Rig Veda

In the Hindu tradition, we find derogatory references to women. The history of ancient
India may be said to commence from the period during which the Rg-Veda was
composed. In Rg-Veda we find a great literary monument of hoary antiquity, containing a
code of ethical life reflecting the thoughts and aspirations of the people. Vedic literature
which is the prime source of all cultural manifestations in India depicts a vivid picture of
ancient Indian womanhood.

The Vedic society was a patriarchal one, and hence father was the head of the family.
During the period prayers were uttered for the birth of a son, though there was no
reference to the deprecating of the birth of a daughter.

Marriage was a union of the two individuals. No reference regarding age or its limitation
can be traced in the Rg-Veda. Neither can it be stated that the notion of child-marriage
existed then, as a reference to it finds a place only during the Sutra period. During this
period, some girls even remained unmarried in their hther's houses up to an advanced
age. A well-known example of this was Ghosha. The form of marriage that was widely
prevalent during this period was monogamy, though there were some references to
polygamy. Rituals formed a part in the Vedic marriage.

With regard to of education of women during this period, it may be noted briefly that the
position of women was generally not unequal to that of the men. The proof of this is the
fact that the Rg-Veda contains hymns (sukts) by as many as twenty-seven women, called
Brahmavadinis or women seers. During this age, we note that domestic life was not in
any way inconsistent with spiritual life. This testifies to the fad that men and women were
regarded as having equally important status in the social life of the early Vedic period. In
the time of the Vedas, all writers are agreed that, she enjoyed much freedom and was
clearly in most cases an equal of man. Nevertheless, there were conflicting views are set
forth regarding women's character. One view was that with women there can be no
lasting friendship; hearts of hyenas are the hearts of women. Indra himself hath said, the
mind of woman brooks no discipline. Her intellect hath little weight. The other view was
that she was the presiding deity of the house. Over thy husband's father and thy husband's
mother bear fully sway. Over the sister of thy lord, over his brothers rule supreme.

The Rg-Veda contains no clear evidence of divorce obtaining in actual practice. Such an
idea too was almost abominable. Marriage was considered sacred and divorce was
against all occult and spiritual law. The society during this period set up a high order of
morality. Hence, there were hardly any instances of adultery.

Towards the close of Rg-Vedic period, several restrictions were gradually imposed on the
freedom and privileges which women enjoyed earlier. Several evils crept in and this
ultimately led to the degradation of women in society. The early Rg-Vedic age which saw
the dawn of power influence which the Indo-Aryan woman wielded in her household,
gradually deteriorated during the end of the period.

Atharva Veda Period

The practice of sati was in vogue during this period. There is nothing to show that women
during this period did not move freely in society. She was at the helm of affairs, and
partook in the sacrifices performed by her husband and was ultimately a helper in the
path of virtue.

Gradually we find that woman's position became markedly inferior to her partner in many
respects, although giving respectful treatment to her in her various capacities is enjoined
upon men.

The Brahmanas

We find passages in Aitereya Brahamana and Maitrayani Samhita to show that women
were forbidden to go to the assemblies. Women were placed on par with dice and drink,
and she was described as one of the major evils in human society. Taittiriya Samhita and
Shatapatha Brahmna rank her as inferior even to a bead and evil man. Polygamy was
quite common during this period. Generally, we find that Brahmanas reflect a transitional
development in the status of woman limiting her role except in the performance of
religious sacrifices. It is quite evident that women played an important role, only in
religious life. A man could not become a spiritual whole unless he was accompanied by
his wife. There was decline in education which was responsible for the gradual
deterioration of the social status of women during the Vedic period.

The Upanisad Period

It is only in the Chhandogaya and Brhadaranya Upanisads that we get some glimpse of
the status of women during this period. Ceremonials for begetting a son were described
as a religious duty. In the Dharma Sutra period, with the introduction of different forms
of marriage, the status of women deteriorated. There was a definite sanction for the
domination of the husband over the wife. The notion of spiritual union of husband and
wife by magic mantras gave to the idea of the transferen- of the ownership of the bride.
Due to the introduction of lower forms of marriage, the wife lost her position and dignity
of grhapatni and was precluded from participating in the religious ceremonies and rituals
of the husband.

The women always remained dependent. They should be guarded in all respects in order
to preserve the purity of the offspring. Women were punished if they failed in their duties
to their husbands. The duties of husband and wife come under the purview of civil and
criminal laws. Adultery was severely punished under the law.

Ultimately, though her position was much lower in- society, nevertheless he was
protected by law. Thus a study of the rituals as prescribed by the Grhyasutra shows that
many indigenous rites had already been absorbed. The necessity of equality of birth is
stated in Grhyasutras. Inter& marriages
came to be accepted. The later Dharamsutras prescribe ascetic practices for widows only
for a specific limited period. Vienu and Brhaspati approved of the practice of sati and
even considered it as an ideal for women. The doctrine of the indisolubility of marriage is
found in the Dhrmasutraa. Thus, with the lowering of the position of women, they came
to be considered unfaithful by nature.
The two-great epics-the Ramayana and the Mahabharata, present a galaxy of great
women of Bharatadesa-Sita, Kausalya, Kaikeyi, Drupadi, Savitri and Kunti-some of the
noblest figures who are perfect embodiments of Indian womanhood. Women were
considered pivots not only of domestic life but of the entire society. A maid was not only
an object of tender affection and care at home but her education also was taken care of
and she had important duties as well to perform. A woman was never sacrificed at alter of
marriage. She was also allowed to select her life partner. 'Kanyadan' does not necessarily
mean her lower social status. The sacramental nature of marriage also strengthened the
position of a wife even in a polygamous society. The nucleus of family life was centered
round her and on women dependent the prosperity and future progeny of the family. She
was considered the creator, protector, and educator of her children, Children respected
their parents, particularly the mother. Sons repaired the affection and care of the mother.
Step-mothers also enjoyed equal privileges. Widowed mothers were protected by their
sons, sati was not in vogue then. But women gradually lost this honourable position in
society as well as in family. A few passages both in the Ramayana and the Mahabharata
picture woman as degraded, full of all sorts of faults and blemishes.

Manu-samhita is the compilation of the works of different authors in different times.

Hence the contradictory statements that we find can be explained. The passages of Manu,
which speak highly of woman are in conformity with the Vedic ideology which gives
woman a noble position in society. But later, subjugation of woman came to stay and we
find derogatory references to her. Manu starts with the fundamental principle that 'day
and night women must be kept in dependence by the males of their family. the reason to
protect them were as follows:-

"In view of their inherent wicked character they must.be carefully guarded, specially ny
their husbands, to whom they are naturally disloyal. Even weak husbands sho~lda lways
be careful in guarding the wives. The main reason for the guarding of the wife is to
preserve the purity of the offspring."
In contrast to these observations, women are highly honoured and praised in other
passages by Manu. "There is no difference between the housewife and the goddess of
Fortune", "that home perishes in which the daughter-in-law suffers; homes cursed by
them come to grief."

Manu has laid down certain injunctions for regulating the relation between husband and
wife. The important principle is that the wife should ever remain obedient to her husband,
must never do anything that might displease him, and faithful to his memory after his
death, should not think about any other man, even though the husband is of bad character
seeking pleasure elsewhere he must be constantly worshipped as god by faithful wife.
However a bad wife may at anytime be superseded by another wife. beside the husband
may leave the wife on anyother groung. " A barren wife may be superseded in the eigth
year. she whose all children die in the tenth. She who bears only daughter, in the
eleventh. but she who is quarrelsome, without delay."

The re-marriage of a widow was strongly reprobated by Manu But some of the later
Smriti writers, like Narada took a more generous view and recognized the right of a
widow to marry a second husband. Owing to the growing ascendancy of the ascetic ideal
life for widows, the practice of re-marriage fell into disrepute and at the time of Alberunis
visit India the re-marriage of widows was prohibited by custom. The of Parasara'which
permits the re-marriage of woman clearly contemplates the dissolution of marriage
otherwise than by death. The four other cases in which he holds that a wife is entitled to
re-marry are the disappearance of the husband, his renunciation of the world, impotency
and his expulsion from caste. Arthasastra of Kautilya also declares the right of a woman
to marry another husband under certain circumstances.