-only power-to-weight ratios in
figure 3, we can see a clear distinction between the three
mild hybrids (the three leftmost sets of points) and the
two medium hybrids (the two rightmost sets of points).
The medium hybrids have significantly lower engine-only
ratios, and use a larger electric motor to achieve the
desirable power-to-weight ratio. This strategy allows the
use of a relatively smaller internal combustion engine on
these vehicles which can aid in higher fuel economy.
The electric machine is used to supplement the engine’s
power for more rapid accelerations and for grade
climbing.
HYBRID SUBSYSTEMS
As can be seen in the architecture diagrams in figure 2,
all the vehicles have a common set of drivetrain
subsystems. In this paper we will examine and compare
the following major drivetrain subsystems: heat engine,
transmission, electric machine(s), inverter, and battery
pack.
HEAT ENGINE – The combination of significantly
reduced mass and electric hybridization allows the use of
smaller engines in the HEV’s than is normal for this
vehicle size. Table 1 shows a comparison of the engines
employed in the five vehicles. As can be seen in the
table, the engines all have 3 or 4 cylinders and range in
displacement from 1.0 to 1.5 liters. The two production
vehicles use gasoline spark-ignited (SI) engines, while
2
A scaling of kilowatts per 100 kilograms of curb weight
was used, as it provided conveniently scaled results.
Base models with base engines were used for all
makes.
 60
50
Specific Power (kW/L)
C 100
40 Engine capability C is
higher than used in
this application
30
20
10
0 0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
Engine Displacement (Liters)
Non-HEV HEV
Figure 4: Specific Power vs. Displacement
the three PNGV vehicles use compression-ignition
direct-injection (CIDI) engines.
The three PNGV vehicles use compression ignition
(CIDI) engines because a study of fuel economy
projections showed a CIDI parallel hybrid as the only
drivetrain with the potential to offer 80 mpg, an important
PNGV goal [5]. These engines offer inherently higher
cycle efficiency compared to gasoline SI engines. The
P2000 engine boasts a peak efficiency of 43% [6] and
the Precept engine achieves greater than 40% efficiency
at high loads [7]. The use of electronically controlled
common rail fuel injection gives these engines a number
of benefits:
• Audible noise reduction through the use of pilot
injection
• Precise injection timing and quantity
• Reductant provision for the catalyst through the use
of post injection
All three CIDI engines also employ turbocharging to
significantly improve low-end torque and volumetric
efficiency. While CIDI engines have a low application
rate in North America, they are increasingly popular in
the European car market.
The two production hybrids, the Insight and Prius, use
gasoline SI engines. The choice of a gasoline engine is
in line with the US car market as a whole, which has a
very low penetration rate for diesel engines in cars. (In
1999, only 13,600 diesel-engine cars were sold in the
US, out of a total of 8.7 million cars [8].) Both engines
also employ 4 valves per cylinder and variable valve
timing schemes, with the Prius using Toyota’s VVT-i and
the Insight using Honda’s VTEC-E. VVT-i offers
continuously variable valve timing adjustment while
VTEC-E offers two lobe profiles allowing switching
between two distinct sets of timing and lift. Both of these
4
Commonly known as “diesel” engines.
140
Turbocharged CIDI
120
Specific Torque (Nm/L)
80
Normally Aspirated Gasoline SI
60
40
20
3 3.5 4 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
Engine Displacement (Liters)
Non-HEV HEV
Figure 5: Specific Torque vs. Displacement
4
schemes are in production on non-HEV cars, but are
beneficial to the HEV's because they offer the ability to
design for improved fuel economy in normal rpm ranges
and higher power at higher rpm.
Figure 4 shows the specific power for the five HEV
engines and the five non-HEV engines from the 2001
cars mentioned earlier. It is quickly apparent that the
HEV engines are much lower in displacement, with the
closest non-HEV engines being the base 4-cylinder
engines on the Accord and Camry. In terms of
maximum power per liter they are roughly on par with
their non-HEV counterparts. This might be expected for
the gasoline engines since they use very similar engine
technologies (4 valves per cylinder, variable valve timing,
etc.). This is also laudable since the primary goals for
the HEV's were fuel economy and emissions. Power is
still very important - the vehicles need a certain power-to-
weight ratio for acceptable acceleration and gradeability.
Specific torque of the engines is shown in figure 5. The
higher torque of the turbocharged diesels is clearly
apparent. They are over 30% higher than the highest SI
engine in specific torque. This is explained by the
natural benefits of turbocharging as well as the higher
cylinder pressures associated with CI engines. The
gasoline SI engines offered in the hybrids are
comparable in specific torque to their non-HEV
counterparts.
TRANSMISSION – The transmission choices for the
hybrid vehicles fall into two groups: continuously-variable
transmissions (CVT) and automatically-shifted manual
(ASM) transmissions. Both production HEV's come with
5
a CVT , which provides a smooth application of torque
as the vehicle accelerates and allows the engine to be
held at desirable operating speeds relatively independent
5
The Insight entered the U.S. market with a manual
transmission and will be offered with a CVT in 2001. In
Japan, both transmissions are available.
 ESX3 P2000 Insight Precept Prius
Engine Type CIDI CIDI Gas CIDI Gas
# of Cylinders 3 4 3 3 4
Displacement (Liters) 1.5 1.2 1.0 1.3 1.5
Peak Power (kW) 55 kW 55 kW 50 kW 40 kW 53 kW
Peak Torque (Nm) 153 Nm 90 Nm 170 Nm 112 Nm
Compression Ratio 10.8:1 17.6:1 13:1
Engine Details Turbocharger 4V/cyl., SOHC, 4V/cyl., DOHC, 4V/cyl., DOHC, 4V/cyl.,
with intercooler, Turbocharger VTEC-E variable Turbocharger with VVT-i Variable
common rail with variable valve lift & timing variable geometry & valve timing
fuel injection, geometry, intercooling, common
all-aluminum; common rail rail fuel injection
fuel injection
Engine Mass 113 kg. 110kg. 80 kg.
(including elec.
machine)
Transmission 6 speed 5 speed CVT 4 speed E-CVT
Automatically- Automatically- or 5 speed M/T Automatically-shifted
shifted manual shifted manual manual, (no reverse)
with 2-clutch
design
Configuration Parallel IMG Parallel IMG Parallel IMG Series/Parallel Series/Parallel
Machine #1 Type PM (15 kW) IM (8 kW) PM (10 kW) PM (25 kW) PM (33kW)
Machine #2 Type N/A N/A N/A PM (10 kW) PM
Sensor Resolver 90 tooth 3 hall sensor and 2 Resolvers
quadrature target wheel
Switch Technology IGBT IGBT IGBT IGBT
Bus Voltage Vdc 150 V 280 V 144 V 350 V 288 V
Machine #1 Regen. Braking Regen Braking Regen. Braking Vehicle Launch Vehicle Launch
Functionality Starter/Alt. Starter/Alt. Starter/Alt.(warm) Regen. Braking Regen. Braking
Motor Boost Motor Boost Motor Boost Reverse
Firing pulse Firing pulse Firing pulse Acceleration
Smoothing Smoothing Smoothing Boost
Machine #2 N/A N/A N/A Starter/Alt. Alternator
Functionality Regen. Braking Motor Boost
Motor Boost Starter
AC Compressor Drive
Synchronize gear
shifting
Table 1: Summary of Hybrid Drivetrain Technology by Vehicle

of vehicle speed to achieve economy or performance.
The three PNGV vehicles all use ASM transmissions.
This type of transmission offers the automatic control of
shift selection that is desirable for fuel economy and
performance, while providing the near-perfect
transmission efficiency of a manual transmission. The
DaimlerChrysler ASM is unique in offering a dual clutch
arrangement with alternating gears on two shafts
(even/odd). This scheme allows for continuous
application of torque, with no interruptions during shifting
[9]. Conventional single-clutch ASM transmission
experience a torque interruption during shifting, which
can dissatisfy the driver [10].
The GM Precept has a novel transmission feature that
allows the air conditioning compressor to be driven
directly off the input shaft of the transaxle [11]. This
allows the compressor to be powered by the engine or
the electric machine, which means the electric machine
can continue to run the HVAC compressor even after the
engine shuts off. This scheme also allows regenerative
braking energy to go directly to the compressor, avoiding
the electrical round-trip losses through the battery.
ELECTRIC MACHINE – The mild hybrid vehicles use an
integrated motor generator (IMG) system while the
higher power applications use a dual-machine approach.
An IMG system has an electric machine attached to the
end of the transmission such that the rotor is linked to
the crankshaft. Due to driveline volume constraints, the
challenging thermal environment and the engine’s
dynamics, this configuration requires careful attention to
design considerations.
In the dual-machine strategy, a motor either driving a
separate axle or integrated through a planetary gear
system to the engine is used. These systems have an
additional machine that acts primarily as a
motor/generator and is interfaced to the engine through a
gear assembly. Table 1 summarizes the hybrid systems
for the vehicles evaluated.
Of the vehicles that use an IMG system, the permanent
magnet (PM) machine has been more commonly
selected. This choice can be understood from an
efficiency and energy density perspective. Efficiency is
important to the overall vehicle but can also impact the
motor design since less heat will be dissipated in a more
efficient machine. In addition, the PM machine’s high
energy density helps to meet the demanding volume
constraints of the IMG systems. Nevertheless, care
must be taken to make sure the machine does not
become too small for a given power level since air-
cooling may become inadequate.
The ESX3 uses a conventional 12 pole interior PM
machine. This motor design utilizes both magnet and
reluctance torque to increase the torque/current ratio. In
order to further reduce phase currents over the operating
range, field-weakened operation is used [12]. This mode
of operation reduces the inverter currents for low and
moderate speeds but requires more attention to the
machine controller’s performance under high-speed
conditions since loss of field-weakening can cause an
over-voltage condition on the power bus.
The Insight machine is a 12-pole surface mounted
magnet design featuring a bobbin-wound stator. This
unique construction helps to simplify construction and
reduce manufacturing costs [13]. The peak torque of the
Insight machine is inadequate for cold temperature
engine cranking at –29C [14]. During these conditions a
conventional starter is used. This design choice was
likely made to help mitigate the challenge of designing a
machine with a high-torque/low-speed region and a wide
constant power range.
Ford’s P2000 utilizes an induction machine (IM). A PM
machine was not selected due to high-temperature
demagnetization concerns [15]. IMG systems are
located close to the heat engine as well as the
transmission, which can cause high operating
temperatures under heavy loads. The P2000 machine
has a rather large torque capability of 300 Nm for
cranking. Due to this high cranking torque, there is likely
a rather large field weakened range of operation for this
vehicle at higher speeds. Ford had previously indicated
the possibility of using a winding change from series to
parallel to change the torque speed characteristic of the
machine [16]. This idea does not appear to have been
pursued further.
For the dual-machine systems, permanent magnet
machines were the universal selection for both the main
propulsion machine and the motor/generator machine.
The Precept utilizes a 25 kW interior permanent magnet
(IPM) machine for the front axle and a 10 kW surface
mount PM machine with the rear engine [17]. The Prius
also utilizes two PM machines. The two PM machines
are linked to the engine by a planetary gear system. The
original Prius motor was an 8 Pole 30 kW interior design
with a torque capability of 300 Nm. The new Prius has a
torque capability of 350 Nm [18]. Since the main
propulsion motors are not directly tied into the driveline
there is more axial space available which allows a lower
pole number machine and higher torque capability. The
Prius system has an advantage in that both machines
and their inverters are located close together. This
allows for simplicity in the cooling system as well as the
wiring system.
For both the Precept and the Prius, liquid cooling was
used for the propulsion machine and the
motor/generator. Liquid cooling helps to increase the
continuous power rating and the length of time that peak
power can be provided. However, the use of liquid
cooling does add cost, mass, and complexity. A PM
machine may appear to have less-challenging cooling
needs due to its higher efficiency. But, due to the higher
energy density, cooling could become complex because
the heat generation is more concentrated. In summary,
the need for a liquid-cooling system is a clear
disadvantage relative to the air-cooled IMG systems.
With PM machines, there are some safety/protection
concerns that need to be addressed. If a large field-
weakening range is used, the electronics need to be
protected in case of a controller fault. This is because
the induced electromotive force (EMF) in the machine
exceeds the Power Bus voltage throughout the field-
weakened region. The protection can be provided by
ensuring that the short circuit current causes enough
voltage drop in the machine to protect the electronics or
by over-designing the inverter using higher-voltage
capacitors and switches. There is also a concern of the
amount of torque that will be produced during a machine
or inverter fault. This torque is generally quite small due
to the fact that it is out of phase with the motor currents.
At low speeds, the in-phase component will increase but
the current level is much lower. Hence, the loss of field-
weakening control issue as generally perceived is not a
major concern in the PM machine.
INVERTER - The IMG systems with a PM machine use a
voltage near 150 V while the higher power systems use a
higher voltage in the 288-360 V range. Ford’s induction-
based IMG vehicle uses a 280 V system, which may
have been required due to the lower energy density of
the IM and/or a desire to limit the phase currents. The
higher voltage reduces the phase current level required,
but forces an IGBT switch technology selection, rather
than MOSFETs. The higher voltage also requires
greater attention to vehicle safety.
All the inverters, with the exception of the Insight, appear
to be liquid cooled with a single integrated power switch
module. Considerable focus has been given to
developing integrated electronic switch packages to
reduce cost, mass and volume. The Insight is unique in
its forced air cooling approach, which saves the mass
and volume of a coolant pump, hoses, heat exchanger,
and coolant.
There is also a significant distinction between the IMG
and dual-machine systems. The Prius and Precept each
require two inverter power stages, but with different
ratings. Either two different inverter designs are used, as
is the case in the Prius, or one of the inverters is
significantly over-rated, as is the case in the Precept [19].
The two inverters may lead to an increase in the cost of
the total system.
Machine Controller- Within the inverter, the machine
controller is the intelligence that monitors sensors and
performs sophisticated closed-loop control of the electric
machines. The controller’s sophistication varies based
on the application. For dual-machine vehicles, the
dynamic requirement of the main propulsion machine is
generally small. Thus, the need for high-performance
control algorithms, such as vector control strategies, may
not be required. By contrast, two machine controllers as
well as two sensor strategies are used due to the
separate propulsion and motor/generator functions of the
machines.
In regard to the reduced controller requirements, the new
6 30
Prius design incorporates the ability in the field-
weakened range to move to 6-step operation with phase
angle control. The new Prius also appears to use
trapezoidal operation for cranking and then switches to
sinusoidal operation at higher speeds. This may explain
why more expensive resolvers are used for position
sensing, as opposed to hall-effect sensors. Like the
Prius, the Precept’s front motor fits the slow dynamic
characteristic due to its connection to the wheels. The
rear motor generally has slow dynamics but it is also
used for gear synchronization during shifting which can
require some additional control capability.
The IMG vehicles have challenges that require greater
control capability. Operating modes to suppress
driveline oscillations or to cancel engine firing pulse
vibrations require greater dynamic performance.
Driveline accelerations due to harsh shifts are also more
severe than wheel accelerations. Ford and Chrysler both
appear to have chosen vector control strategies for their
vehicles. The sensors for the controllers were likewise
selected to maintain high dynamic performance. The
ESX3 was initially designed to use a reluctance-based
resolver [20]. The P2000 uses a quadrature 90-tooth
wheel which, because of resolution limitations, can
compromise cranking performance and cause torque
ripple across the speed range unless other
compensation techniques are used.
The Honda Insight's motor control strategy is the most
interesting of the three IMG vehicles as it uses three
separate hall-effect position sensors as would typically
be used for trapezoidal operation. Trapezoidal operation
during engine starting allows for higher torque capability.
Depending on the presence of a field-weakened range
this scheme can provide adequate performance with the
possible exception of the harmonic cancellation mode.
The three sensors could also be used in an incremental
6 motoring demands sets the power rating that the battery
The original Prius was introduced for sale in Japan in
1997. A significantly improved version was introduced to
the US market in 2000. See [3] for more information.
mode with additional calculations to provide a better
angle estimate to enhance performance to allow vector
control or phase angle control. The sensor selection is
also unique due to the fact that three separate sensors
are used rather than three elements in one package.
This creates cost and sensor location variability issues.
800
Lithium 25oC
700
600
NiMH 25 oC
500
PbA 25 oC Lithium -29oC
400
300
200
NiMH -29 oC PbA -29oC
100
0
40 50 60 70 80 90 100
State of Charge (SOC)
Figure 6: Battery Technology Comparison
BATTERY PACK - The vehicles considered in this study
chose either a nickel metal hydride (NiMH) or lithium ion
technology. These two technologies are preferred to the
traditional lead acid technology and to nickel cadmium
technology for reasons of energy density, power density,
and power output at low state of charge. Figure 6 shows
the specific power versus state of charge characteristics
for three technologies at two different temperatures.
Clearly lithium ion and NiMH have much higher specific
power than lead acid (PbA) technology, meaning that
they will result in a much lighter battery pack for a given
set of specifications. The higher specific power also
means that NiMH and lithium ion are better able to
accept the high peak power levels associated with
regenerative braking. This is often a factor that drives a
lead acid battery pack to increased size and weight.
At the present time, NiMH is four to five times more
expensive than lead acid. Lithium ion, while being
expensive at present, is viewed as having the potential to
become cost competitive in high volumes over time.
Lithium ion does require more control monitoring than
NiMH due to undesirable overcharge and over-
temperature characteristics. NiMH is more desirable
from this standpoint due to its inherent internal charge
balancing, although there are still thermal runaway
characteristics that require cooling systems. NiMH also
demonstrates severe output power degradation at low
temperatures as shown in figure 6 with the –29C curve.
Battery pack design is extremely important and requires
careful system analysis in order to determine the proper
strategy. In sizing battery packs for hybrid vehicles, the
required peak power becomes a dominant concern. The
ability to handle regenerative braking as well as peak
pack must meet. The power requirement is further
defined by expected cold temperature performance.
This is in contrast to electric vehicles where the energy
capability drives the battery pack design due to the
desire to maximize range. Voltage is also important to
consider since for a fixed power requirement, a higher
voltage system will lower the current requirements which
can reduce losses, lower required battery volume and
save cost in connectors and wires.
The IMG systems have used distinctly different
strategies to solve the battery pack question. The Insight
system is a 144 V NiMH system designed to handle a
peak machine load of 10 kW [21]. The P2000 system is
a 288 V NiMH 22 kW system designed to handle a peak
load of 8 kW [22]. The large disparity in battery pack
ratings is interesting since both systems have similar
functionality. The lower power rating of the Insight
system may be due to the presence of a separate 12V
starter motor for cranking requirements. Since NiMH
battery performance is poor at low temperature, a NiMH
pack would have to be made significantly larger to meet
the cold-cranking requirements of the engine. By using a
12 V lead acid battery and cranking motor, this cost is
avoided.
In terms of the dual-machine vehicles, significantly more
power and energy are required. The Prius uses a 288 V
21 kW NiMH system. The need for higher power is due
to the different requirements of these systems. Vehicle
launch requires substantially more torque than engine
cranking. Both also need extra capacity for assisting the
engine during extended hill climbing. The Prius battery
system was modified for the year 2000 US introduction,
which has substantially reduced the volume, complexity
and weight of the pack [23]. The Precept was designed
for a 42 kW power rating and a 3 kWh energy rating.
The battery pack was selected based on the need for
repeated accelerations and extended gradeability, which
drive a relatively high energy requirement. Two options
were considered for the vehicle. For the near future, a
NiMH system is proposed while lithium ion technology is
considered for the future [24]. Both systems are liquid-
cooled and require significant vehicle space. The size,
cost and weight of a 42 kW battery pack provides
significant challenges in terms of cost, mass, and
volume. With NiMH technologies, the challenge of cold
performance is clearly seen in terms of having an over-
designed battery pack or of having a separate starting
system. Lithium ion packs offer the opportunity to
reduce battery size by alleviating the cold power
performance issue at the expense of more careful
battery management.
USER INTERFACE TO THE HEV DRIVETRAIN
Interface to the driver is an additional area that must be
considered as the vehicle changes from a conventional
drivetrain to a hybrid engine/electric drivetrain. The
existing paradigm for monitoring is a gauge set typically
showing vehicle speed, engine rpm, oil pressure, engine
temperature, and fuel tank level. Many vehicles also
offer a "trip computer" that shows the driver additional
information such as fuel remaining, range, and other
statistics. The existing paradigm for control is a foot
pedal to command power and vehicle speed and a
shifter to select transmission mode.
The hybrid architecture adds several new components
(electric machine, power inverter, battery) which in turn
offer several possible needs for monitoring. The Honda
Insight offers additional displays to the driver to show
battery state of charge (SOC) and electric machine
charge/assist magnitude, which essentially shows the
operating state of the electric machine and inverter.
For the control interface, all the hybrid vehicles maintain
the familiar pedal and shifter arrangement. Behind the
scenes, a new controller performs the function of a
hybrid system supervisor by monitoring the accelerator
7
pedal and then parceling out torque commands to the
engine, transmission, and inverter based on the pedal
input and the optimum balance of key factors. This new
control architecture is needed to optimize system
performance while maintaining an interface to the user
that is consistent with existing non-HEV vehicles. For
the interface to the ASM transmission, the
DaimlerChrysler ESX3 uses an automatic transmission
PRNDL-like shifter interface, thus helping the user
understand this new transmission as similar to today's
automatic transmission function.
FUTURE HYBRID DRIVETRAIN STRATEGIES
Most existing passenger cars are already a showcase of
packaging efficiency and cost effectiveness in a very
competitive global sector. The challenge in engineering
a hybrid vehicle is that components and systems are only
being added to this showcase – none are being removed
(although some can be reduced in size, mass, and
output). By definition, the HEV design team must at a
minimum add an electric machine, a power inverter, and
8
a battery pack . In doing so, they add the cost, mass,
and volume of these components.
Future hybrid drivetrain strategies will be driven not only
by the availability of reliable technologies, but also by the
goals and incentives of the target markets .
9
For
example, producing and selling hybrid vehicles in the
state of California will be a requirement for the seven
major automakers to continue selling conventional
passenger cars there. In other markets, the combination
of higher fuel prices and government incentives can
make the higher fuel economy of a hybrid vehicle cost-
effective to the end consumer. The hybrid drivetrains
must also be designed to meet the performance
requirements of the market, which may mean several
drivetrain solutions are viable, each for a particular
7
Note that in conventional vehicles the accelerator pedal
input goes to the engine or powertrain controller.
8
Or some other suitable energy storage device such as
an ultra-capacitor or an inertial storage device.
9
For example, Toyota Prius sales have been aided by a
government incentive in the form of a 250,000 yen
payback and tax acquisition reduction [3].
market. For example, the 1997 version of the Toyota
Prius met market requirements in Japan. However, the
2000 version designed for the US market was modified
for improved acceleration, improved passing
performance, extended hill climbing, and improved
electric-only operating region through increased power
output, improved inverter cooling and technology, and an
improved battery pack [25].
ENGINE - The future engine strategy will provide a very
efficient, low-mass, high-output engine. Presently,
turbocharged CIDI engines with common rail fuel
injection look attractive as long as they are not excluded
by emissions regulations in the target market. Presently,
challenges still exist in reducing oxides of nitrogen (NOx)
and particulate matter [26]. A gasoline direct injected
engine, perhaps turbocharged, may also be competitive
by allowing leaner operation and higher performance
without the challenges of NOx and particulate matter
removal.
TRANSMISSION – The future transmission strategy will
be one that gives very high transmission efficiency, has
customer-pleasing characteristics, and allows a high
degree of computer control to allow optimization of the
engine and electric machine operation. An
automatically-shifted manual fits this description, and the
DaimlerChrysler dual-clutch scheme appears to solve
the torque interruption that is normally associated with
shifting. High-efficiency vehicles such as the
Volkswagen Lupo already use an ASM transmission in
production [27].
ELECTRIC MACHINE – The future machine will have to
be a cost effective and have high efficiency. Presently,
the permanent magnet machine and the induction
machine are both commonly considered for hybrid
applications. As magnet costs decrease in the future, a
shift towards PM machines is likely. The high efficiency
and power density of the machine make it a better
candidate.
INVERTER – The strategy for future power inverters will
have to move towards the ideal inverter with minimized
losses and a small package size. Unless new device
technologies emerge, high voltage applications will use
IGBT technology due to the relatively high switching
frequency capability and low losses. Low voltage
systems will consider MOSFETs for the low resistance
characteristics and lower cost. The future machine
controller will control the machine to operate as efficiently
as possible and ensure that the desired response
characteristics of the drive can be met. For many
applications a vector control based strategy is
appropriate due to the need for relatively fast response
characteristics. As the Toyota Prius has demonstrated,
there are other systems that do not require that level of
response where a possible combination of several
control strategies can be employed.
BATTERY PACK – The battery pack for future vehicles
would ideally have a high power-to-weight ratio, be
inexpensive, thermally robust and have a high coulombic
efficiency to allow maximum reuse of recaptured kinetic
energy. Lithium ion technology has most of these
characteristics with the exception of the battery
management. This however is being worked on by
industry and assuming no material regulation issues
arise it promises to be an attractive technology.
CONCLUSION
The future of hybrid electric vehicles is dependent on
market economics and incentives. A future HEV for the
US market may employ a CIDI engine in the rear with a
permanent-magnet electric machine and a small, but
powerful lithium-ion battery pack. In addition to its hybrid
drivetrain, this five-passenger vehicle may have a
lightweight plastic-molded body with superior
aerodynamics and a combination of creative approaches
to achieving efficient heating and cooling of the
passengers.
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