Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Copyright °2001
c by Gar ret t J. van Ryzin. All rights reserved. April 2001
Supply Chain Cost and Service i
Contents
1 Introduction 1
6 Examples 10
7 Appendix 11
7.1 Partial expectation, the standard loss function and average back-orders (optional) . . . . . . 11
Then
The term supply chain refers to the complex sequence I(t) = S(0; t] ¡ D(0; t]: (1)
of activities, information and material °ows involved
in producing and distributing a ¯rm's outputs. Sup- While one normally thinks of inventory as a posi-
ply chains consume vast amounts of capital - in the tive quantity (stu® sitting somewhere), we can easily
form of plant, equipment and inventories - and are re- extend the above de¯nition to allow for negative in-
sponsible for most of a ¯rm's cost-of-goods and oper- ventory, i.e. I(t) < 0.
ating expenses. Supply chains create signi¯cant value
and ultimately determine a ¯rm's ability to satisfy What does a negative unit of inventory look like?
the demands of its customers. As a result, e®ective Well, a lot like a back-order. If consumers of our
supply chain management is a major strategic chal- output are willing to order without receiving product,
lenge for most ¯rms. then we can allow demand to exceed supply and I(t)
can become negative, in which case, ¡I(t) represents
But formulating e®ective strategy requires a good the total quantity on back-order. Think of a positive
understanding of what drives cost and service in a inventory as a pile of goods waiting for orders and
supply chain. This note introduces an inventory a negative inventory as a pile of orders waiting for
model that will enable you to quantifying the of- goods.
ten subtle impact of both operational and structural
changes in a supply chain. In addition - and perhaps
more importantly - the model can help sharpen your
intuition about what factors a®ect the operating per-
3 Causes of supply/demand
formance of a supply chain. imbalances in a supply chain
loween vastly outstrips the weekly capacity of most l time units, the inventory in transit is given by
candy manufactures. To meet this peak demand,
manufacturer's begin building inventories months in I(t) = S(0; t] ¡ S(0; t ¡ l]: (2)
advance. In this way, they ensure their cumulative
output is su±cient to meet cumulative demand. Such transportation related inventories are called
A second reason for deliberately creating imbal- pipeline stocks. Of course, transportation is not the
ances is to take advantage of changes (either real only cause of delay between points in a supply chain.
or anticipated) in the cost of materials or products. Lead times for production, communication and order
For example, grocery chains will \forward buy" large ful¯llment can also introduce signi¯cant delays. Any-
quantities of consumer products when manufactures time such delays are present, they may create inven-
o®er trade discounts (just as New York City com- tories. If the delay is due to production, the inventory
muters buy large quantities of subway tokens prior is typically called a work-in-process (WIP) inventory.
to a fare increase). In terms of analysis, such spec- An important { and potentially confusing { issue
ulative purchases are more akin to futures contract surrounding pipeline stocks concerns the timing of
trades than to normal operating decisions. payments. The physical inventory is, of course, al-
ways given by (2), but the question remains: Whose
inventory is it?
Luckily, we can narrow the answer down to two
3.2 Time and distance possibilities: the shipper or the receiver. In some
cases, ownership changes hands when the shipment
Supply and demand imbalances also occur when the is initiated. From an accounting standpoint, the in-
input and output of some portion of the supply chain ventory then belongs to the receiver and becomes an
are separated by time and/or distance. For exam- entry in the accounts receivable ledger of the shipper.
ple, suppose we are supplying an overseas market In other cases, ownership does not change hands until
from a domestic distribution center. Assume we use the goods are delivered, in which case the inventory
container ships and the total one-way transportation stays on the books of the shipper whilst in-transit.
time is 5 weeks. With great fan-fare, we start up The resulting cost di®erences can be signi¯cant when
operations, begin shipping product to our overseas shipping delays are long.
market at a rate of 3,000 units per week and hold our
These terms of trade have been carefully de¯ned
breath!
and standardized by the International Chamber of
What happens? Well, not much { at least not for Commerce (ICC). 2 These ICC \Incoterms" de¯ne
the ¯rst 5 weeks anyway. If we were to draw the out- ownership, cost, liability and tari® responsibilities
line of our black box around the overseas transporta- between shipper and receiver. For example, FOB
tion link, in the ¯rst 5 weeks of operation we would (free on board) means the shipper has ful¯lled his
see the input to the box humming along at 3,000 units obligation once the goods have \passed over the
per week while our overseas partners twiddled their ship's rail." In contrast, under FAS (free alongside
thumbs and waited. In week 6, our overseas part- ship) terms, the shipper's responsibility is complete
ners would receive product shipped in week 1; in the once the goods have been placed alongside the ves-
seventh week they would receive product shipped in sel. (This di®erence assumes particular signi¯cance
week 2, etc. In other words, the output is the in- should someone happen to drop your container whilst
put delayed by 5 weeks: D(0; t] = S(0; t ¡ 5]. Hence, loading it onto the ship!) DDP (delivered duty paid),
I(t) = S(0; t] ¡ S(0; t ¡ 5], i.e. the inventory \on the to take another example, means the shipper is respon-
ocean" is simply the cumulative shipments made over sible for the goods - including paying, freight and
the last ¯ve weeks. In our case, since we are shipping duty - up to the point they are delivered to the re-
exactly 3,000 units per week, the inventory is a con- ceiver. And so on.
stant 5 £ 3; 000 = 15; 000 units.
2 Incoterms 2000, ICC Publishing, New York. ISBN 92-842-
4 Inventory cost accounting not the sole driver of inventory costs. Other product
attributes, such as size, the need for refrigeration,
obsolescence risk, etc., determine ma jor components
In almost any business analysis involving inventory,
of inventory cost. Applying a single cost rate to all
physical inventory levels must be converted to inven-
products at all stages of production/distribution can
tory costs. The exact determination of the cost rate
be a gross oversimpli¯cation.
to apply is really a cost accounting matter, but here
are the ma jor components: Secondly, in relying on an inventory cost rate in an
analysis, one is implicitly assuming that only mar-
1. Capital Cost - This is usually an internal cost of ginal changes in inventory will occur. A ma jor struc-
funds rate multiplied by the value of the product. tural change in the supply chain may eliminate whole
Because value (materials, labor, transportation, categories of expenses that were considered \¯xed"
etc.) is added to the product as it moves along in the original ABC analysis of the inventory cost
the supply chain, this cost tends to increase as rate. For example, a major reduction in inventory
product moves downstream. may eliminate the need for an entire warehouse, the
operating cost of which may have been considered
2. Storage Cost - Units in inventory take up phys- ¯xed when the inventory cost rate was determined.
ical space, and may incur costs for heating, re-
frigeration, insurance, etc. An activities based A more reliable approach is to use the with-without
cost (ABC) analysis is usually needed to deter- principle. That is, analyze the relevant costs under
mine which components of these costs are ac- the current system (without any change) and then an-
tually driven by inventory levels and which can alyze the same costs with the proposed change. The
be considered more-or-less ¯xed. The answer di®erence is a more accurate gauge of cost impact
will depend on the magnitude of the inventory than what one gets by multiplying inventory levels
change you are analyzing. by a marginal cost rate.
3. Obsolescence Cost - A somewhat harder cost But even lower cost, itself, may not be the most
component to pin down is obsolescence cost. A important bene¯t of a reduction in inventory. Inven-
technology or fashion shift may make your cur- tory reductions can free up considerable quantities of
rent products obsolete and severely de°ate their cash, which are often critical for a rapidly expanding
value. The more inventory you have, the higher business or a business on the verge of insolvency. Re-
your exposure to this sort of loss. ductions in inventory also lower the asset base of an
operation, providing a higher return on assets (ROA).
4. Quality Cost - High levels of inventory usually Therefore, justifying an operating change will depend
increase the chance of product damage and cre- on a ¯rm's ¯nancial objectives.
ate slower feed-back loops between supply chain
partners. The result: lower levels of quality and The point, quite simply, is that your own business
a rise in the myriad costs associated with low judgment and skill must be applied to accurately cap-
quality. Again, these costs are di±cult to quan- ture the right costs and bene¯ts of inventory. In-
tify precisely, but the current consensus is that ventory models will only tell you how inventory lev-
they can be quite signi¯cant. els change; you bear the responsibility of translating
these physical changes into changes in the relevant
¯nancial components.
Typically, all these costs are rolled together into a
single inventory cost rate, expressed as a percentage
of the value of the product or material per unit time
(e.g. 20% per year). Other equivalent terms for this 5 Models of inventory cost and
same cost rate are inventory holding cost rate and service
inventory carrying cost rate.
Needless-to-say, there are a host of problems with The preceding discussion highlights some of the com-
this approach. For one, the value of a product is plexity involved in understanding the drivers of in-
Supply Chain Cost and Service 5
ventory cost and service. To understand these e®ects type of policy is also called a continuous review pol-
in more detail and to quantify cost/service measures, icy.
we need a formal model of the inventory process. Yet
real supply chains are quite complex, consisting of an In ¯xed time period policies, the time between or-
entire network of production and distribution facil- ders is constant but the quantity ordered each time
ities connected by transportation links, each poten- varies with demand and the current level of inventory.
tially handling thousands of di®erent products. How, Because ordering follows a ¯xed cycle, these policies
then, are we to make sense of all this complexity? are also called periodic-review policies. We will focus
on periodic-review policies in this note, but the ma-
One approach is to develop an integrated model jor insights and analyses are very similar to those for
of the entire supply chain network, accounting for continuous review policies.
all cost and service interrelationships. While such
models do exist and are continually being re¯ned by
researchers, they are really the domain of operations 5.2 A basic model
management specialists.
An alternative approach - which we shall adopt In our basic model, shown in Figure 2, an inventory
here - is to decompose the problem. That is, we can of one product is supplied by a transportation (or
think of breaking our complex supply chain network production) pipeline that has a constant lead time l.
into a series of much simpler pieces, each consisting of Q(0; t] denotes the cumulative quantity ordered up to
one source, supplying one destination with one prod- time t, and D(0; t] denotes the cumulative demand on
uct. For example, we might look at how our domestic the inventory up to time t. Since the lead time is a
plant supplies Product A to our Western distribution constant l units, the cumulative supply °owing into
center - the plant is the source, the distribution center the inventory, S(0; t], is simply given by
is the destination and only Product A is considered.
We could then look at how the Western distribution S(0; t] = Q(0; t ¡ l]; (3)
center itself supplies Product A to a customer's retail
so by (1)
outlet. Then, we could repeat the analysis for Prod-
uct B, or repeat the analysis for Product A at the
I(t) = Q(0; t ¡ l] ¡ D(0; t] (4)
Eastern distribution center, etc..
In reality, a host of factors can confound such a We allow demand to be backordered, so I(t) can be
simpli¯ed approach. Products are often ordered or negative. To distinguish it from inventory in the
shipped jointly; customer orders may be positively or transportation pipeline, we will henceforth refer to
negatively correlated, etc. However, decomposing the I(t) as the on-hand inventory.
problem serves as a useful ¯rst-cut analysis. It also
makes the problem much easier to understand, which
in turn helps build valuable intuition. 5.2.1 The demand process
There are basic categories of policies for controlling E (D(0; t]) = ¸t (5)
inventories: ¯xed order quantity policies and ¯xed 2
Var(D(0; t]) = ¾ t: (6)
time period policies. In the ¯rst, as the name im-
plies, the order quantity is always the same but the This model is usually a reasonable approximation in
time between orders will vary depending on demand practice, since we can often view cumulative demand
and the current inventory levels. Speci¯cally, inven- as the sum of demands from a large number of smaller
tory levels are continuously monitored and an order time periods (e.g. monthly demand is the sum of 30
is placed whenever the inventory level drops below daily demands). Then, regardless of the distribution
a predetermined reorder point. For this reason, this of the smaller demands, the sum is approximately
Supply Chain Cost and Service 6
transportation pipeline
leadtime =
normally distributed. In cases where this normal ap- and the orders in the pipeline that are due to arrive.
proximation is not perfect, it still serves as a useful Inventory position captures this idea.
base case for analysis.
The inventory position , P (t), is de¯ned by
Note ¸ is the average demand in a unit of time and
¾ 2 is the variance of demand in a unit of time. These P (t) = I(t) + Q(t ¡ l; t] (7)
values depend, of course, on the units you choose to where Q(t ¡ l; t] = Q(0; t] ¡ Q(0; t ¡ l] is the total
measure time. For example, if we are measuring time quantity ordered in the last l units of time, which is
in days, then ¸ and ¾ 2 are, respectively, the mean the total quantity in the pipeline that is due to arrive
and variance of daily demand; if time is measured in by time t + l, Hence, inventory position is the total
weeks, then ¸ and ¾ 2 are, respectively, the mean and amount on-hand plus the total amount on-order (i.e.
variance of weekly demand. The unit of time you use in the pipeline). Figure 1 shows the relationship of
does not really matter as long as you are consistent. inventory position to the pipeline and on-hand inven-
However - a word to the wise - using inconsistent tory. Keeping a careful eye on the inventory position
units is a very common mistake.
reduces the nasty tendency to overshoot and under-
shoot the inventory that lead times typically engen-
der.
5.2.2 The ordering process and inventory po-
sition An important fact to recognize is that we can regu-
late the inventory position by simply placing an order
To proceed further, we need a model of how ordering or by holding back orders. In other words, the inven-
takes place in response to demand - an ordering pol- tory position is controllable.
icy. Ideally, we would like a policy which is optimal in
Unfortunately, we do not exercise the same degree
some sense. However, usually such policies are quite
of control over the on-hand inventory level. To see
complex. Instead, we shall settle for a simple order-
why, consider the on-hand inventory one lead-time
ing policy which is \nearly optimal". To de¯ne the
ahead (still assuming I(0) = 0):
policy, however, we need to introduce a new concept
- inventory position. I(t + l) = S(0; t + l] ¡ D(0; t + l]
At ¯rst glance, it might seem our ordering decision = S(t; t + l] ¡ D(t; t + l] + S(0; t] ¡ D(0; t]
should be driven by the on-hand inventory level, I(t), = Q(t ¡ 1; t] ¡ D(t; t + l] + I(t)
alone. However, as in life, in inventory management = P (t) ¡ D(t; t + l]: (8)
it pays to think ahead - in this case we need to think
one lead-time ahead. The reason is that future inven- So the on-hand inventory one lead-time in the future
tory levels are a®ected by both the on-hand inventory is the current inventory position minus the demand
Supply Chain Cost and Service 7
between now and time t + l. The term, D(t; t + l], What we really care about in the ¯nal analysis are the
is called the lead time demand. Note that while P (t) cost and service characteristics of the inventory sys-
is completely under our control, we have absolutely tem. Provided the real inventory policy is reasonably
no control over the lead time demand D(t; t + l]. All close to the model, however, the service measures de-
we can do is try to control the inventory position, veloped below will still provide good estimates of cost
P (t), so that the on-hand inventory, I(t), behaves and service.
\reasonably".
In a way, you can think of this policy as a model of
rational operational behavior on the part of a ¯rm in
5.2.3 The periodic-review, order-up-to pol- response to its speci¯c physical constraints and ser-
icy vice objectives. No doubt a ¯rm can always do worse,
but they would have a hard time doing signi¯cantly
better than using a perio dic-review, order-up-to pol-
We are now in a position to de¯ne our policy. Here
icy given the physical and ¯nancial constraints at
it goes: We review the inventory position every p
hand. As one operations manager put it: \The di®er-
units of time. At these review points, we place an
ence between intelligence and stupidity is that there
order su±cient to bring the inventory position up to
are some limits on intelligence." A periodic-review,
a ¯xed level S. (The quantity S is called the base
order-up-to policy is, for our model, approximately
stock level.) We then repeat the process at the next
the limit on intelligence.
review point, etc... That's it!
Even under this simple policy, an exact expression
For obvious reasons, this policy is called a
for the on-hand inventory level is hard to come by.
periodic-review, order-up-to policy and, for appropri-
However, there exist some quite accurate approxima-
ate choices of p and S, it is a close-to-optimal way
tions to various inventory costs and service measures,
to order. In many cases p is given - or at least im-
which we look at shortly.
plicitly given. For example, a ¯rm may already have
a ¯xed order cycle, driven perhaps by the need for
a regular schedule of deliveries or by a ¯xed produc-
tion sequence at a supplier's plant. Alternatively, if 5.3 Choosing the policy parameters
there is a ¯xed ordering cost then p may be chosen
to balance ordering cost and holding cost using the How do we choose a \good" basestock level S? To
economic order quantity (EOQ) formula. We will see answer this question, note that (p + l)¸ is the average
how to chose S shortly. For now, let's focus on how demand experienced over a review period plus a lead
the inventory behaves under this policy. time. S should be roughly this large. Why? Well,
recall that inventory position is the total material in
Figure 2 shows a sample graph of the inventory
the system (on-hand plus on-order), and we start each
position and the on-hand inventory for a periodic-
review perio d with the same inventory position S. We
review, order-up-to policy with a lead time of l = 3,
must then wait p units of time to review the inventory
review period p = 10 and base stock level S = 40. In position again, at which time we may want to place
the ¯gure, we start at time t = 0 with no inventory in an order. However, that order will take another l
the system and immediately place an order of size 40. units of time to arrive. Hence, the inventory in the
Note that at every order point, the inventory position system at the start of a period should be large enough
is restored exactly to S = 40. The on-hand inventory, to cover the average demand over these two intervals
on the other hand, receives no replenishments for the of time, or about (p + l)¸.
¯rst l = 3 units of time, and thereafter receives re-
plenishments every p = 10 time units as well. Notice, But demand is not constant.p Indeed, from (6) we
however, that the on-hand inventory is not restored see its standard deviation is ¾ p + l. Therefore, we
to the same level after every replenishment. may want to keep a little more inventory to hedge
against running out before we get a chance to reorder.
It is important to recognize that this policy, al- This additional inventory is called safetly stock.
though certainly a reasonable way to manage inven-
tory, is really just a model of how ordering takes place. It is convenient to measure safety stock in terms
Supply Chain Cost and Service 8
50
basestock level = 40
40
30
20
10
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
-10
-20
time
Figure 2: Examples of inventory position and on-hand inventory under a periodic-review, order-up-to policy
(l = 3, p = 10 and S = 40)
of the number of standard deviations of demand, z. After some analysis (the details of which we shall
That is, p not delve into here) one can obtain the following es-
S = (p + l)¸ + z¾ p + l; (9) timate of the ¯ll rate, f :
p
or equivalently, ¾ p + lL(z)
f =1¡ ; (11)
¸p
S ¡ (p + l)¸
z= p : (10) where z is de¯ned in (10) as before. The function
¾ p+l
L(z) is called the standard loss function, which is used
The more cautious we are about stockouts, the higher in the process of determining the average number of
a z value we choose. Of course, a higher z means back orders in a cycle. The Appendix contains a ta-
higher inventory as well. The next section looks at de- ble of values for the function L(z). Rearranging the
termining an appropriate value for z to meet a spec- above relation, we obtain
i¯ed level of customer service. (1 ¡ f )¸p
L(z) = p : (12)
¾ p+l
5.4 Cost and service measures Given a target ¯ll rate f , one can use (12) to deter-
mine L(z) and then use the table in the Appendix to
Order ¯ll rate determine the resulting z value. (Examples of such
calculations are given at the end of the note.)
The primary measure of service in most inventory
systems is the ¯ll rate, f , de¯ned as the fraction of This estimate of ¯ll rate (11) is accurate provided
units ordered that can be ¯lled directly from stock. the level of backorders is not too high. In other words,
(One minus the ¯ll rate is the fraction of units back- it is a good estimate for high-¯ll-rate scenarios, which
ordered.) The ¯ll rate may be determined by balanc- is usually the case we are interested in.
ing the costs of holding additional inventory against
Average inventory levels
the cost of stocking out, if known. More commonly,
it is obtained by a subjective judgement and/or com- Once z is determined, we can evaluate the average
petitive benchmarking. level of inventory at various stages. The average on-
Supply Chain Cost and Service 9
3
hand inventory level is given by, Order frequency and size
normally distributed with mean ¸ and variance ¾ 2 , However, it turns out that now the variance of the
2
then lead time demand, which we will denote ¾LD , is given
E(X ¡ x)+ = ¾L(z) by
where ¾ 2LD = Var(D(t; t + L]) = ¾ 2 l + ¸ 2 Var(L):
x¡¸
z= :
¾ In our old case with constant lead times, Var(L) = 0,
To see this, note that and thus ¾ 2LD = ¾ 2 l. Note the presence of variability
in the lead times increases the variance of the lead
E(X ¡ x)+ = E ((X ¡ ¸) ¡ (x ¡ ¸)) + time demand, as one might have expected.
µ ¶+
X ¡ ¸ x¡ ¸
= ¾E ¡ With this new characterization of lead time de-
¾ ¾ mand, the analysis proceeds as before, substituting
= ¾E (Z ¡ z)+ ¾L2 D for ¾ 2 l. For example, the expression for z be-
= ¾L(z) comes
S ¡ (p + l)¸
z=p 2
¾ LD + ¾ 2 p
We are now almost home. Since D(0; p + l] is nor-
mally distributed with mean (p + l)¸ and variance or equivalently, expressing S in terms of z,
¾ 2 (p + l) (see (5) and (6)), then q
p S = (p + l)¸ + z ¾L2 D + ¾ 2 p:
E(D(0; p + l] ¡ S)+ = ¾ p + l L(z)
The ¯ll rate is then
where z is given by (10). Hence,
p the average number p
of back orders in a cycle is ¾ p + l L(z) and, since we ¾ 2LD + ¾ 2 p L(z)
f = 1¡ ;
order on average p¸ units per cycle, taking a simple ¸p
ratio gives us the ¯ll rate equation (11).
and so on.
Because the variance of lead time demand is higher
7.2 Extension to random lead times when both demand and lead times vary, both the
(optional) z value and the safety stock will need to be higher
to meet a given ¯ll rate, f , compared to the case
In many cases lead times are not constant. For exam- of constant lead times. This is intuitive; lead time
ple, variabilities in production throughput times and variability only makes it harder (and more costly) to
transportation times (e.g. weather/handling delays) meet service level targets. The above extension lets
can cause order lead times from a supplier to vary. you quantify exactly how much cost is added by lead
time variabilities.
To extend the basic model to the case where lead
times are variable, let us suppose that the actual lead
time is a random variable, L, with
E(L) = l