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Chapter 4
Chemical
Quantities and
Aqueous
Reactions
Reaction Stoichiometry
• the numerical relationships between chemical
amounts in a reaction is called stoichiometry
• the coefficients in a balanced chemical equation
specify the relative amounts in moles of each of the
substances involved in the reaction
16 mol CO 2
22.0 moles C8 H18 × = 176 moles CO 2
2 mol C8 H18
1
Example – Estimate the mass of CO2 produced in
2004 by the combustion of 3.4 x 1015 g gasoline
• assuming that gasoline is octane, C8H18, the
equation for the reaction is:
2 C8H18(l) + 25 O2(g) → 16 CO2(g) + 18 H2O(g)
Practice
• According to the following equation, how
many milliliters of water are made in the
combustion of 9.0 g of glucose?
C6H12O6(s) + 6 O2(g) → 6 CO2(g) + 6 H2O(l)
2
Practice
According to the following equation, how many
milliliters of water are made in the combustion of
9.0 g of glucose?
C6H12O6(s) + 6 O2(g) → 6 CO2(g) + 6 H2O(l)
Limiting Reactant
• the reactant that limits the amount of product is
called the limiting reactant
9sometimes called the limiting reagent
9the limiting reactant gets completely consumed
• reactants not completely consumed are called
excess reactants
3
Limiting Reactant
• the amount of product that can be made from
the limiting reactant is called the theoretical
yield
• the amount of product that is made in a reaction
is called the actual yield
• the efficiency of product recovery is generally
given as the percent yield
actual yield
Percent Yield = × 100 %
theoretica l yield
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 10
• 25.0 g of Lead (II) nitrate and 18.2 g of sodium chloride are mixed in 250.00
mL of solution. How many grams of Lead (II) chloride are made.? We first
need a balanced chemical equation.
4
mass moles moles mass
Limiting limiting Desired Desired
Reactant reactant product product
5
Solutions
• when table salt is mixed with water, it seems to disappear,
or become a liquid – the mixture is homogeneous
9 the salt is still there, as you can tell from the taste, or simply
boiling away the water
• homogeneous mixtures are called solutions
• the component of the solution that changes state is called
the solute
• the component that keeps its state is called the solvent
9 if both components start in the same state, the major component
is the solvent
Describing Solutions
• since solutions are mixtures, the composition can
vary from one sample to another
9pure substances have constant composition
9salt water samples from different seas or lakes have
different amounts of salt
• so to describe solutions accurately, we must
describe how much of each component is present
9we saw that with pure substances, we can describe
them with a single name because all samples identical
Solution Concentration
• qualitatively, solutions are often
described as dilute or
concentrated
• dilute solutions have a small
amount of solute compared to
solvent
• concentrated solutions have a
large amount of solute
compared to solvent
• quantitatively, the relative
amount of solute in the solution
is called the concentration
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 18
6
Solution Concentration
Molarity
• moles of solute per 1 liter of solution
• used because it describes how many molecules
of solute in each liter of solution
7
Using Molarity in Calculations
• molarity shows the relationship between the
moles of solute and liters of solution
• If a sugar solution concentration is 2.0 M, then
1 liter of solution contains 2.0 moles of sugar
92 liters = 4.0 moles sugar
90.5 liters = 1.0 mole sugar
• 1 L solution : 2 moles sugar
2 mol sugar 1 L solution
1 L solution 2 mol sugar
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 22
Dilution
• often, solutions are stored as concentrated stock
solutions
• to make solutions of lower concentrations from these
stock solutions, more solvent is added
9 the amount of solute doesn’t change, just the volume of
solution
moles solute in solution 1 = moles solute in solution 2
• the concentrations and volumes of the stock and new
solutions are inversely proportional
M1·V1 = M2·V2
8
Example 4.7 – To what volume should you dilute
0.200 L of 15.0 M NaOH to make 3.00 M NaOH?
• Sort Given: V1 = 0.200L, M1 = 15.0 M, M2 = 3.00 M
Information Find: V2, L
Solution Stoichiometry
• since molarity relates the moles of solute to the
liters of solution, it can be used to convert
between amount of reactants and/or products in
a chemical reaction
9
What Happens When a Solute Dissolves?
• there are attractive forces between the solute particles
holding them together
• there are also attractive forces between the solvent
molecules
• when we mix the solute with the solvent, there are
attractive forces between the solute particles and the
solvent molecules
• if the attractions between solute and solvent are strong
enough, the solute will dissolve
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10
Molecular View of
Electrolytes and Nonelectrolytes
• in order to conduct electricity, a material must have
charged particles that are able to flow
• electrolyte solutions all contain ions dissolved in the
water
9 ionic compounds are electrolytes because they all dissociate
into their ions when they dissolve
• nonelectrolyte solutions contain whole molecules
dissolved in the water
9 generally, molecular compounds do not ionize when they
dissolve in water
¾ the notable exception being molecular acids
Acids
• acids are molecular compounds that ionize when they
dissolve in water
9 the molecules are pulled apart by their attraction for the water
9 when acids ionize, they form H+ cations and anions
• the percentage of molecules that ionize varies from one
acid to another
• acids that ionize virtually 100% are called strong acids
HCl(aq) → H+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
• acids that only ionize a small percentage are called
weak acids
HF(aq) ⇔ H+(aq) + F-(aq)
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 33
11
Strong and Weak Electrolytes
• strong electrolytes are materials that dissolve
completely as ions
9 ionic compounds and strong acids
9 their solutions conduct electricity well
• weak electrolytes are materials that dissolve mostly as
molecules, but partially as ions
9 weak acids
9 their solutions conduct electricity, but not well
• when compounds containing a polyatomic ion dissolve,
the polyatomic ion stays together
Na2SO4(aq) → 2 Na+(aq) + SO42-(aq)
HC2H3O2(aq) ⇔ H+(aq) + C2H3O2-(aq)
12
When Will a Salt Dissolve?
• Predicting whether a compound will dissolve in
water is not easy
• The best way to do it is to do some experiments
to test whether a compound will dissolve in
water, then develop some rules based on those
experimental results
9we call this method the empirical method
Solubility Rules
Compounds that Are Generally Soluble in Water
Solubility Rules
Compounds that Are Generally Insoluble
Exceptions
Compounds Containing the (when combined with ions on the
Following Ions are left the compound is soluble or
Generally Insoluble slightly soluble)
OH– Li+, Na+, K+, NH4+,
Ca2+, Sr2+, Ba2+
S2– Li+, Na+, K+, NH4+,
Ca2+, Sr2+, Ba2+
CO32–, PO43– Li+, Na+, K+, NH4+
13
Precipitation Reactions
• reactions between aqueous solutions of ionic
compounds that produce an ionic compound
that is insoluble in water are called
precipitation reactions and the insoluble
product is called a precipitate
41
No Precipitate Formation =
No Reaction
KI(aq) + NaCl(aq) → KCl(aq) + NaI(aq)
all ions still present, ∴ no reaction
14
Process for Predicting the Products of
a Precipitation Reaction
1. Determine what ions each aqueous reactant has
2. Determine formulas of possible products
9 Exchange ions
¾ (+) ion from one reactant with (-) ion from other
9 Balance charges of combined ions to get formula of each
product
3. Determine Solubility of Each Product in Water
9 Use the solubility rules
9 If product is insoluble or slightly soluble, it will precipitate
4. If neither product will precipitate, write no reaction
after the arrow
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 43
15
Example 4.10 – Write the equation for the
precipitation reaction between an aqueous solution
of potassium carbonate and an aqueous solution of
nickel(II) chloride
3. Determine the solubility of each product
KCl is soluble
NiCO3 is insoluble
4. If both products soluble, write no reaction
does not apply since NiCO3 is insoluble
Ionic Equations
• equations which describe the chemicals put into the water
and the product molecules are called molecular equations
2 KOH(aq) + Mg(NO3)2(aq) → 2 KNO3(aq) + Mg(OH)2(s)
• equations which describe the actual dissolved species are
called complete ionic equations
9 aqueous strong electrolytes are written as ions
¾ soluble salts, strong acids, strong bases
9 insoluble substances, weak electrolytes, and nonelectrolytes
written in molecule form
¾ solids, liquids, and gases are not dissolved, therefore molecule form
2K+1(aq) + 2OH-1(aq) + Mg+2(aq) + 2NO3-1(aq) → 2K+1(aq) + 2NO3-1(aq) + Mg(OH)2(s)
16
Ionic Equations
• ions that are both reactants and products are called
spectator ions
2K+1(aq) + 2OH-1(aq) + Mg+2(aq) + 2NO3-1(aq) → 2K+1(aq) + 2NO3-1(aq) + Mg(OH)2(s)
Acid-Base Reactions
• also called neutralization reactions because the
acid and base neutralize each other’s properties
2 HNO3(aq) + Ca(OH)2(aq) → Ca(NO3)2(aq) + 2 H2O(l)
• the net ionic equation for an acid-base reaction is
H+(aq) + OH−(aq) → H2O(l)
9as long as the salt that forms is soluble in water
17
Common Acids
Chemical Name Formula Uses Strength
Perchloric Acid HClO4 explosives, catalyst Strong
Nitric Acid HNO3 explosives, fertilizer, dye, glue Strong
explosives, fertilizer, dye, glue,
Sulfuric Acid H2SO4 Strong
batteries
metal cleaning, food prep, ore
Hydrochloric Acid HCl Strong
refining, stomach acid
fertilizer, plastics & rubber,
Phosphoric Acid H3PO4 Moderate
food preservation
Chloric Acid HClO3 explosives Moderate
plastics & rubber, food
Acetic Acid HC2H3O2 Weak
preservation, vinegar
Hydrofluoric Acid HF metal cleaning, glass etching Weak
Carbonic Acid H2CO3 soda water Weak
Hypochlorous Acid HClO sanitizer Weak
Boric Acid H3BO3 eye wash Weak
Common Bases
Chemical Common
Formula Uses Strength
Name Name
sodium lye, soap, plastic,
NaOH Strong
hydroxide caustic soda petrol refining
potassium soap, cotton,
KOH caustic potash Strong
hydroxide electroplating
calcium
Ca(OH)2 slaked lime cement Strong
hydroxide
sodium
NaHCO3 baking soda cooking, antacid Weak
bicarbonate
magnesium milk of
Mg(OH)2 antacid Weak
hydroxide magnesia
detergent,
ammonium NH4OH, ammonia
fertilizer, Weak
hydroxide {NH3(aq)} water
explosives, fibers
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 53
18
Example - Write the molecular, ionic, and net-
ionic equation for the reaction of aqueous nitric
acid with aqueous calcium hydroxide
1. Write the formulas of the reactants
HNO3(aq) + Ca(OH)2(aq) →
2. Determine the possible products
a) Determine the ions present when each reactant dissociates
(H+ + NO3-) + (Ca+2 + OH-) →
b) Exchange the ions, H+1 combines with OH-1 to make H2O(l)
(H+ + NO3-) + (Ca+2 + OH-) → (Ca+2 + NO3-) + H2O(l)
c) Write the formula of the salt
9 cross the charges
(H+ + NO3-) + (Ca+2 + OH-) → Ca(NO3)2 + H2O(l)
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 55
19
Titration
• often in the lab, a solution’s concentration is
determined by reacting it with another material
and using stoichiometry – this process is called
titration
• in the titration, the unknown solution is added
to a known amount of another reactant until
the reaction is just completed, at this point,
called the endpoint, the reactants are in their
stoichiometric ratio
9 the unknown solution is added slowly from an
instrument called a burette
¾ a long glass tube with precise volume markings that
allows small additions of solution
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 58
Acid-Base Titrations
• the difficulty is determining when there has been just
enough titrant added to complete the reaction
9 the titrant is the solution in the burette
• in acid-base titrations, because both the reactant and
product solutions are colorless, a chemical is added that
changes color when the solution undergoes large
changes in acidity/alkalinity
9 the chemical is called an indicator
• at the endpoint of an acid-base titration, the number of
moles of H+ equals the number of moles of OH−
9 aka the equivalence point
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 59
Titration
20
Titration
The base solution is the
titrant in the burette.
As the base is added to
the acid, the H+ reacts with
the OH– to form water.
But there is still excess
acid present so the color
does not change.
At the titration’s endpoint,
just enough base has been
added to neutralize all the
acid. At this point the
indicator changes color.
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 61
Example 4.14:
The titration of 10.00 mL of HCl
solution of unknown concentration
requires 12.54 mL of 0.100 M
NaOH solution to reach the end
point. What is the concentration of
the unknown HCl solution?
21
Example 4.14: Information
The titration of 10.00 mL of HCl Given: 10.00 mL HCl
solution of unknown concentration 12.54 mL of 0.100 M NaOH
requires 12.54 mL of 0.100 M Find: M HCl
NaOH solution to reach the end
point. What is the concentration of
the unknown HCl solution?
Example: Information
The titration of 10.00 mL of HCl Given: 10.00 mL HCl
12.54 mL of 0.100 M NaOH
solution of unknown concentration
Find: M HCl
requires 12.54 mL of 0.100 M
CF: 1 mol HCl = 1 mol NaOH
NaOH solution to reach the end 0.100 mol NaOH = 1 L
point. What is the concentration of M = mol/L
the unknown HCl solution? CP: mL NaOH → L NaOH →
mol NaOH → mol HCl;
mL HCl → L HCl & mol ⇒ M
22
Example: Information
The titration of 10.00 mL of HCl Given: 10.00 mL HCl
12.54 mL NaOH
solution of unknown concentration
Find: M HCl
requires 12.54 mL of 0.100 M
CF: 1 mol HCl = 1 mol NaOH
NaOH solution to reach the end 0.100 mol NaOH = 1 L
point. What is the concentration of M = mol/L
the unknown HCl solution? CP: mL NaOH → L NaOH →
mol NaOH → mol HCl;
mL HCl → L HCl & mol ⇒ M
Example: Information
The titration of 10.00 mL of HCl Given: 10.00 mL HCl
12.54 mL NaOH
solution of unknown concentration
Find: M HCl
requires 12.54 mL of 0.100 M
CF: 1 mol HCl = 1 mol NaOH
NaOH solution to reach the end 0.100 mol NaOH = 1 L
point. What is the concentration of M = mol/L
the unknown HCl solution? CP: mL NaOH → L NaOH →
mol NaOH → mol HCl;
mL HCl → L HCl & mol ⇒ M
23
NaHCO3(aq) + HCl(aq) → NaCl(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
24
Example 4.15 - When an aqueous solution of
sodium carbonate is added to an aqueous solution
of nitric acid, a gas evolves
3. Check to see either product H2S - No
4. Check to see if either product decomposes –
Yes
9 H2CO3 decomposes into CO2(g) + H2O(l)
Na2CO3(aq) + HNO3(aq) → NaNO3 + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
25
Combustion as Redox
2 H2(g) + O2(g) → 2 H2O(g)
2 Na → 2 Na+ + 2 e−
26
Oxidation and Reduction
• in order to convert a free element into an ion, the
atoms must gain or lose electrons
9 of course, if one atom loses electrons, another must
accept them
• reactions where electrons are transferred from one
atom to another are redox reactions
• atoms that lose electrons are being oxidized, atoms
that gain electrons are being reduced
Ger
2 Na(s) + Cl2(g) → 2 Na+Cl–(s)
Na → Na+ + 1 e– oxidation
Cl2 + 2 e– → 2 Cl– reduction
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach Leo 79
Electron Bookkeeping
• for reactions that are not metal + nonmetal, or do
not involve O2, we need a method for determining
how the electrons are transferred
• chemists assign a number to each element in a
reaction called an oxidation state that allows them
to determine the electron flow in the reaction
9 even though they look like them, oxidation states are
not ion charges!
¾oxidation states are imaginary charges assigned based on a
set of rules
¾ion charges are real, measurable charges
27
Rules for Assigning Oxidation States
3. (b) the sum of the oxidation states of all the atoms in
a polyatomic ion equals the charge on the ion
9 N = +5 and O = -2 in NO3–, (+5) + 3(-2) = -1
• Br2
• K+
• LiF
• CO2
• SO42-
• Na2O2
28
Practice – Assign an Oxidation State to
Each Element in the following
• Br2 Br = 0, (Rule 1)
• K+ K = +1, (Rule 2)
• LiF Li = +1, (Rule 4a) & F = -1, (Rule 5)
• CO2 O = -2, (Rule 5) & C = +4, (Rule 3a)
• SO42- O = -2, (Rule 5) & S = +6, (Rule 3b)
• Na2O2 Na = +1, (Rule 4a) & O = -1, (Rule 3a)
Oxidation–Reduction
• oxidation and reduction must occur simultaneously
9 if an atom loses electrons another atom must take them
• the reactant that reduces an element in another reactant
is called the reducing agent
9 the reducing agent contains the element that is oxidized
• the reactant that oxidizes an element in another reactant
is called the oxidizing agent
9 the oxidizing agent contains the element that is reduced
29
Identify the Oxidizing and Reducing Agents
in Each of the Following
3 H2S + 2 NO3– + 2 H+ → 3 S + 2 NO + 4 H2O
Combustion Reactions
• Reactions in which O2(g) is a
reactant are called
combustion reactions
• Combustion reactions release
lots of energy
• Combustion reactions are a
subclass of oxidation-
reduction reactions
30
Combustion Products
• to predict the products of a combustion
reaction, combine each element in the other
reactant with oxygen
Reactant Combustion Product
contains C CO2(g)
contains H H2O(g)
contains S SO2(g)
contains N NO(g) or NO2(g)
contains metal M2On(s)
• combustion of CH3NH2(g)
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