Mercury is the innermost and smallest planet in the Solar System,[a] orbiting the Sun once

every 87.969 Earth days. The orbit of Mercury has the highest eccentricity of all the Solar
System planets, and it has the smallest axial tilt. It completes three rotations about its axis for
every two orbits. The perihelion of Mercury's orbit precesses around the Sun at an excess of
43 arcseconds per century; a phenomenon that was explained in the 20th century by Albert
Einstein's General Theory of Relativity.[11] Mercury is bright when viewed from Earth, ranging
from −2.3 to 5.7 in apparent magnitude, but is not easily seen as its greatest angular separation
from the Sun is only 28.3°. Since Mercury is normally lost in the glare of the Sun, unless there
is a solar eclipse it can be viewed from Earth's Northern Hemisphere only in morning or
evening twilight, while its extreme elongations occur in Declinations south of the celestial
equator, such that it can be seen at favorable apparitions from moderate latitudes in the
Southern Hemisphere in a fully dark sky.

Comparatively little is known about Mercury; ground-based telescopes reveal only an

illuminated crescent with limited detail. The first of two spacecraft to visit the planet was
Mariner 10, which mapped about 45% of the planet’s surface from 1974 to 1975. The second is
the MESSENGER spacecraft, which mapped a further 30% during its flyby of January 14,
2008. MESSENGER's last flyby took place in September 2009 and it is scheduled to attain
orbit around Mercury in 2011, where it will begin mapping the rest of the planet.

Mercury is similar in appearance to the Moon: it is heavily cratered with regions of smooth
plains, has no natural satellites and no substantial atmosphere. However, unlike the Moon, it
has a large iron core, which generates a magnetic field about 1% as strong as that of the Earth.
[12]
It is an exceptionally dense planet due to the large relative size of its core. Surface
temperatures range from about 90 to 700 K (−183 °C to 427 °C),[13] with the subsolar point
being the hottest and the bottoms of craters near the poles being the coldest.

Recorded observations of Mercury date back to at least the first millennium BC. Before the 4th
century BC, Greek astronomers believed the planet to be two separate objects: one visible only
at sunrise, which they called Apollo; the other visible only at sunset, which they called
Hermes.[14] The English name for the planet comes from the Romans, who named it after the
Roman god Mercury, which they equated with the Greek Hermes (Ἑρμῆς). The astronomical
symbol for Mercury is a stylized version of Hermes' caduceus.
Venus is the second planet from the Sun, orbiting it every 224.7 Earth days. The planet is
named after Venus, the Roman goddess of love and beauty. After the Moon, it is the brightest
natural object in the night sky, reaching an apparent magnitude of −4.6, bright enough to cast
shadows. Because Venus is an inferior planet from Earth, it never appears to venture far from
the Sun: its elongation reaches a maximum of 47.8°. Venus reaches its maximum brightness
shortly before sunrise or shortly after sunset, for which reason it has been known as the
Morning Star or Evening Star.

Venus is classified as a terrestrial planet and it is sometimes called Earth's "sister planet" due to
the similar size, gravity, and bulk composition. Venus is covered with an opaque layer of
highly reflective clouds of sulfuric acid, preventing its surface from being seen from space in
visible light. Venus has the densest atmosphere of all the terrestrial planets in our solar system,
consisting mostly of carbon dioxide. Venus has no carbon cycle to lock carbon back into rocks
and surface features, nor does it seem to have any organic life to absorb it in biomass. A
younger Venus is believed to have possessed Earth-like oceans,[11] but these evaporated as the
temperature rose. Venus's surface is a dusty dry desertscape with many slab-like rocks,
periodically refreshed by volcanism. The water has most likely dissociated, and, because of the
lack of a planetary magnetic field, the hydrogen has been swept into interplanetary space by
the solar wind.[12] The atmospheric pressure at the planet's surface is 92 times that of the Earth.

The Venusian surface was a subject of speculation until some of its secrets were revealed by
planetary science in the twentieth century. It was finally mapped in detail by Project Magellan
in 1990–91. The ground shows evidence of extensive volcanism, and the sulfur in the
atmosphere may indicate that there have been some recent eruptions.[13][14] However, the
absence of evidence of lava flow accompanying any of the visible caldera remains an enigma.
The planet has few impact craters, demonstrating that the surface is relatively young,
approximately 300–600 million years old.[15][16] There is no evidence for plate tectonics,
possibly because its crust is too strong to subduct without water to make it less viscous.
Instead, Venus may lose its internal heat in periodic massive resurfacing events.[
Earth (or the Earth) is the third planet from the Sun and the densest and fifth-largest of the
eight planets in the Solar System. It is also the largest of the Solar System's four terrestrial
planets. It is sometimes referred to as the World, the Blue Planet, or by its Latin name, Terra.
[note 6][note 7]

Home to millions of species including humans, Earth is currently the only astronomical body
where life is known to exist.[18] The planet formed 4.54 billion years ago, and life appeared on
its surface within a billion years.[19] Earth's biosphere has significantly altered the atmosphere
and other abiotic conditions on the planet, enabling the proliferation of aerobic organisms as
well as the formation of the ozone layer which, together with Earth's magnetic field, blocks
harmful solar radiation, permitting life on land.[20] The physical properties of the Earth, as well
as its geological history and orbit, have allowed life to persist during this period. The planet is
expected to continue supporting life for at least another 500 million years.[21][22]

Earth's outer surface is divided into several rigid segments, or tectonic plates, that migrate
across the surface over periods of many millions of years. About 71% of the surface is covered
with salt water oceans, the remainder consisting of continents and islands which together have
many lakes and other sources of water contributing to the hydrosphere. Liquid water, necessary
for all known life, is not known to exist in equilibrium on any other planet's surface.[note 8]
Earth's poles are mostly covered with solid ice (Antarctic ice sheet) or sea ice (Arctic ice cap).
The planet's interior remains active, with a thick layer of relatively solid mantle, a liquid outer
core that generates a magnetic field, and a solid iron inner core.

Earth interacts with other objects in space, especially the Sun and the Moon. At present, Earth
orbits the Sun once every 366.26 times it rotates about its own axis, which is equal to 365.26
solar days, or one sidereal year.[note 9] The Earth's axis of rotation is tilted 23.4° away from the
perpendicular of its orbital plane, producing seasonal variations on the planet's surface with a
period of one tropical year (365.24 solar days).[23] Earth's only known natural satellite, the
Moon, which began orbiting it about 4.53 billion years ago, provides ocean tides, stabilizes the
axial tilt and gradually slows the planet's rotation. Between approximately 3.8 billion and 4.1
billion years ago, numerous asteroid impacts during the Late Heavy Bombardment caused
significant changes to the greater surface environment.

Both the mineral resources of the planet, as well as the products of the biosphere, contribute
resources that are used to support a global human population. These inhabitants are grouped
into about 200 independent sovereign states, which interact through diplomacy, travel, trade,
and military action. Human cultures have developed many views of the planet, including
personification as a deity, a belief in a flat Earth or in the Earth as the center of the universe,
and a modern perspective of the world as an integrated environment that requires stewardship.
Mars is the fourth planet from the Sun in the Solar System. The planet is named after the
Roman god of war, Mars. It is often described as the "Red Planet", as the iron oxide prevalent
on its surface gives it a reddish appearance.[13] Mars is a terrestrial planet with a thin
atmosphere, having surface features reminiscent both of the impact craters of the Moon and the
volcanoes, valleys, deserts, and polar ice caps of Earth. The rotational period and seasonal
cycles of Mars are likewise similar to those of Earth, as is the tilt that produces the seasons.
Mars is the site of Olympus Mons, the highest known mountain within the Solar System, and
of Valles Marineris, the largest canyon. The smooth Borealis basin in the northern hemisphere
covers 40% of the planet and may be a giant impact feature.[14][15]

Until the first flyby of Mars occurred in 1965, by Mariner 4, many speculated about the
presence of liquid water on the planet's surface. This was based on observed periodic variations
in light and dark patches, particularly in the polar latitudes, which appeared to be seas and
continents; long, dark striations were interpreted by some as irrigation channels for liquid
water. These straight line features were later explained as optical illusions, yet of all the planets
in the Solar System other than Earth, Mars is the most likely to harbor liquid water, and thus to
harbor life.[16] Geological evidence gathered by unmanned missions suggest that Mars once had
large-scale water coverage on its surface, while small geyser-like water flows may have
occurred during the past decade.[17] In 2005, radar data revealed the presence of large quantities
of water ice at the poles,[18] and at mid-latitudes.[19][20] The Mars rover Spirit sampled chemical
compounds containing water molecules in March 2007. The Phoenix lander directly sampled
water ice in shallow Martian soil on July 31, 2008.[21]

Mars has two moons, Phobos and Deimos, which are small and irregularly shaped. These may
be captured asteroids, similar to 5261 Eureka, a Martian Trojan asteroid. Mars is currently host
to three functional orbiting spacecraft: Mars Odyssey, Mars Express, and the Mars
Reconnaissance Orbiter. On the surface are the two Mars Exploration Rovers (Spirit and
Opportunity) and several inert landers and rovers, both successful and unsuccessful. The
Phoenix lander completed its mission on the surface in 2008. Observations by NASA's now-
defunct Mars Global Surveyor show evidence that parts of the southern polar ice cap have been
receding.[22]

Mars can easily be seen from Earth with the naked eye. Its apparent magnitude reaches −3.0[7] a
brightness surpassed only by Venus, the Moon, and the Sun.
Jupiter is the fifth planet from the Sun and the largest planet within the Solar System.[13] It is a
gas giant with a mass slightly less than one-thousandth of the Sun but is two and a half times
the mass of all the other planets in our Solar System combined. Jupiter is classified as a gas
giant along with Saturn, Uranus and Neptune. Together, these four planets are sometimes
referred to as the Jovian or outer planets.

The planet was known by astronomers of ancient times and was associated with the mythology
and religious beliefs of many cultures. The Romans named the planet after the Roman god
Jupiter.[14] When viewed from Earth, Jupiter can reach an apparent magnitude of −2.94, making
it on average the third-brightest object in the night sky after the Moon and Venus. (Mars can
briefly match Jupiter's brightness at certain points in its orbit.)

Jupiter is primarily composed of hydrogen with a quarter of its mass being helium; it may also
have a rocky core of heavier elements. Because of its rapid rotation, Jupiter's shape is that of an
oblate spheroid (it possesses a slight but noticeable bulge around the equator). The outer
atmosphere is visibly segregated into several bands at different latitudes, resulting in
turbulence and storms along their interacting boundaries. A prominent result is the Great Red
Spot, a giant storm that is known to have existed since at least the 17th century when it was
first seen by telescope. Surrounding the planet is a faint planetary ring system and a powerful
magnetosphere. There are also at least 63 moons, including the four large moons called the
Galilean moons that were first discovered by Galileo Galilei in 1610. Ganymede, the largest of
these moons, has a diameter greater than that of the planet Mercury.

Jupiter has been explored on several occasions by robotic spacecraft, most notably during the
early Pioneer and Voyager flyby missions and later by the Galileo orbiter. The most recent
probe to visit Jupiter was the Pluto-bound New Horizons spacecraft in late February 2007. The
probe used the gravity from Jupiter to increase its speed. Future targets for exploration in the
Jovian system include the possible ice-covered liquid ocean on the moon Europa.
Saturn is the sixth planet from the Sun and the second largest planet in the Solar System, after
Jupiter. Saturn is named after the Roman god Saturn, equated to the Greek Cronus (the Titan
father of Zeus), the Babylonian Ninurta and the Hindu Shani. Saturn's symbol represents the
Roman god's sickle (Unicode: ♄).

Saturn, along with Jupiter, Uranus and Neptune, is classified as a gas giant. Together, these
four planets are sometimes referred to as the Jovian, meaning "Jupiter-like", planets. Saturn has
an average radius about 9 times larger than the Earth's.[12] While only 1/8 the average density of
Earth, due to its larger volume, Saturn's mass is just over 95 times greater than Earth's.[13]

Because of Saturn's large mass and resulting gravitation, the conditions produced on Saturn are
extreme if compared to Earth. The interior of Saturn is probably composed of a core of iron,
nickel, silicon and oxygen compounds, surrounded by a deep layer of metallic hydrogen, an
intermediate layer of liquid hydrogen and liquid helium and finally, an outer gaseous layer.[14]
Electrical current within the metallic-hydrogen layer is thought to give rise to Saturn's
planetary magnetic field, which is slightly weaker than Earth's magnetic field and
approximately one-twentieth the strength of the field around Jupiter.[15] The outer atmosphere is
generally bland in appearance, although long-lived features can appear. Wind speeds on Saturn
can reach 1,800 km/h, significantly faster than those on Jupiter.

Saturn has nine rings, consisting mostly of ice particles with a smaller amount of rocky debris
and dust. Sixty-two[16] known moons orbit the planet; fifty-three are officially named. This is
not counting hundreds of "moonlets" within the rings. Titan, Saturn's largest and the Solar
System's second largest moon (after Jupiter's Ganymede), is larger than the planet Mercury and
is the only moon in the Solar System to possess a significant atmosphere
Uranus is the seventh planet from the Sun. It has the third-largest planetary radius and fourth-
largest planetary mass in the Solar System. It is named after the ancient Greek deity of the sky
Uranus (Ancient Greek: Οὐρανός) the father of Cronus (Saturn) and grandfather of Zeus
(Jupiter). Though it is visible to the naked eye like the five classical planets, it was never
recognized as a planet by ancient observers because of its dimness and slow orbit.[16] Sir
William Herschel announced its discovery on March 13, 1781, expanding the known
boundaries of the Solar System for the first time in modern history. Uranus was also the first
planet discovered with a telescope.

Uranus is similar in composition to Neptune, and both are of different chemical composition
than the larger gas giants Jupiter and Saturn. As such, astronomers sometimes place them in a
separate category, the "ice giants". Uranus's atmosphere, while similar to Jupiter and Saturn's
in its primary composition of hydrogen and helium, contains more "ices" such as water,
ammonia and methane, along with traces of hydrocarbons.[12] It is the coldest planetary
atmosphere in the Solar System, with a minimum temperature of 49 K (–224 °C). It has a
complex, layered cloud structure, with water thought to make up the lowest clouds, and
methane thought to make up the uppermost layer of clouds.[12] In contrast the interior of Uranus
is mainly composed of ices and rock.[11]

Like the other giant planets, Uranus has a ring system, a magnetosphere, and numerous moons.
The Uranian system has a unique configuration among the planets because its axis of rotation
is tilted sideways, nearly into the plane of its revolution about the Sun. As such, its north and
south poles lie where most other planets have their equators.[17] Seen from Earth, Uranus's rings
can sometimes appear to circle the planet like an archery target and its moons revolve around it
like the hands of a clock, though in 2007 and 2008 the rings appeared edge-on. In 1986, images
from Voyager 2 showed Uranus as a virtually featureless planet in visible light without the
cloud bands or storms associated with the other giants.[17] However, terrestrial observers have
seen signs of seasonal change and increased weather activity in recent years as Uranus
approached its equinox. The wind speeds on Uranus can reach 250 meters per second
(900 km/h, 560 mph).[
Neptune is the eighth and farthest planet from the Sun in our Solar System. Named for the
Roman god of the sea, it is the fourth-largest planet by diameter and the third-largest by mass.
Neptune is 17 times the mass of Earth and is slightly more massive than its near-twin Uranus,
which is 15 Earth masses and not as dense.[12] On average, Neptune orbits the Sun at a distance
of 30.1 AU, approximately 30 times the Earth-Sun distance. Its astronomical symbol is , a
stylized version of the god Neptune's trident.

Discovered on September 23, 1846,[1] Neptune was the first planet found by mathematical
prediction rather than by empirical observation. Unexpected changes in the orbit of Uranus led
Alexis Bouvard to deduce that its orbit was subject to gravitational perturbation by an
unknown planet. Neptune was subsequently observed by Johann Galle within a degree of the
position predicted by Urbain Le Verrier, and its largest moon, Triton, was discovered shortly
thereafter, though none of the planet's remaining 12 moons were located telescopically until the
20th century. Neptune has been visited by only one spacecraft, Voyager 2, which flew by the
planet on August 25, 1989.

Neptune is similar in composition to Uranus, and both have compositions which differ from
those of the larger gas giants Jupiter and Saturn. Neptune's atmosphere, while similar to
Jupiter's and Saturn's in that it is composed primarily of hydrogen and helium, along with
traces of hydrocarbons and possibly nitrogen, contains a higher proportion of "ices" such as
water, ammonia and methane. Astronomers sometimes categorize Uranus and Neptune as "ice
giants" in order to emphasize these distinctions.[13] The interior of Neptune, like that of Uranus,
is primarily composed of ices and rock.[14] Traces of methane in the outermost regions in part
account for the planet's blue appearance.[15]

In contrast to the relatively featureless atmosphere of Uranus, Neptune's atmosphere is notable

for its active and visible weather patterns. At the time of the 1989 Voyager 2 flyby, for
example, the planet's southern hemisphere possessed a Great Dark Spot comparable to the
Great Red Spot on Jupiter. These weather patterns are driven by the strongest sustained winds
of any planet in the Solar System, with recorded wind speeds as high as 2,100 km/h.[16]
Because of its great distance from the Sun, Neptune's outer atmosphere is one of the coldest
places in the Solar System, with temperatures at its cloud tops approaching −218 °C (55 K).
Temperatures at the planet's centre, however, are approximately 5,400 K (5,000 °C).[17][18]
Neptune has a faint and fragmented ring system, which may have been detected during the
1960s but was only indisputably confirmed in 1989 by Voyager 2
The Sun is the star at the center of the Solar System. It has a diameter of about 1,392,000 km,
about 109 times that of Earth, and its mass (about 2×1030 kilograms, 330,000 times that of
Earth) accounts for about 99.86% of the total mass of the Solar System.[10] About three quarters
of the Sun's mass consists of hydrogen, while the rest is mostly helium. Less than 2% consists
of heavier elements, including oxygen, carbon, neon, iron, and others.[11]

The Sun's stellar classification, based on spectral class, is G2V, and is informally designated as
a yellow dwarf, because its visible radiation is most intense in the yellow-green portion of the
spectrum and although its color is white, from the surface of the Earth it may appear yellow
because of atmospheric scattering of blue light.[12][13] In the spectral class label, G2 indicates its
surface temperature of approximately 5778 K (5505 °C), and V indicates that the Sun, like
most stars, is a main sequence star, and thus generates its energy by nuclear fusion of hydrogen
nuclei into helium. In its core, the Sun fuses 620 million metric tons of hydrogen each second.
Once regarded by astronomers as a small and relatively insignificant star, the Sun is now
thought to be brighter than about 85% of the stars in the Milky Way galaxy, most of which are
red dwarfs.[14][15] The absolute magnitude of the Sun is +4.83; however, as the star closest to
Earth, the Sun is the brightest object in the sky with an apparent magnitude of −26.74.[16][17] The
Sun's hot corona continuously expands in space creating the solar wind, a stream of charged
particles that extends to the heliopause at roughly 100 astronomical units. The bubble in the
interstellar medium formed by the solar wind, the heliosphere, is the largest continuous
structure in the Solar System.[18][19]

The Sun is currently traveling through the Local Interstellar Cloud in the Local Bubble zone,
within the inner rim of the Orion Arm of the Milky Way galaxy. Of the 50 nearest stellar
systems within 17 light-years from Earth (the closest being a red dwarf named Proxima
Centauri at approximately 4.2 light years away), the Sun ranks 4th in mass.[20] The Sun orbits
the center of the Milky Way at a distance of approximately 24,000–26,000 light years from the
galactic center, completing one clockwise orbit, as viewed from the galactic north pole, in
about 225–250 million years. Since our galaxy is moving with respect to the cosmic
microwave background radiation (CMB) in the direction of constellation Hydra with a speed of
550 km/s, the sun's resultant velocity with respect to the CMB is about 370 km/s in the
direction of Crater or Leo.[21]