Bunker - Infos

Bunker Fuel Grades - How do the four main fuel grades differ from
each other?
by Dr. Vis, Viswa Lab

The International Standard Organization (ISO) in cooperation with marine and petroleum industry prepared
specifications to meet the requirements for marine fuels supplied world wide for use onboard ships. There
are 19 categories of residual fuels available internationally. Out of these 19, four categories or grades are
most frequently supplied and used by ships.

Industrial names for the four grades are IFO180, IFO380, MDO and MGO. These relate to the ISO grades
RME25, RMG35, DMB and DMA respectively. Industrial nomenclature is based on the fuel viscosity at
50°C. IFO 180 indicates that the viscosity of the fuel is 180 cSt at 50°C and IFO 380 fuel will have a
viscosity of 380 cSt at 50°C. MDO stands for Marine Diesel Oil which is a blend of gas oil and heavy oil.
MGO is marine gas oil which is clear and not blended with heavy fuel.

ISO has specified 11 parameters for residual fuels and 14 parameters for distillate fuels. A specified grade
of fuel should meet all the requirements set by ISO. See links to the ISO 8217 table showing all the grades
and the requirements below.

IFO180 or RME25 has about 6 to 7 % gas oil in it where as IFO380 or RMG35 has about 3% gas oil.
Because of the higher gas oil content, price of the IFO180 is higher than the heavier IFO380 grade. In
addition to the difference in the gas oil content, requirements for 4 out of 11 parameters are different for the
two grades. As you can see from the table, maximum for viscosity, carbon residue, ash content and
Vanadium are different for the two grades.

MDO or DMB is a blend of heavy fuel and gas oil and they are cheaper than pure MGO or DMA.
Requirements are different for both the grades. The ISO 8217 table (see below) clearly indicates the
differences.

Viscosity - Definition
For practical operation viscosity is the most important fuel characteristic. It is used for the classification of
residual fuels, as in the marine market they are commonly referred to by viscosity; for example as IF ***, or
as IFO ***.

IF is the abbreviation for "Intermediate Fuel" and IFO for "Intermediate Fuel Oil". The *** is a numerical
value, which is the kinematic viscosity of the residual fuel in centistokes (cSt) at 50 oC. For example IF 380.

Knowledge of viscosity is necessary for the estimation of the required temperatures for storage, pumping
and injection. It is also necessary for the determination of heating required for a fuel for transfer purposes.

The minimum viscosity for fuel transfer is determined by the maximum viscosity acceptable by the transfer
pump. If the actual viscosity at transfer is lower than the pump design, the rate of transfer will be faster than
the rated capacity of the pump.

The viscosity of a fuel is its resistance to shear or flow, and is a measure of the fuel's adhesive/cohesive or
frictional properties. This arises because of the internal molecular friction within the fuel producing the
frictional drag effect. There are two related measures of fuel viscosity which are known as dynamic and
kinematic viscosity.

Dynamic viscosity is also termed "absolute viscosity" and is the tangential force per unit area required to
move one horizontal plane with respect to the other at unit velocity when maintained a unit distance apart
by the fluid.

In SI units the theoretical unit is the Poise. As these units are large, it is more usual to divide them by 100,
to give a smaller unit called the centipose (cP).

Kinematic viscosity is the ratio of the absolute viscosity to the density. In SI units, the theoretical unit is the
Stokes. As these units are large, it is usual to divide them by 100, to give a smaller unit called centistokes
(cSt), and these are the units used for marine fuel.

For either dynamic or kinematic viscosity to be meaningful a reference temperature must be quoted. In ISO
8217 the reference temperature for residual fuels is 100 oC, whilst for distillate fuels it is 40oC.

Viscosity in centistokes at
50oC:

ISO 8217 max cSt at

grade 50oC

RMA 10 50

RMB 10 50

RMC 10 50

RMD 15 100

RME 25 225

RMF 25 225

RMG 35 390

RMH 35 390

RMK 35 390

RMH 45 585

RMK 45 585

Fuel Density - Definition

Knowledge of a fuel's density is of fundamental commercial importance as fuel is delivered by volume and
sold by mass. The relationship between mass and volume is density.

The SI unit for density is kg/m3 and for fuel a reference temperature is always stated. This temperature is
usually 15oC. A reference temperature has to be given as the density of fuel varies with temperature (see
Fig.1).

In practice the density of a fuel is measured at the temperature at which it is stored. The value is then
corrected back to the reference temperature by standard tables.

Density is one of the factors in the empirical equations for both energy content and ignition performance.
For fuel treatment systems containing a centrifuge with a water seal, knowledge of the fuel density is
necessary so that the correct gravity disc is fitted to obtain the correct fuel / water interface, and hence
efficient treatment.

Fuel Density - Measurement

The terms "density in vacuo" and "density in air" are sometimes found on bunker receipts.

Density is the relationship of the mass of a substance to its volume, not its weight to volume ratio, and
therefore density by definition is in vacuo.

The term "density in air" although often used is incorrect, it should be referred to as a "weight factor". This is
because a substance weighed in air is supported to a small extent by the buoyancy of the air acting on it,
hence the weight of a liquid in air is slightly less than the weight in vacuo.
The relationship between density and the corresponding weight factor (incorrectly called "density in air") is
not strictly a simple one. However for bunker fuels with a density range of 800 to 1010 kg/m 3 at 15oC, the
conversion calculation approximates to a difference of 1.1 kg/m 3. Hence to convert density at 15oC to the
weight factor at 15oC, 1.1kg/m3 should be deducted.

Specific gravity is the ratio of the mass of a given volume of a substance to the mass of an equal volume of
water at the same temperature. As it is a ratio there are no units but as temperature is stated, eg. 15 / 15 oC.

Sometimes specific gravity is quoted at 20/4oC, but this is not specific gravity as the temperatures are not
identical. It is however relative density, which is the ratio of the mass of a given volume of substance at a
temperature t1, to the mass of an equal volume of pure water at temperature t 2. Since 1m3 of pure water at
4oC has a mass of 1000kg, the density of a substance at t1oC is equivalent to the relative density at t1 / 4oC.

Fuel Density - API Conversion

In the United states and some other countries the density of petroleum products is defined in terms of API
gravity. This is an arbitrary scale, calibrated in degrees and related to specific gravity by the formula:

Fuel Density - Typical Values

Typically distillate fuels which includes gas oil and diesel oils have a density in the range 800-920 kg/m 3 at
15oC. While residual fuels are in the range 900-1010 kg/m3 at 15oC.

To use values related to unity, SI only allows two alternatives which are kg/dm 3 and Mg/m3, neither of which
are particularly familiar. However, since the dm3 is exactly equal to the litre, the units kilogram per litre (kg/l)
is frequently used.

Water Content - Nature and Source

Water is the most common fuel contaminant and the level of water present is very low. Typically this is 0.1-
0.2% V/V and as can be seen from the cumulative distribution some $$% of samples contain less than
0.3% water.

The ingress of water can come from a number of sources, which include tank condensation and tank
leakage, and can generally be avoided by good management. Where steam is used for tank heating
purposes the pressure in the coils is usually greater than the head pressure in the tank, hence any leakage
will result in an increased water content in the fuel.

A further potential source is the purifier if an incorrect gravity disc is used for the fuel being treated, or if the
water control soleniod vales are leaking on the centrifuge.

The leakage of water into fuel tanks either from adjacent water ballast tanks or from the sea itself through
bulkheads, is of course a matter of routine hull maintenance, however the various tank fittings and
penetrations necessary can form sources of potential leakage.

Sounding pipes should be securely capped at all times when not in use. Air pipes must remain open and
consequently be arranged to terminate as high as possible, or be fitted with approved self closing devices to
avoid breaking water. They should be in protected locations, safe from mechanical damage during cargo
handling or from flooding when washing down decks.

The nature of the water present in the fuel may be fresh, brackish or salt depending on the level of sodium
present as determined by elemental analysis On a world wide basis the salt content of sea water varies,
however, usually in first order terms 100mg/kg of sodium is associated with 1% of water.

Water Content - Technical Problems

Apart from the commercial aspect of purchasing water as part of the fuel, an uncontrolled water content can
result in a number of operating difficulties.

1. Encourages sludge formation.

2. Corrosion of tanks and pipelines with a consequent rise in the iron content Steam formation, resulting in
vapour locking in heaters and foaming in the mixing tanks.
3. Steam erosion of injectors by cavitation.
4. Disruption of the atomising spray pattern.
5. Retardation in the speed of combustion resulting in still burning particles striking the cylinder wall and
crown.
6. Dilution of the cylinder liner oil film.

Sulphur - Definition
Sulphur is a naturally occurring element in crude oil, concentrated in the residual components of the crude
oil distillation process. The amount of sulphur in the fuel oil depends mainly on the source of crude oil, and
to a lesser extent on the refining process. Typically for residual fuel on a world wide basis the value is in the
order or 1.5-4 % m/m.

Crude oils have a natural sulphur level and this is the primary feature which determines the sulphur level in
any particular blend of fuel oil. Refining severity only has a secondary effect. Crude oils with a low level of
sulphur are known as "sweet crudes" while those with a higher level are referred to as "sour crudes".

The level of sulphur in the fuel has a marginal effect on the specific energy.

Sulphur - Effect On Engine

During the combustion process in a diesel engine the presence of sulphur in the fuel can give rise to
corrosive wear. This can be minimised by suitable operating conditions and lubrication with an alkaline
lubricant for the cylinder liner.

Considerable work has been done by the various engine manufacturers to ensure cylinder liner surfaces do
not approach the dew point, which is the temperature at which gases condense to liquid. In a diesel engine
the sulphur in the fuel first burns to SO2, then combines with excess oxygen to form SO 3.

In the presence of water vapour the SO3 is converted to sulphuric acid. If the temperature of the cylinder
wall is below that of the dew point the acid will become deposited on the wall. This dew point is a function of
the sulphur content of the fuel and also the cylinder pressure. Only a relatively small proportion of sulphur is
converted to acid and the remaining oxides pass out of the cylinder with the exhaust gases.

Sulphur - Control on Level

A broad spectrum of measures intended to control air pollution from shipping has been discussed within the
international Maritime Organisation (IMO) for over a decade. One of these pollutants is sulphur dioxide
which one causes of acid rain.

This can result in deforestation and damage to man-made structures. Some restrictions now exist with
respect to sulphur in some marine fuels and these are often on a voluntary basis. Examples are the use of
low sulphur fuels on ferries in Scandinavian and Baltic waters, and in tanker movements on the Prince
William Sound in Alaska.

In 1997 a new treaty was signed with members of IMO adopting Annex VI to 1973 MARPOL. Upon
notification of this Annex by sufficient member states (or review by 2002) a maximum sulphur level of 4.5%
m/m will be applied to all marine fuels. Further to this regional emissions control areas (ECAs) would be
created where fuel sulphur would be limited to 1.5% m/m.

If regional areas are legislated through IMO it would seem that vessels trading to those areas would have to
carry two types of fuel. While such an approach could be incorporated into new construction, it might not be
straightforward to convert existing ships. Any new requirements which are placed on merchant shipping to
reduce air pollution could have a major impact on shipowners.

Sulphur - Reducing SO2

The technology of water washing has been in use for several decades in oil tankers for cleaning the
exhaust gas of boilers to produce effectively SO2 free inert gas for the cargo tanks.

The effluent from the seawater scrubber is highly acidic, however, on discharge into the sea it rapidly
disperses so as to give no adverse environmental or ecological effects.

The alternative to exhaust gas scrubbing is to limit the sulphur content of the fuel. At present the typical
sulphur level in residual fuel is a little over 3 % m/m, and follows a skewed distribution.

In a distribution that is skewed the most typical value is known as the mode and is the most frequently
occurring value in the distribution. The typical value should not be confused with the average value, which is
the arithmetical mean (average) of a series of values.

Carbon Residue
The carbon residue of a fuel is the tendency to form carbon deposits under high temperature conditions in
an inert atmosphere, and may be expressed commonly as Micro Carbon Residue (MCR) or alternatively
Conradson Carbon Residue (CCR).

It should be noted that numerically MCR is effectively the same as CCR. The overall relationship between
actual diesel engine performance and carbon residue is poor, however, the carbon residue value is
considered by some to give an indication of the combustibility and carbonaceous deposit forming
tendencies of a fuel.

From ISO 8217 it will be seen that some residual grades have the same visocity parameter but different
limits for various other parameters. With respect to carbon residue this applies to RM 10, RM 25 and RM 35
and a tighter limit exists for RMA 10 and RMB 10, RME 25 and RMG 35. However, it must be appreciated
that there is only a limited availability of such fuels and in some geographical locations the availability is
zero.

Fuels with a high carbon residue value may cause problems in older engines when they are operating
under part load conditions. Whilst one of the light intermediate fuels referred to above may have an
acceptable carbon residue value, the actual fuel delivered may have other characteristics which could have
an adverse effect on the engine, specifically with reference to ignition quality.

The carbon residue value of a fuel depends on the refinery processes employed in its manufacture. For
straight run residual fuels the value is typically 10-12 % m/m, while for fuels derived from secondary
conversion processing, the value depends on the severity of the processes applied.

Ash - Source
The most common metal in the fuel is vanadium. Possible contamination from external sources include
aluminium and silicon from catalyst fines, sodium from sea water, iron oxides in the form of rust scale, used
lubricating oil, sand and dirt.

The ash constituents from the crude oil are concentrated in the residual fuel and this concentration depends
upon the refinery processes employed. For distillate fuels the ash level, which is defined as the residue after
all the combustible components have been burned, is negligible.

The actual level of the ash being dependent on the total elemental composition of the fuel and the
components and concentration of the waste material.

Sediment Stability and Compatibility - Sediment and Stability

The sediments in fuel are insoluble residues which are contaminants such as sand, dirt and rust scale and
are not derived from the fuel. For clear distillate fuels (DMB) sediment by extraction defines these insoluble
residues after extraction by toluene, but this test method is not applicable for residual fuels.

In the process of blending a particular grade of residual fuel, the properties of the blend are determined by
the proportion and source of each of the components used in the blend, particularly with reference to
stability and sediment.

Stability of residual fuel may be defined as the ability of a fuel to remain in an unchanged condition despite
circumstances which may tend to cause change; or, more simply, as the resistance of an oil to breakdown.
Conversely instability would be the tendency of a residual fuel to produce a deposit of asphaltenic or
carbonaceous matter as a function of time / or temperature.

Flash Point - Definition

The flash point of a fuel is the temperature at which vapour given off will ignite when an external flame is
applied under specified test conditions. A flash point is defined to minimise fire risk during normal storage
and handling.

The minimum flash point for fuel in the machinery space of a merchant ship is governed by international
legislation and the value is 60oC. For fuels used for emergency purposes, external to the machinery space,
for example the lifeboats, the flash point must be greater than 43 oC.

Even when residual fuels are at a temperature below their measured flash point, they are capable of
producing light hydrocarbons in the tank headspace, such that the vapour composition may be near to or
within the flammable range. Hence all residual fuel oil headspaces should be considered to be potentially
flammable.

Flash Point - Practical Precautions

At all times the temperatures in the fuel oil system should conform with recognised codes of practice and
excessive local temperatures should be avoided. Particular care should be taken to ensure that any flame
screens/traps are in good condition on the various fuel oil tank vent pipes, and that there are no ignition
sources in the area immediately surrounding the venting system.

The reason for this is that when tanks are being filled, the tank headspace gas will be displaced through the
vent pipes. When filling empty or near empty tanks, it should be ensured that the heating coils are shut
down and cool. Fuel oil contacting hot exposed heating coils could lead to a flammable atmosphere being
rapidly generated. All residual fuel oil tank headspaces should be classified as "hazardous" and all electrical
equipment within the space must meet the appropriate safety standard.

All operations, such as ullaging and sampling, should be carried out to avoid any hazards associated with
static electrical charges. These precautions would, for example, include ensuring that metallic sampling
equipment and ullaging equipment is properly earthed or bonded to the tank structure. When tanks are
opened, it is important not to stand downwind of the tank and to ensure that there are no sources of ignition
within the vicinity of the tank hatch.

Flash Point - Flammability

Traditionally, gas detectors such as explosion meters have been used to check that enclosed spaces are
"gas free". They have also been used to measure the "flammability" of headspaces as a percentage of the
lower flammable limit (LFL). The measured percentage of the LFL only broadly ranks fuels in terms of
relative hazard.

Care should therefore be exercised in interpretation of the figures generated by such gas detectors.
Measure levels in excess of 50% LFL are generally considered to indicate that precautionary measures are
required. The flammability of the headspace of residual fuel oil tanks should be monitored regularly. Should
a measured value in excess of the recommended level be detected, action should be taken to reduce the
vapour concentration by purging the headspace with low pressure air. (IMO resolution A.565 (14) states
50% FLF as the recommended value.)
Gases should be vented to a safe area with no ignition sources in the vicinity of the outlet. When venting
has been completed, gas concentrations within the tank should continue to be monitored and, if necessary,
further venting should be undertaken. Once the tank has been purged with air, consideration may be given
to inerting the headspace should it be practical to do so.

Such detectors rely on a calibration carried out normally on a single hydrocarbon (e.g. methane) which may
have LFL characteristics that are far removed from the hydrocarbons actually present in the headspace.
When using an explosimeter to assess the degree of hazard in residual oil tank headspaces, it is
recommended that the instrument is calibrated with a pentane/air or hexane/air mixture.

This will result in a more conservative estimate of the flammability, but the readings should not be regarded
as providing a precise measurement of the vapour space condition. When taking measurements, the
manufacturer's operating instructions should be closely followed. It is also important that the calibration of
the instrument should be checked frequently. This is necessary as the oxidation catalyst detectors are likely
to be susceptible to poisoning, when exposed to residual oil vapours.

In the view of the problems associated with obtaining accurate measurements of the flammability of residual
fuel tank headspaces using readily available portable equipment.

Pour Point - Definition

The pour point is the lowest temperature at which a marine fuel can be handled without excessive amounts
of wax crystals forming so preventing flow. If a fuel is below the pour point, wax will begin to separate out
which will block the filters. The wax will also build up on tank bottoms and on heating coils.

When heat is reapplied it can be difficult to get the wax to redissolve because of its insulating nature. In
extreme cases manual cleaning of the tanks becomes necessary.

The actual pour point of a fuel depends on various factors, which include the source of crude oil and the
refining processes used in manufacture. Although for the majority of residual grades in ISO 8217 (those
with a viscosity higher than 15 cSt at 100oC - RM15 and above) the limit on pour point is 30oC, in practice
the great majority have a pour point of less than 0oC.

If the pour point is known an informed operational decision can be taken as to a safe storage temperature of
the fuel. In order to avoid the waxing problems described it is recommended that the fuel is stored at a
temperature at least 5oC to 7oC above the pour point. Knowledge of the pour point is not usually available at
the time of delivery, but it is one of the parameters routinely determined by fuel testing services.

In the laboratory the assessment is carried out under defined and tightly controlled conditions, however an
approximate determination can be made onboard ship.

Specific Energy - Definition

Specific energy is the correct way of referring to the heat available from a fuel, but many people still refer to
calorific value.

During the manufacture of marine fuel oil the specific energy is not directly controlled except in a secondary
manner by the specification of other properties.

There are empirical equations which estimate the specific energy. These are given below, one is for gross
specific energy and the other for net. The gross specific energy is applicable to a boiler whilst the net
applies to a diesel engine. Historically the gross specific energy was referred to as the higher calorific value
and the net specific energy as the lower calorific value.

Specific Energy - Approx. Determination

On certain trade routes some operators use a high density fuel (max 1010 as defined by RMK 35, 45 or 55).
Clearly from the diagram the net specific energy is slightly less than for the majority of the population.
The nomogram takes account of density and sulphur. If required, the slight effect of ash may be taken into
account by subtraction of 0.02 MJ/kg for each 0.05% of ash. From the ash distribution. Typically the ash
value is in the order a-b.

Specific Energy - Variation in Energy

From the distribution for density of residual fuels some x% lie in the range 980 (to be comfirmed) and 991.
This is indicated on the diagram by horizontal lines ab and cd. From consideration of the distrution for
sulphur it can be seen that y% of the samples are in the range 2-4%. These limits are shown in the diagram
by vertical lines ad and bc. Fuels in the boundary abcd account for z% of the population analysed. The
variation in specific energy when considering density and sulphur is the difference between c and a. This
variation is not considered to be significant.

In some ports it is sometimes possible to obtain residual fuels with the same characteristics except for
sulphur. In this instance the fuel with the lower sulphur value has a higher price compared to the higher
sulphur fuel. This difference reflects the increase in available energy.

Where fuels are received with a low density and/or sulphur level than those in the boundary abcd the net
energy available is greater than the majority of the population.