Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

436-354 MECHANICS 3
UNIT 2
DYNAMICS
OF
MECHANICAL SYSTEMS
J. M. KRODKIEWSKI
2008
THE UNIVERSITY OF MELBOURNE

Department of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering
1
2
DYNAMICS OF MECHANICAL SYSTEMS
Copyright C 2008 by J.M. Krodkiewski
ISBN 0-7325-1536-X
The University of Melbourne

Department of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering
CONTENTS
I MODELLING 8
1 MODELLING OF MECHANICAL SYSTEMS BY MEANS OF EULER
EQUATIONS 10
1.1 CONSTRAINTS - CLASSIFICATION OF MECHANICAL SYSTEMS. 10
1.1.1 Constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.1.2 Classification of mechanical systems. . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.2 MOBILITY - GENERALIZED COORDINATES. . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.3 NUMBER OF DEGREE OF FREEDOM - DRIVING FORCES. . . . 16
1.4 EQUATIONS OF MOTION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.5 PROBLEMS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2 MODELLING OF MECHANICAL SYSTEMS BY MEANS OF LA-

GRANGE EQUATIONS. 36
2.1 VIRTUAL DISPLACEMENT. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
2.2 VIRTUAL WORK - GENERALIZED FORCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
2.3 IMPRESSED AND CONSTRAINT FORCES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
2.4 PRINCIPLES OF THE VIRTUAL WORK. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
2.4.1 Principle of virtual work for a system in equilibrium. . 46
2.4.2 Principle of virtual work for a system in motion. . . . . 47
2.5 VIRTUAL WORK PERFORMED BY GRAVITY FORCES. . . . . . 47
2.6 PROBLEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
2.7 LAGRANGE’S EQUATIONS OF MOTION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
2.7.1 Properties of a position vector partial derivatives. . . . 75
2.7.2 Lagrange’s equations – general case. . . . . . . . . . . . 75
2.7.3 Lagrange’s equations for conservative forces. . . . . . . 78
2.8 PROBLEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
3 MODELLING AND ANALYSIS OF COLLISIONS. 109

3.1 COLLISION OF TWO UNCONSTRAINED BODIES. . . . . . . . . 109
3.2 COLLISION OF CONSTRAINED BODIES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
3.3 CENTRE OF PERCUSSION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
3.4 PROBLEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
CONTENTS 4
II ANALYSIS. 149
4 ANALYTICAL SOLUTIONS AND THEIR STABILITY. 151
4.1 ANALYTICAL SOLUTION OF EQUATIONS OF MOTION. . . . . 151
4.2 STATE - SPACE FORMULATION OF EQUATIONS OF MOTION. 152
4.3 EQUATIONS OF PERTURBATIONS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
4.4 DEFINITIONS OF STABILITY IN LAPUNOV’S SENSE. . . . . . . 154
4.5 CRITERIA OF STABILITY OF EQUILIBRIUM POSITION. . . . . 157
4.6 PROBLEMS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
5 MODELLING AND ANALYSIS OF A CENTRIFUGE. 161

5.1 MODELLING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
5.1.1 Description of the centrifuge. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
5.1.2 Physical model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
5.1.3 Mathematical model. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
5.2 ANALYSIS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
5.2.1 Space state formulation of equations of motion. . . . . 164
5.2.2 Equilibrium positions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
5.2.3 Equations of perturbation - stability of the equilibrium
positions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
III EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATIONS. 170

6 INVESTIGATION OF THE EFFECT OF A GYROSTABILIZER
ON MOTION OF A SHIP. 172
6.1 DESCRIPTION OF THE GYROSTABILIZER. . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
6.2 MODELLING. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
6.2.1 Physical model. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
6.2.2 Mathematical model. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
6.3 ANALYSIS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
6.4 EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATIONS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
6.4.1 Description of the laboratory installation . . . . . . . . 180
6.4.2 Mathematical model of the laboratory installation. . . 181
6.4.3 Identification of parameters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
6.4.4 Verification of the mathematical model. . . . . . . . . . 185
7 INVESTIGATION OF AN INDICATOR OF ANGULAR VELOC-

ITY. 186
7.1 DESCRIPTION OF THE INDICATOR. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
7.2 MODELLING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
7.2.1 Physical model. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
7.2.2 Mathematical model. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
7.3 ANALYSIS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
7.3.1 Particular solutions. (equilibrium positions). . . . . . . 190
7.3.2 Stability analysis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
CONTENTS 5
7.3.3 Stable and unstable equilibrium positions. . . . . . . . 192

7.4 EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
7.4.1 Description of the laboratory installation. . . . . . . . 197
7.4.2 Identification of the system’s parameters. . . . . . . . . 197
7.4.3 Collection of experimental data. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
CONTENTS 6
INTRODUCTION.
The purpose of this text is to provide the students with the theoretical back-
ground of the three dimensional mechanics of rigid body and its applications to engi-
neering problems existing in mechanical systems. As most of the engineering subjects
this part of mechanics is presented in three parts: Modelling, Analysis and Experi-
mental Investigations (see Fig. 1).
EXPERIENCE AND KNOWLEDGE

D
Y M
MACHINE DYNAMIC PROBLEM
O
N D
A E
L ASSUMPTIONS
M L PHYSICS
I
I N PHYSICAL MODEL
G MECHANICS
C
S MATHEMATICAL MODEL
MATHEMATICS
ANALYTICAL NUMERICAL
O A ANALYSIS ANALYSIS COMPUTATIONAL
N MECHANICS
F
A
L SOLUTION
THEORY
Y OF
M S
STABILITY ANALYSIS STABILITY
I
A S
C DESIGN
SOLUTION OF THE DYNAMIC PROBLEM
TECHNOLOGY
H E I
X N
I P V
E ASSESSEMENT OF ASSUMPTIONS
E S
N R
I T
M I
E E G EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION
N A
T
S T
A I
L O MACHINE DYNAMIC PROBLEM
N
Figure 1
Development of the physical and the mathematical model of the dynamic

problem is the main aim of the first part. In the scope of this text it is assumed that
the dynamic problems exist in machines which can be approximated by a chain of rigid
bodies connecting to each other by means of kinematic constraints. This kinematic
constraints restrict the relative motion of the connecting links. This chain of rigid
bodies (the mechanical system) performs general motion in the three-dimensional
inertial space. The process of creation of the mathematical model (a set of differential
equation) is based upon the Euler and Lagrange Equations.
Solution of the mathematical model and its analysis is the aim of part two.
It allows to predict motion of the mechanical system if the forces acting on the
system are known. If the motion of the system can be assumed known, analysis of
the mathematical model yields driving forces which are necessary to maintain the
assumed motion. The stability analysis provides informations about feasibility of the
solution obtained.
CONTENTS 7
Experimental verification of the developed mathematical models is the main

aim of the last part. Usually it can be accomplished by comparison of the obtained
solution with results of measurements taken from the real objects.
The interaction between the Dynamics of Machines and the other engineering
subjects is shown in Fig. 1.
This text is divided into six chapters. When relevant, chapters are ended with
several engineering problems. Solution to some of them are provided. Solution to
the other problems should be produced by students during tutorials and in their own
time.
Part I
MODELLING
8
9
INTRODUCTION.
In many applications we deal with a number of rigid bodies connected to each
other in some manner.. These connections, called constrains, impose additional con-
ditions on the relative motion of one body with respect to another. Such a constrained
set of rigid bodies forms a mechanical system.
This part is concerned with creation of mathematical models of mechanical
systems.
Chapter 1
MODELLING OF MECHANICAL SYSTEMS BY MEANS OF
EULER EQUATIONS
1.1 CONSTRAINTS - CLASSIFICATION OF MECHANICAL SYSTEMS.

1.1.1 Constraints
The unconstrained rigid body j has six degrees of freedom. Therefore, its relative po-
sition with respect to another body i can be uniquely determined by six independent
coordinates. Usually the six coordinates xi , yi , zi , αx , αy , αz are chosen as shown in
Fig. 1
zj
αz
zi
Oj
αy
xj
αx yj
i
zi
yi
Oi
xi
yi
xi
Figure 1
CONSTRAINTS - CLASSIFICATION OF MECHANICAL SYSTEMS. 11
αz
zi zj
M zij j
R zij i
Oj yi
Oi
yj
yi M xij
R xij
xi αx
xj
Figure 2
If the body is connected to another, the six coordinates are not independent
and we can produce a number of analytical relationships between them. These an-
alytical relationships are called constraint equations. For example, if the two bodies
i and j are connected as shown in Fig. 2, one may produce the following constraint
equations
xi = 0
zi = 0
αz = αx
αy = 0 (1.1)
Since there is NCE = 4 constraint equations, only 6 − NCE = 2 coordinates may

be considered as independent.. In the case considered, yi and αx may be chosen as
independent coordinates.
DEFINITION: The number of independent coordinates c which uniquely
determine the relative position of two constrained bodies is called class of
constraint.
Hence the class of a constraint is determined by formula
c = 6 − NCE (1.2)
Figures 3 to 6 provide more examples of possible constraints, their constraint equa-
tions and class. Figures 2 to 6 show the scalar components of the resultant force Rij
and moment Mij of interaction between those two bodies. By inspection of those
diagrams one can notice that their number r is
r = 6 − c = 6 − (6 − NCE) = NCE (1.3)

αz
zi zj
M zij j
R zij i
Oj yi
Oi
R yij yj
yi =a M xij
xi α x R xij
xj
Figure 3 Constraint equations: xi = 0, yi = a, zi = 0, αx = αz , αy = 0; Number of

constraint equations: NCE = 5; Class: c = 6 − 5 = 1.
zi zj
αz
j
R zij
O i Oj R yij yi
xj αy
αx yi
R xij i
xi
Figure 4 Constraint equations: xi = 0, yi = 0, zi = 0; Number of constraint equations:

NCE = 3; Class: c = 6 − 3 = 3.
zi zj
αz
yj j
R zij
OOii Oj yi
αy
αx i yj
xj R xij
xi
Figure 5 Constraint equations: xi = 0, zi = 0, Number of constraint equations:

NCE = 2; Class: c = 6 − 2 = 4.
zj
αz
zi j
R zij
Oj
Oi αy
xj αx zi yi
xi
yi yj
xi
Figure 6 Constraint equations: zi = a Number of constraint equations: NCE = 1;

Class: c = 6 − 1 = 5.
1.1.2 Classification of mechanical systems.

All constraint equations corresponding to the constraints considered in the previous
paragraph were not dependent on derivatives of coordinates involved.
DEFINITION: If all constraint equations of a mechanical system are not
dependent on derivative of coordinates involved, the mechanical system is
called holonomic system.
DEFINITION: If at least one constraint equation of a mechanical system
is dependent on derivative of a coordinate involved, the mechanical system
is called nonholonomic system.
zj
αz
zi j
a
Rzij
Oj ω yi
Oi αy
xj αx zi yi
xi
yi ω xi yj
xi A R yij
i
R xij
Figure 7
To show difference between holonomic and nonholonomic system let us con-

sider constraint shown in Fig. 7. If we assume that there is no friction between surface
of the plane and sphere, we can produce only one constraint equation, namely
zi = a (1.4)
Hence, there are five independent coordinates which may be chosen as xi , yi , αx , αy ,

αz . But, if we assume that the ball rolls over the plane without slipping, the five
coordinates are not independent, and one has to produce constraint equations which
reflect the fact that the relative velocity of the contact point Aj with respect to the
point Ai is equal to 0.
vAj,Ai = ii ẋi + ji ẏi + ωj,i × rAj,Oj

¯ ¯
¯ ii ji ki ¯
¯ ¯
¯
= ii ẋi + ji ẏi + ¯ ωj,ixi ω j,iyi ωj,izi ¯=0 (1.5)
¯
¯ 0 0 −a ¯
MOBILITY - GENERALIZED COORDINATES. 15
The above vector equation yields two scalar constraint equations
ẋi − ω j,iyi (αx , αy , αz , α̇x , α̇y , α̇z ) · a = 0

ẏi + ωj,ixi (αx , αy , αz , α̇x , α̇y , α̇z ) · a = 0 (1.6)
Therefore, in this case, class of this constrain is c = 3. The constraint equations

1.6 depend on time derivatives of the coordinates involved, therefore the system
comprising such a constraint is nonholonomic.
1.2 MOBILITY - GENERALIZED COORDINATES.

Let us consider a mechanical system which comprises n rigid bodies connected to
each other by p constraints. Among the p constraints there is p1 constraints of class
c = 1, p2 constraints of class c = 2, p3 of class c = 3, p4 of class c = 4 and p5 of class
c = 5. Evidently,
p = p1 + p2 + p3 + p4 + p5 (1.7)
Unconnected bodies of the mechanical system would have 6n degree of freedom.
Since each constraint of class c takes away from the system considered 6 − c degree
of freedom, the number of degree of freedom which is left after imposition of the p
constraints is
MO = 6n − (6 − 1)p1 − (6 − 2)p2 − (6 − 3)p3 − (6 − 4)p4 − (6 − 5)p5

MO = 6n − 5p1 − 4p2 − 3p3 − 2p4 − 1p5 (1.8)
DEFINITION: The number MO determined by the formula 1.8 is called

mobility.
As an example let us consider mechanical system presented in Fig. 8.
NUMBER OF DEGREE OF FREEDOM - DRIVING FORCES. 16
z2
q5
q3 z1
Z r2
x1 o2
x2
r q4
r1
q2 y2
O ro
X q1
o1
y1
Y
Figure 8
The system is assembled of n = 2 moving links connected by p = 2 constraints.

There is one constraint of class 2 (p2 = 1) and one constraint of class 3 (p3 = 1).
Hence, its mobility according to Eq. 1.8 is
MO = 6 · 2 − 4 · 1 − 3 · 1 = 5
The mobility MO is equal to number of independent coordinates which must be in-

troduced to determine uniquely a position of the system considered in the inertial
space. These independent coordinates are called generalized coordinates.
DEFINITION: Independent coordinates which uniquely determine posi-
tion of a mechanical system with respect to the inertial space are called
generalized coordinates.
Figure 8 shows one of the possible introductions of the five generalized coordinates q1 ,
q2 , q3 , q4 , q5 . Kinematics provides methods which allow position vector of any point
of mechanical system to be expressed in terms of the MO generalized coordinates.
r = r(q1 , q2 , .....qMO ) (1.9)
1.3 NUMBER OF DEGREE OF FREEDOM - DRIVING FORCES.

In some practical applications, often we need to assume that motion along some of
the generalized coordinates is given as an explicit function of time. Let L < MO be
number of coordinates along which motion of the system is known. In this case the
number of degree of freedom of the system is reduced by L. Hence, the actual number
of degree of freedom is
M = MO − L (1.10)
EQUATIONS OF MOTION. 17
The above assumption requires introduction of L independent forces which assure the
assumed motion along the L coordinates. These unknown forces are called driving
forces. In the considered case, each position vector can be expressed by M generalized
coordinates and time t.
r = r(q1 , q2 , qM , t) (1.11)
DEFINITION: If all possible points of a mechanical system have positions

vector of form 1.9, the system is called scleronomic.
DEFINITION: If at least one point of a mechanical system has position
vector of form 1.11, the system is called rheonomic.
1.4 EQUATIONS OF MOTION.

The carried out in the previous section discussion leads to conclusion that for any
mechanical system assembled of n rigid bodies we deal with
M – unknown functions representing a motion along M generalized coordi-
nates qm ,
L –P unknown driving forces Fd ,
r = 5i=1 pi (6 − i) – number of unknown scalar components at p constraints.
Hence, the total number of all unknowns is
X
5
T NU = M + L + pi (6 − i)
i=1
= MO + 5p1 + 4p2 + 3p3 + 2p4 + 1p5 (1.12)
Upon introducing Eq. 1.8 into Eq. 1.12) we have
T NU = 6n − 5p1 − 4p2 − 3p3 − 2p4 − 1p5 + 5p1 + 4p2 + 3p3 + 2p4 + 1p5
= 6n (1.13)
On the other hand, we may produce n free body diagrams for each body separately.
An example of such a free body diagram ,corresponding to body 1 (see Fig. 8), is
given in Fig. 9.
EQUATIONS OF MOTION. 18
R 12z
z1 y1
R 12y
1
ωG
R 10z R 12x
M 10z R G vG
10y
M 10y
m1g x1
Figure 9
Always we are able to produce for each body involved six equations having
the following form
m(v̇Gx + vGz ω y − vGy ω z ) = Fx

m(v̇Gy + vGx ω z − vGz ω x ) = Fy
m(v̇Gz + vGy ω x − vGx ω y ) = Fz (1.14)
IGx ω̇ x + (IGz − IGy )ω z ω y = MGz

IGy ω̇ y + (IGx − IGz )ω x ωz = MGy
IGz ω̇z + (IGy − IGx )ω y ωx = MGz (1.15)
Kinematics (Chap. 2) provides methods which permit the kinematic parameters vG

and ωG to be expressed as functions of the M unknown generalized coordinates qm
and time t.
vG = vG (q1 ...qm ....qM , q̇1 ...q̇m ....q̇M , t)

ω = ω(q1 ...qm ....qM , q̇1 ...q̇m ....q̇M , t) (1.16)
Since the system considered is assembled of n bodies we are able to generate 6n

equations with 6n unknown. These equations are linear with respect to the 6n − M
unknown components of reactions and driving forces. Therefore always it is possible
to eliminate them and produce M differential equations known as differential equation
of motion of a mechanical system. Their solution represents motion of the system
considered. Upon introducing this solution into the remaining equations one can
obtain expressions for all reactions and driving forces.
PROBLEMS. 19
1.5 PROBLEMS.
Problem 1
Z z1 z2
ω A
y1
a β
y2
G
1
Md 2
Figure 10
A uniform and rigid rod 2 of length l and mass m is hinged at A to the link 1
as shown in the figure 10. The link 1, which can be considered as massless is driven
by a motor. Its driving moment depend on angular speed of the link 1 ω and can be
approximated by the following function
Md = Mo − ∆Mω (1.17)
Derive equations of motion of the system and solve them for the following initial
conditions
β(0) = 0, β̇(0) = 0, ω(0) = 0 (1.18)
PROBLEMS. 20
Solution.
KINEMATIC ANALYSIS.
O
y1
α
Y
X x1
Z z1 z2
j1 a A
y1
rG
- k2 l l
ω 2
β y2
G
1 2
Figure 11
The system considered has two degrees of freedom. Its instantaneous position
can be uniquely determined by two independent coordinates α and β ( see Fig. 11).
Angular velocity of the system of coordinates x1 y1 z1
ω1 = k1 α̇ (1.19)
Angular velocity of the system of coordinates x2 y2 z2
ω 2 = ω1 + ω21 = k1 α̇ + i2 β̇ (1.20)
Its components along system of coordinates x2 y2 z2 are
ω 2x2 = ω2 · i2 = k1 · i2 α̇ + i2 · i2 β̇ = β̇
ω 2y2 = ω2 ·j2 = k1 ·j2 α̇ + i2 ·j2 β̇ = α̇ sin β
ω2z2 = ω2 ·k2 = k1 ·k2 α̇ + i2 ·k2 β̇ = α̇ cos β (1.21)
Position vector of the centre of gravity of the link 2 is
rG = j1 a − k2 ( 12 l) (1.22)
PROBLEMS. 21
rGx2 = rG ·i2 = j1 ·i2 a − k2 ·i2 ( 12 l) = 0

rGy2 = rG ·j2 = j1 ·j2 a − k2 ·j2 ( 12 l) = a cos β
rGz2 = rG ·k2 = j1 ·k2 a − k2 ·k2 ( 12 l) = −a sin β − 12 l (1.23)
Absolute velocity of the centre of gravity
vG = ṙG = r0G + ω2 ×rG

¯ ¯
¯ i2 j2 k2 ¯
¯ ¯
¯
= j2 (−aβ̇ sin β) + k2 (−aβ̇ cos β) + ¯ β̇ α̇ sin β α̇ cos β ¯
¯
¯ 0 a cos β −a sin β − 1 l ¯
2
= i2 (−aα̇ − 2l α̇ sin β) + j2 ( 2l β̇) + k2 (0) (1.24)
Hence, its components along x2 y2 z2 are
vGx2 = −aα̇ − 2l α̇ sin β

vGy2 = 2l β̇
vGz2 = 0 (1.25)
KINETIC ANALYSIS.
The link 2 performs a general motion. Hence, its motion is governed by

unmodified Euler’s equations.
m(v̇Gx2 + vGz2 ω y2 − vGy2 ωz2 ) = F2x2

m(v̇Gy2 + vGx2 ωz2 − vGz2 ω x2 ) = F2y2
m(v̇Gz2 + vGy2 ω x2 − vGx2 ω y2 ) = F2z2 (1.26)
Ix2 ω̇x2 + (Iz2 − Iy2 )ωy2 ω z2 = M2x2

Iy2 ω̇y2 + (Ix2 − Iz2 )ω x2 ω z2 = M2y2
Iz2 ω̇ z2 + (Iy2 − Ix2 )ωx2 ωy2 = M2z2 (1.27)
Since,
Ix2 = Iy2 = I = ml2 /12 and Iz2 = 0 (1.28)
the last three equations may be rewritten in form 1.29
I(ω̇ x2 − ωy2 ωz2 ) = M2x2

I(ω̇ y2 + ωx2 ωz2 ) = M2y2
0 = M2z2 (1.29)
Kinematic parameters as function of the generalized coordinates are given by formulae

1.21 and 1.25.
PROBLEMS. 22
Components of the resultant force and the resultant moment can be obtained
from the free body diagram of the body 2 shown in Fig. 12
z2
MA z
2
R Az
2
MA y
A 2
R Ax R Ay
2 2
M A x=0
2
β
G y2
mg
Figure 12
According to Fig. 12 the components of resultant force are
F2x2 = RAx2 (1.30)

F2y2 = RAy2 − mg sin β (1.31)
F2z2 = RAz2 − mg cos β (1.32)
and the components of resultant moment are
M2x2 = −RAy2 ( 12 l) (1.33)

M2y2 = RAx2 ( 12 l) + MAy2 (1.34)
M2z2 = MAz2 (1.35)
The link 1 (see Fig. 13) is considered as massless (I1z = 0), therefore the component
of resultant moment along axis z1 M1z1 must be equal to zero (see free body diagram
in Fig. 1d).
M1z1 = Md − MAz2 cos β − MAy2 sin β + RAx2 a = 0 (1.36)
The last equation yields an expression for MAy2 .
MAy2 = Md / sin β − MAz2 cot β + RAx2 a/ sin β (1.37)
Upon introducing Eq’s. 1.30, 1.35 and 1.37 into Eq. 1.34 one can obtain
M2y2 = F2x2 (l/2 + a/ sin β) − M2z2 cot β + Md / sin β (1.38)

PROBLEMS. 23
Z z1 z2 R A x
2
A MA =0
x 2
O
y1
R Ay R Az
2
MA y 2
2 MA z
Md β 2
y2
MCz=0 R Cz
1 1
C
R Cy M Cy
R Cx 1 1
MCx1
1 1
Figure 13
Introduction of Eq. 1.31 into Eq. 1.33 yields
M2x2 = −F2y2 (l/2) − mg(l/2) sin β (1.39)
Introduction of Eq’s. 1.21 and 1.25 into Eq’s. 1.26 and 1.29 yields
F2x2 = m(−aα̈ − (l/2)α̈ sin β − lα̇β̇ cos β)

F2y2 = m((l/2)β̈ − a(α̇)2 cos β − (l/2)(α̇2 ) sin β cos β)
F2z2 = m((l/2)(β̇)2 + a(α̇)2 sin β + (l/2)(α̇)2 sin2 β) (1.40)
M2x2 = I(β̈ − (α̇)2 sin β cos β)

M2y2 = I(α̈ sin β + 2α̇β̇ cos β)
M2z2 = 0 (1.41)
Introduction of Eq’s. 1.40, 1.41 and 1.17 into Eq’s. 1.38 and 1.39 yields the wanted
equations of motion in the following form.
0 = (ma2 )α̈ + (I + m(l/2)2 )α̈ sin2 β + malα̈ sin β

+(2I + m(l2 /2))α̇β̇ sin β cos β + mlaα̇β̇ cos β − (Mo − ∆M α̇)
0 = (I + m(l/2)2 )β̈ − (I + m(l/2)2 )α̇2 sin β cos β
−ma(l/2)α̇2 cos β + mg(l/2) sin β (1.42)
Since the above equations do not depend on α it is easy to lower their order by
introduction of ω and ω̇ instead of α̇ and α̈ respectively.
0 = (ma2 )ω̇ + (I + m(l/2)2 )ω̇ sin2 β + malω̇ sin β

+(2I + m(l2 /2))ωβ̇ sin β cos β + mlaω β̇ cos β − (Mo − ∆Mω)
0 = (I + m(l/2)2 )β̈ − (I + m(l/2)2 )ω2 sin β cos β
−ma(l/2)ω 2 cos β + mg(l/2) sin β (1.43)
PROBLEMS. 24
Solution of equations 1.43 yields motion of the system. The equations 1.43 were
numerically integrated for m = 5kg, a = 0.2m, l = 0.4m, Mo = 1Nm and ∆M =
0.2Nms. The time diagrams of the angular displacement β of the arm 2 and the
centrifuge angular velocity ω is shown in Fig. 14 and Fig. 15 respectively. The system
tends to an equilibrium position (β o = 0.75rad and ωo = 5rad/s). This equilibrium
position can be alternatively obtained by solution of Eq. 1.43 for ω = ω o =constant
and β = β o =constant.
(Mo − ∆Mωo ) = 0
2
−(I + m(l/2) )ω 2o sin β o cos β o − ma(l/2)ω 2o cos β o + mg(l/2) sin β o = 0
(1.44)
1.6
1.2
0.8
β
[rad]
0.4
0.0
-0.4
0.0 4 8 12 16 20
t[sec]
Figure 14
10
8.0
6.0
ω
[rad/s]
4.0
2.0
0.0
0.0 4 8 12 16 20
t[sec]
Figure 15
PROBLEMS. 25
Problem 2
z1 r z2
Ω
ω G 3
y2 β b
y1
B
2
l
1
A
Figure 16
The wheel 3 of mass m rotates with a constant relative angular velocity Ω

about axis z2 . The massless axle BG is hinged at B to a vertical shaft 1 which
rotates with a constant angular speed ω. Determine equilibrium position β o of the
axle BG.
Given are: Ω, ω, b, l, m, r
PROBLEMS. 26
Solution.
x1 X
Y
y1 ω
t
O
3 Z z1 r z2
2
Ω
ω G
y2 β b
y1
B3 mg
B
l
A
1
Figure 17
It is easy to notice that the point B3 which belong to the link 3 is motionless
with respect to the inertial frame XY Z. Hence, motion of the link 3 may be con-
sidered as the rotational one about point B (see Fig. 17). Because z2 is the axis of
symmetry of this link, the modified Euler’s equation can be applied.
.
I ω2x2 + (Iz2 − I)ω2y2 ω z2 + Iz2 Ωω 2y2 = Mx2
.
I ω 2y2 − (Iz2 − I)ω2x2 ω z2 − Iz2 Ωω 2x2 = My2
. .
Iz2 (ω2z2 + Ω) = Mz2 (1.45)
In the case considered the relative angular velocity of the body 3 with respect to the
rotating system of coordinates x2 y2 z2 is
Ω = k2 Ω (1.46)
Angular velocity of the system of coordinates x2 y2 z2 is
ω2 = ω 1 +ω 21 = k1 ω + i1 β̇ = i2 β̇ + j2 ω sin β + k2 ω cos β (1.47)
Moments of inertia of the body 3 about axis x2 z2 y2 are
mr2
Iz2 =
2
r2 1
I = Ix2 = Iy2 = IG + ml2 = m( + b2 ) + ml2
4 12
r2 1
= m( + b2 + l2 ) (1.48)
4 12
PROBLEMS. 27
z1 z1
z2
y2
M32y2 G
M32z2
R 32y2 R32z
2
β
y1 B3 R32x2 M32x2 x1
mg B x2
l
Figure 18
z1 z1
z2
y2 M21z1 M21z1
R 21z1
β
y1 M21y1 R 21y1 M32x2 R32x2 R 21x1 x1
B B x2
R 32y2
R32z
2
M32z2 M32y2
Figure 19
PROBLEMS. 28
Components of the resultant moment due to external forces acting on the link 3,
according to the free body diagram shown in Fig. 18 are
Mx2 = M32x2 + mgl sin β

My2 = M32y2
Mz2 = M32z2 (1.49)
The free body diagram of the link 2, shown in Fig. 19, yields the following relation-
ships.
M32x2 = 0
M32y2 = M21y1 cos β + M21z1 sin β
M32z2 = −M21y1 sin β + M21z1 cos β (1.50)
Mx2 = mgl sin β

My2 = M21y1 cos β + M21z1 sin β
Mz2 = −M21y1 sin β + M21z1 cos β (1.51)
Introduction of Eq’s. 1.47, 1.48 and 1.51 into the Euler’s equation 1.45 yields
I β̈ + (Iz2 − I)ω 2 sin β cos β + Iz2 Ωω sin β = mgl sin β (1.52)

Iω β̇ cos β − (Iz2 − I)β̇ω cos β − Iz2 Ωβ̇ = M21y1 cos β + M21z1 sin β
(1.53)
Iz2 (−β̇ω sin β) = −M21y1 sin β + M21z1 cos β
(1.54)
In the case of given ω and Ω the equation 1.52 allow to obtain motion β as a function
of time. It is called equation of motion. The particular solution of Eq. 1.52 which
corresponds to β̈ = β̇ = 0 determines equilibrium position β o .
((Iz2 − I)ω 2 cos β o + Iz2 Ωω − mgl) sin β o = 0 (1.55)
Roots of the above equation are as follow

mgl − Iz2 Ωω
β o = 0, β o = 180o , β o = arccos (1.56)
(Iz2 − I)ω2
Equations 1.53 and 1.54 determine the interaction moments (M21y1 , M21z1 ) between
the link 2 and 1 as functions of time. Then, the equations 1.50 allow the interaction
moments (M32y1 , M32z1 ) between link 3 and 2 to be determined. Moments M21z1
and M32z1 are the driving moments which one has to apply to the link 1 and 3 to
keep them going with the assumed velocities ω and Ω respectively.
PROBLEMS. 29
Problem 3
z
Ω
1 ω
y
A A
G a G
2 R
3
b α
Figure 20
To test the gyroscope which is commonly used for the stabilization of the
operating theatre of a hospital ship, it was mounted on a rigid foundation as shown
in Fig. 20. The gyroscope 1 rotates with a constant rotating speed Ω relative to
the housing 2, and the housing 2 is driven by the electric motor 3. Determine the
reaction at bearing A if the motor turns the housing 2 with the constant angular
speed ω. The centre of gravity the gyroscope are at their axes of rotation as shown
in the Fig. 20. The housing 2 may be considered as massless.
Given are:
Ω = 1000rad/s,
ω = 1rad/s,
a = 1m,
b = 2m,
R = 0.8m
Iz = 100kgm2 , Ix = Iy = 70kgm2 – principal moments of inertia of the
gyroscope about axes through its centre of gravity,
α = 45o .
PROBLEMS. 30
Problem 4
C
1
A
2 ω21 l
Figure 21
A uniform and thin bar 2 of mass m and length l is hinged to link 1 at A.

The link 1 rotates with a constant angular acceleration ε. The relative angular speed
of the link 2 with respect to the link 1 is constant and is equal to ω 21 . Determine
reactions at the hinge A and C as well as the necessary driving moments.
PROBLEMS. 31
Problem 5
y1
Z, z1
α
Y
X x1
z2
z1
Z, z1
A
y1 x1
A
a l
G
1 β
2 x2
Figure 22
Fig. 22 shows a mechanical system. Its link 1 is free to rotate about the
vertical axis Z of the inertial system of coordinates XY Z. Moment of inertia of the
link 1 about axis Z is I1Z . The link 2 of the system is hinged to the link 1 at the
point A as shown in Fig. 22. Distance between the point A and axis of rotation
Z is a. Distance between the centre of gravity G and the point A is equal to l.
Axes x2 , y2 , z2 are principal axis of inertia of the link 2 and the principal moments of
inertia about these axes are respectively I2x2 , I2y2 , I2z2 . Mass of the link 2 is equal to
m. Derive equations of motion of the system assuming that the angles α and β are
the generalized coordinates.
PROBLEMS. 32
Problem 6
Z
z
3 c
1 y
2 A
d
G
B α Y
v 4
β a
b l
Figure 23
The anti-pollution bus 3, shown in Fig. 23, moves in the vertical plane Y Z of
the inertial system of coordinates XY Z. The rear wheels 2 of the bus 3 are driven
with the constant linear velocity v by the flywheel 1. When this bus is moving over
the hump 4 its angular velocity about axis x is
v sin α
β̇ =
l cos(α − β)
The angular velocity of the gyroscope 1 about axis z is variable. At the position β
its magnitude is equal to Ω and its time derivative is Ω̇. Mass of the gyroscope is
m and its principal moments of inertia about system of coordinates xyz through its
centre of gravity are Ix = Iy = I and Iz respectively.
1. Determine interaction forces between the gyroscope 1 and the bus at the
constraints A and B as a function of β .
2. Prove that the angular velocity β̇ of the bus is determined by the above
formula.
PROBLEMS. 33
Problem 7
z L S
G
x Y
Z
y y F
ω
a b α
z L O x
A G B
R
1 4
2 3
Figure 24
The arm 1 of the crane shown in Fig. 24 rotates with the angular velocity ω
about the inertial axis Z. In the same time the carriage 2 moves along the arm 1
and its relative motion is determined by the position vectors S and L. The electrical
motor 4 drives the drum 3. The driving force produced by this motor is F. The drum
may be considered as a symmetric rigid body of mass m and the principal moments
of inertia along the system of coordinates xyz are respectively Ix = Iy = I. Iz .
Produce:
1. equation of motion of the drum
2. expressions for the interaction forces between the drum and the carriage
Given are: S, L(t), ω(t), m, I, , F, a, R, a, b
PROBLEMS. 34
Problem 8
z1 z2
α
2
1 G2
A
X
l
x1
Figure 25
The massless link 1 of the mechanical system shown in Fig. 25 can rotate
about the horizontal axis Y of the inertial system of coordinates XY Z only. Its
motion is determined by the following function
α = a sin ωt
The system of coordinates x1 y1 z1 is attached to the link 1. The link 2 possesses mass
m and its principal moments of inertia about the axes through its centre of gravity
G2 are Ix2 = Iyy2 = I and Iz2 . The relative angular velocity of the link 2 with respect
to the link 1 is determined by the following function
Ω = Ω0 sin W t
Produce:
1. the expression for the interaction forces at the constraint A.
Answer: Forces and moments acting on the base.
RAx1 = −aω 2 lm sin ωt − mg sin α
RAy1 = 0
RAz1 = −a2 ω 2 lm cos2 ωt + mg sin α
MAx1 = Iz2 Ω0 aω sin W t cos ωt
MAz1 = Iz2 (−ΩW cos W t)
2. the expression for the driving moment that must be applied the link 1
MAy1 = MAY = (I + ml2 )aω 2 sin ωt + mgl sin α
PROBLEMS. 35
Problem 9
O
α z 11
Y Z
y 11
x 12 X x 11
a
Ω z 12
G2
2 β
O
z 11
Md
Figure 26
The housing of the ventilator shown in Fig. 26 is fixed to its base at the
constant angle β to form one rigid body 1. The instantaneous position of the body 1
with respect to the inertial system of coordinates XY Z is determined by the angular
displacement α.
α = A sin ωt (1.57)
The rotor 2 of this ventilator rotates with respect to its housing with the constant
angular velocity Ω.
Given are:
I1 - moment of inertia of the body 1 about axis X.
Ix = Iy = I, Iz - the principal moments of inertia of the rotor 2
m - mass of the rotor 2
a, A, Ω, ω, β - given constant parameters
Produce the expression for the driving moment Md that must be applied to the base
1 to assure its motion according to the equation 1.57.
Answer:
Md = I1 (−Aω 2 sin ωt) − IAω 2 sin ωt cos2 β − Iz Aω2 sin ωt sin2 β
Chapter 2
MODELLING OF MECHANICAL SYSTEMS BY MEANS OF
LAGRANGE EQUATIONS.
In the previous chapter it has been shown that dynamic problems can be solved
by decomposition of a mechanical system into individual rigid bodies and then by
application of equations of motion corresponding to each body, equations of motion
of the whole system may be formulated. Such a treatment of mechanical systems is
called Euler’s approach.
Equations of motion of mechanical system, in many cases, can be formulated
without the need of decomposition of the system considered. They can be derived
from expressions for the kinetic energy function of the system, its potential energy
function and the virtual work performed by external forces acting on it. Such an
approach is called Lagrange’s approach.
2.1 VIRTUAL DISPLACEMENT.

From previous consideration we remember that in case of holonomic and scleronomic
systems a position vector rn of a particle n (see Fig. 1) can be expressed as a function
of M generalized coordinates q1 , ....qm , .....qM .
rn = rn (q1 , q2 , ....qM ) (2.1)
Infinitesimal displacement drn of the particle n, corresponding to infinitesimal incre-

ment of time dt can be calculated according to the total differential formula.
XM
∂rn
drn = dqm (2.2)
m=1
∂qm
If qm would be determined in time, its infinitesimal displacement dqm would have

form
∂qm
dqm = dt (2.3)
∂t
and the formula 2.2, in that case, determines the ’true’ infinitesimal displacement of
the particle n. But, the generalized coordinates, at the present stage, are considered
as independent coordinates and do not have to be obeyed to the formula 2.3. They
may be chosen arbitrarily but must be consistent with constraints of the system.
VIRTUAL DISPLACEMENT. 37
z2
n
q5
q3 z1
Z r2
x1 o2
x2
rn
r1 q4
q2 y2
O ro
X q1
o1
y1
Y
Figure 1
Such infinitesimal increments of generalized coordinates are called virtual dis-

placements and are denoted by δqm to distinguish them from the ’true’ ones dqm .
Hence, the virtual displacement of the particle n may be expressed as follows
XM
∂rn
δrn = δqm (2.4)
m=1
∂qm
In case of holonomic and rheonomic systems the infinitesimal displacement of a par-

ticle n is
XM
∂rn ∂rn
drn = dqm + dt (2.5)
m=1
∂qm ∂t
The virtual displacement is calculated under additional assumption that at the instant
considered motion determined as explicit function of time along coordinates ql (t) is
ceased. Hence,
∂rn
dt = 0 (2.6)
∂t
and the virtual displacement is determined by formula (2.4)
PM ∂rn
δrn = m=1 ∂qm δqm (2.7)
Figure 2 presents a simple system which configuration is determined by two gen-

eralized coordinates q1 and q2 . If both coordinates are independent, the system is
scleronomic and virtual displacement of point P is shown in Fig. 3.If, for example, q1
is determined in time (q1 = q1 (t)) the system is rheonomic. Figure 4. gives graphical
interpretation of virtual displacement for that case.
q2
x
rn
O
o
q1
X
Y
y
Figure 2
q2
δ q2
rn q
Z
δ
q1 1
rn q
δ
q2 2
x δ rn
rn
O
o
q1
X δ q1
Y
y
Figure 3
q
2
δ q2
Z
rn
δ q = rn
x
rn q2 2 δ
O
o
q1 (t)
X
Y
y
Figure 4
VIRTUAL WORK - GENERALIZED FORCE 40
2.2 VIRTUAL WORK - GENERALIZED FORCE

Consider a mechanical system shown in Fig. 5. Let us assume that the system has
M degree of freedom and its motions is caused by a set of forces F1 , F2 , ..Fn ..FN . Let
rn be the position vector of the point of application of the force Fn in the inertial
system of coordinates XY Z.
Fn
Z
Fn
z2
n
q5
q3 Fn Y z1
Fn X
Z r2
x1 o2
x2
rn
r1 q4
rn
Z
q2 rn y2
Y
O ro
X q1 rn
o1 X
y1 Y
Figure 5
DEFINITION: The expression
δWn = Fn · δrn (2.8)
is called virtual work performed by a force Fn on the virtual displacement

δrn .
The virtual work performed by all forces is
X
N X
N
δW = δWn = Fn · δrn (2.9)
n=1 n=1
If the system has M degree of freedom, there exists M generalized coordinates

{q1 , q2 , ..qm , ..qM } and each of the position vectors rn can be expressed as a func-
tion of these coordinates.
rn = rn (q1 , q2 ..qM , t) (2.10)
VIRTUAL WORK - GENERALIZED FORCE 41
Taking into account that the virtual displacement is
XM
∂rn
δrn = δqm (2.11)
m=1
∂qm
the expression for the virtual work 2.9 may by rewritten in form
X
N X
M
∂rn
δW = Fn · ( δqm )
n=1 m=1
∂qm
X
N X
M
∂rn
= Fn · δqm
n=1 m=1
∂qm
XM X N
∂rn
= Fn · δqm
m=1 n=1
∂qm
XM X N
∂rn
= δqm ( Fn · )
m=1 n=1
∂qm
XM X N
∂rn
= ( Fn · )δqm (2.12)
m=1 n=1
∂qm
P
DEFINITION: The expression N ∂rn
n=1 Fn · ∂qm ( in the equation 2.12 it is inside
the bracket ) is called generalized force.
The generalised force is usually denoted by Qm .
PN ∂rn
Qm = n=1 Fn · ∂qm
(2.13)
Decomposition of the force Fn and the position vector rn along axes of the system of
coordinates XY Z yields
rn = IrnX + JrnY + KrnZ (2.14)
Fn = IFnX + JFnY + KFnZ (2.15)
Introducing Eq’s. 2.14) and 2.15 into Eq. 2.13 one may obtain
PN ∂rnX
Qm = n=1 (FnX ∂qm + FnY ∂rnY
∂qm
+ FnZ ∂rnZ
∂qm
) (2.16)
As can be seen from the above expression, the generalized force is a scalar magnitude.
The product Qm δqm represents the virtual work done by all forces acting on the system
on displacements corresponding to δqm 6= 0 on assumption that all the others virtual
displacements are equal to 0.)
IMPRESSED AND CONSTRAINT FORCES. 42
2.3 IMPRESSED AND CONSTRAINT FORCES.

For further analysis it is convenient to distinguish forces that produce the virtual
work equal to zero from forces that produce the virtual force not equal to zero.
DEFINITION: Forces that produce the virtual work equal to zero are
called constraint forces and will be denoted by R.
DEFINITION: Forces that, in general, produce non-zero virtual work are
called impressed forces and will be denoted by F.
It will be shown that the following forces produce the virtual work equal to
zero.
1. interaction forces between the particles the individual links are made of
2. interaction forces between individual links
3. driving forces
1. The virtual work produced by the interaction forces between the
particles the individual links are made of
O Y
ri δ ri Fij
X
rj
rij i
δ rij
j
Figure 6
Let us calculate the virtual work produced by the interaction forces between
particles which belong to the same link. Particle i (see Fig. 6) interacts with all the
other particles the body is made of. Therefore the virtual work done by forces acting
on the particle i is
XN
δWi = Fij · δri (2.17)
j=1
The virtual work done by forces acting on all N particles the body is made of can be
expressed by the following formula.
X
N X
N
δW = Fij · δri (2.18)
i=1 j=1
To show that the virtual work δW is equal to 0, let us consider the virtual work done
by interaction forces between the particle i and the particle j.
δWij = Fij · δri + Fji · δrj

= Fij · δri − Fij · δrj
= Fij · (δri − δrj )
= Fij · δrij = 0 (2.19)
Since rij has a constant length, the vector δrij is always perpendicular to the vector
Fij . Hence, because the expression 2.18 is assembled of terms 2.19, one may conclude
that
δW = 0 (2.20)
2.The virtual force produced by the interaction forces between individual
links.
RAi
δ rAij
δ rA
j
j
δ rA
i
A
Z
rA
R Aj
O Y
X
Figure 7
Now let us calculate the virtual work performed by constraint forces between
two links i and j shown in Fig. 7. If friction between those two links is neglected,
direction of a constraint force RiA , representing reaction of the link j on the link i,
is always perpendicular to the slide i. Let δriA be virtual displacement of the link i
at point of application A of the force RiA . Hence the virtual work performed by this
force is
δW i = RiA · δriA (2.21)
Similarly, the virtual work performed by RjA is
δW j = RjA · δrjA (2.22)

The total virtual work done by both forces is
δW = δW i + δW j
= RiA · δriA + RjA · δrjA
= RiA · (δriA − δrjA )
= RiA · δrij
A (2.23)
But, the relative virtual displacement δrij

A is always tangential to the slide i, hence
the total virtual work δW must be equal to zero.
δW = 0 (2.24)
j i
A δ rAj
Z
rA R Aj
O Y
X
Figure 8
When rheonomic system is considered, some of its links has motion assumed to
be known. Let us assume that link i has motion determined by an explicit function of
time (see Fig. 8). Because the virtual displacements are calculated under assumption
that motion given by explicit functions of time is ceased, the virtual displacement of
the point of application of reaction RjA is always tangential to the slide i. Hence the
virtual work performed by that reaction must be equal to zero.
δW j = RjA · δrjA = 0 (2.25)

3. The virtual work produced by the driving forces
j i
z A F di
F dj
Z z
rA j=δ
δ rA rA
i
O Y
X
Figure 9
Let us assume that the relative motion between the link i and the link j along
the axis z is by assumption known. Hence we have to apply to the link i and the link
j two driving forces Fid and Fjd (see Fig 9). The virtual work produced by these two
forces is
δW = Fid · δriA + Fjd · δrjA (2.26)
Since the virtual displacements correspond to the ’frozen’ links,
δriA = δrjA (2.27)
Therefore ¡ ¢
δW = Fid + Fjd · δriA = 0 · δriA = 0
The above results can be obtained for any possible constraints.
PRINCIPLES OF THE VIRTUAL WORK. 46
2.4 PRINCIPLES OF THE VIRTUAL WORK.

2.4.1 Principle of virtual work for a system in equilibrium.
n mn
Rn
Fn
Z rn
O Y
X
Figure 10
If a mechanical system is in an equilibrium, each of particle the system is made up

fulfills its equilibrium conditions (see Fig. 10).
Rn + Fn = 0 n = 1, 2, ......N (2.28)
In the above equation Rn is resultant of all constraint forces acting on a particle
n, Fn stands for resultant of all impressed forces acting on a particle n and N is
number of particles the system is made up. Multiplying the above equation by virtual
displacement of the particle n one may obtain expression for virtual work.
δWn = Rn · δrn + Fn · δrn = 0 (2.29)
Hence, virtual work performed by all forces acting on the system must be 0 as well.
X
N X
N
δW = Rn · δrn + Fn · δrn = 0 (2.30)
n=1 n=1
But, the virtual work performed the constraint forces is equal to zero
X
N
Rn · δrn = 0 (2.31)
n=1
Therefore the virtual work is produced by the impressed forces only.
X
N
δW = Fn · δrn = 0 (2.32)
n=1
VIRTUAL WORK PERFORMED BY GRAVITY FORCES. 47
The last formula permits to formulate the following statement.

STATEMENT: A holonomic and scleronomic system with perfect con-
straints is in its equilibrium if and only if the virtual work produced by
all impressed forces is equal to zero.
If there is a set of L impressed forces F1 , F2 , .....Fl , ...FL acting on a system with M
degree of freedom, the virtual work can be calculated according to formula 2.12.
X
M
δW = Qm · δqm = 0 (2.33)
m=1
Since δqm , as independent variables, can not be equal to 0, the generalized forces Qm
must disappear in an equilibrium position.
Qm = 0 m = 1, 2, ......M (2.34)
Upon solving the above equations with respect to M unknown generalized coordinates
qm one may always obtain all possible system’s equilibrium positions.
2.4.2 Principle of virtual work for a system in motion.
If a mechanical system is not stationary, each of its particles has to be obey to
Newton’s law.
mn r̈n = Rn + Fn n = 1, 2, N (2.35)
Repetition of consideration carried out in the previous paragraph lead to equation
X
N
δW = (Fn − mn r̈n ) · δrn = 0 (2.36)
n=1
which permit to formulate the following statement.

STATEMENT: For any holonomic system with perfect constraints the vir-
tual work produced by all impressed forces and D’Alembert forces is always
equal to zero.
The above statement has no direct applications but forms a base for derivation of
equations of motion of any holonomic system.
2.5 VIRTUAL WORK PERFORMED BY GRAVITY FORCES.

P
The derived expression for virtual work (see Eq. 2.32) δW = N n=1 Fn · δrn contains
all impressed forces Fn acting on a particle n. One of its component is always gravity
force Gn (see Fig. 11).
n mn
G Gn
rn
rG
Z G
O Y
X
Figure 11
Let us calculate the virtual work performed by gravity forces acting on a link
of a mechanical system. According to the above formula, the virtual work performed
by the gravity forces acting on all particles the body is made of, may be adopted in
the following form.
X N
δWG = Gn · δrn (2.37)
n=1
PM ∂rn
Taking into consideration that δrn = m=1 ∂qm δqm
X
N XM
∂rn
δWG = Gn · δqm
n=1 m=1
∂qm
X
N X
M
∂rn
= Gn · δqm
n=1 m=1
∂qm
XM X N
∂rn
= Gn · δqm (2.38)
m=1 n=1
∂qm
On the other hand, the virtual displacement of the centre of gravity of the body
considered is
X
M
∂rG
δrG = δqm (2.39)
m=1
∂qm
Implementation to the above formula definition of position of the centre of gravity
yields
XM
∂ 1 X
N
δrG = ( rn mn )δqm (2.40)
m=1
∂qm m n=1
Since, qm does not depends on index of summation n, the formula 2.40 may be
transformed as follow
XM X N
∂rn
δrG m = mn δqm (2.41)
m=1 n=1
∂qm
After multiplication of both sides of the above equation by Kg one can obtain
X
M X
N
∂rn
G · δrG = Gn · δqm (2.42)
m=1 n=1
∂qm
Since right hand sides of equations 2.42 and 2.38 are the same, their left hand sides
mast be equal. Hence
δWG = G · δrG (2.43)
PROBLEMS 50
2.6 PROBLEMS
Problem 10
2l
l
2l
k
C1 C2
l
α
B C
Figure 12
Two thin and uniform bars, each of mass m and length 2l, are hinged at A
and supported at B and C as shown in Fig. 12. The centres of gravity of these bars
C1 and C2 are connected by a spring of length l and stiffness k. Upon assuming that
all constraints have no friction and the whole assembly can move only in the vertical
plane, determine the stiffness k to ensure an equilibrium position of the system at
α = 45o . Use the principle of virtual work.
Given are:
α = 45o
m = 10kg
l = 1m.
AC1 = BC1
AC2 = CC2
PROBLEMS 51
Solution.
y
A
2l
l l
2l
F1 F2
C1 C2
r1 G1 l
α r2 G2
x
B C
Figure 13
The only impressed forces acting on the system considered are.

F1 = ik(2l cos α − l) = ilk(2 cos α − 1) (2.44)
F2 = −ilk(2 cos α − 1) (2.45)
G1 = −jmg (2.46)
G2 = −jmg (2.47)
Corresponding position vectors
r1 = il cos α + jl sin α (2.48)
r2 = i(2l + l) cos α + jl sin α = i3l cos α + jl sin α (2.49)
Virtual displacement of the points C1 and C2 .
∂r1
δr1 = δα = (−il sin α + jl cos α)δα (2.50)
∂α
∂r2
δr2 = δα = (−i3l sin α + jl cos α)δα (2.51)
∂α
The virtual work is.
δW = F1 · δr1 + G1 · δr1 + F2 · δr2 +G2 ·δr2
= (−l2 k sin α(2 cos α − 1) − mgl cos α + 3kl2 sin α(2 cos α − 1) − lmg cos α)δα
= (2kl2 sin α(2 cos α − 1) − 2mgl cos α)δα = 0 (2.52)
Since the generalized coordinate α can not be equal to 0.
2kl2 sin α(2 cos α − 1) − 2mgl cos α = 0 (2.53)
Hence
mg cos α mg 10 · 9.81
k= = = = 236.8 N/m
l sin α(2 cos α − 1) l(2 cos α − 1) tan α 1(2 cos 45o − 1) tan 45o
(2.54)
PROBLEMS 52
Problem 11
1
2 l
A 3
l l
α x
O
r
Figure 14
Three uniform and rigid bars 1, 2, and 3 (see Fig. 14), are hinged together at
point A. Each of them has the same length l and mass m. The bar 1 can slide along
a vertical axis y. The bars 2 and 3 are resting on a cylinder of radius r. Find the
angle α when the system is in an equilibrium. Use the principle of virtual work.
PROBLEMS 53
Solution.
C1 l
l/2 r1
A
l α G l
C2 1 C3
r2 r3 x
O G3
G2
Figure 15
The system has one degree of freedom and α can be considered as the gener-
alized coordinate. Impressed forces G1 , G2 and G3 are shown in Fig. 15.
G1 = G2 = G3 = −jmg (2.55)
Corresponding position vectors of the points of application C1 , C2 , C3 of the above

impressed forces as function of the generalized coordinate α are as follow.
r1 = j(r/ sin α + l/2) (2.56)

r2 = i(−(l/2) sin α) + j(r/ sin α − (l/2) cos α) (2.57)
r3 = i((l/2) sin α) + j(r/ sin α − (l/2) cos α) (2.58)
Hence, virtual displacements of the points C1 , C2 and C3 are

∂r1 cos α
δr1 = δα = j(−r · )δα (2.59)
∂α sin2 α
∂r2 cos α
δr2 = δα = i(−(l/2) cos α)δα + j(−r · + (l/2) sin α)δα (2.60)
∂α sin2 α
∂r3 cos α
δr3 = δα = i((l/2) cos α)δα + j(−r · + (l/2) sin α)δα (2.61)
∂α sin2 α
For the system in an equilibrium position the virtual work have to be equal to O.
δW = δr1 · G1 + δr2 · G2 + δr3 · G3

cos α cos α
= (−mg(−r 2 ) − 2mg(−r 2 + (l/2) sin α))δα = 0 (2.62)
sin α sin α
PROBLEMS 54
Since δα can not be equal to zero, the equation 2.62 yields

cos α cos α
r 2 − 2(−r 2 + (l/2) sin α) = 0 (2.63)
sin α sin α
The equation 2.63 can be easily simplified to the following form
3r cos α − l sin3 α = 0 (2.64)
The above equation can be solved numerically and its roots represents the equilibrium
positions of the system considered.
PROBLEMS 55
Problem 12
x
O
l1
l2
P
B
y
Figure 16
Two uniform bars of the length l1, l2 and mass m1 , m2 respectively are joint
together to form a double pendulum in the vertical plane. There is force P applied
at the point B. Determine the system equilibrium position.
PROBLEMS 56
Solution.
x
0
_l1 r
C1
2
C1
l_2
G1
2
A r
C2
q1
C2
q2 r
B
P
G2
B
y
Figure 17
The system has two degree of freedom. Its position can be uniquely determined
by two generalized coordinates q1 and q2 (see Fig. 17). There are three impressed
forces acting on the system.
G1 = jm1 g = jG1
G2 = jm2 g = jG2
P = iP (2.65)
Position vectors of the points of application of the above forces as functions of the
generalized coordinates
rC1 = i(rC1x ) + j(rC1y ) = i((l1 /2) sin q1 ) + j((l1 /2) cos q1 )

rC2 = i(rC2x ) + j(rC2y ) = i(l1 sin q1 + (l2 /2) sin q2 ) + j(l1 cos q1 + (l2 /2) cos q2 )
rB = i(rBx ) + j(rBy ) = i(l1 sin q1 + l2 sin q2 ) + j(l1 cos q1 + l2 cos q2 ) (2.66)
PROBLEMS 57
Virtual work done by the impressed forces is
δW = G1 · δrC1 + G2 · δrC2 + P · δrB

∂rC1 ∂rC1
= G1 · ( δq1 + δq2 ) +
∂q1 ∂q2
∂rC2 ∂rC2
G2 · ( δq1 + δq2 ) +
∂q1 ∂q2
∂rB ∂rB
P·( δq1 + δq2 )
∂q1 ∂q2
∂(i(rC1x ) + j(rC1y )) ∂(i(rC1x ) + j(rC1y ))
= jG1 · ( δq1 + δq2 ) +
∂q1 ∂q2
∂(i(rC2x ) + j(rC2y )) ∂(i(rC2x ) + j(rC2y ))
jG2 · ( δq1 + δq2 ) +
∂q1 ∂q2
∂(i(rBx ) + j(rBy )) ∂(i(rBx ) + j(rBy ))
iP · ( δq1 + δq2 )
∂q1 ∂q2
∂(rC1y ) ∂(rC1y )
= G1 δq1 + G1 δq2 +
∂q1 ∂q2
∂(rC2y ) ∂(rC2y )
G2 δq1 + G2 δq2 +
∂q1 ∂q2
∂(rBx ) ∂(rBx )
P δq1 + P δq2 (2.67)
∂q1 ∂q2
The partial derivatives according to ( 2.66) are respectively
∂rC1y
= −(l1 /2) sin q1
∂q1
∂rC1y
= 0
∂q2
∂rC2y
= −l1 sin q1
∂q1
∂rC2y
= −(l2 /2) sin q2
∂q2
∂rBx
= l1 cos q1
∂q1
∂rBx
= l2 cos q2 (2.68)
∂q2
δW = (−G1 (l1 /2) sin q1 − G2 l1 sin q1 + P l1 cos q1 )δq1 +

(−G2 (l2 /2) sin q2 + P l2 cos q2 )δq2 (2.69)
Since virtual work for system in an equilibrium has to be equal 0 and the virtual
displacements along the generalized coordinates can not be equal 0, the last equation
PROBLEMS 58
yields two algebraic equations for the unknown coordinates q1 and q2 .
(−G1 (l1 /2) sin q1 − G2 l1 sin q1 + P l1 cos q1 = 0

−G2 (l2 /2) sin q2 + P l2 cos q2 = 0 (2.70)
Their solutions are
q11 = q10
q21 = q20
q12 = q10 + 180o
q22 = q20 + 180o (2.71)
where
2P
q10 = arccot
G1 + 2G2
2P
q20 = arccot (2.72)
G2
The physical interpretation of the above solutions is given in Fig. 18.
P
x x
x x
P
P
y y y y
a) b) c) d)
Figure 18 a) q1 = q11 , q2 = q21 b) q1 = q11 , q2 = q22 c) q1 = q12 , q2 = q21 d)

q1 = q12 , q2 = q22
PROBLEMS 59
Problem 13
k A2 k
q2
l
k k
A1
q1 l
Figure 19
Two identical uniform rods, each of mass m and length l, are joined together
to form an inverse double pendulum (see Fig. 19). The pendulum is supported by
four springs, all of stiffness k, in such way that its vertical position (q1 = 0 and q2 = 0)
is its equilibrium position. Using the principle of virtual work derive equations which
determine the other possible equilibrium positions.
Given are: l, m, k,
PROBLEMS 60
Solution
F2
A2
rF2 q2
G2 A1 F1
rG2
q1
rF1 rG1
G1
y
Figure 20
The interaction forces between the springs and the individual links of the
system shown in Fig. 20 are represented by the vectors F1 and F2 .
F1 = −j(2kl sin q1 ) = −jF1

F2 = −j(2kl sin q1 + 2kl sin q2 ) = −jF2 (2.73)
The vectors G1 and G2 represent the gravity forces acting on the link 1 and 2 re-
spectively.
G1 = −img = −iG1
G2 = −img = −iG2 (2.74)
Points of application of the impressed forces F1 , F2 , G1 and G2 as a function of the

generalized coordinates q1 and q2 are determined by the following position vectors.
rF 1 = i(l cos q1 ) + j(l sin q1 ) = ixF 1 + jyF 1

rF 2 = i(l cos q1 l cos q2 ) + j(l sin q1 l sin q2 ) = ixF 2 + jyF 2
1 1
rG1 = i( l cos q1 ) + j( l sin q1 ) = ixG1 + jyG1
2 2
1 1
rG2 = i(l cos q1 l cos q2 ) + j(l sin q1 l sin q2 ) = ixG2 + jyG2 (2.75)
2 2
PROBLEMS 61
The virtual work performed by all the impressed forces acting on the system is
δW = F1 · δrF 1 + F2 · δrF 2 + G1 · δrG1 + G2 · rG2 =

µ ¶
∂(ixF 1 + jyF 1 ) ∂(ixF 1 + jyF 1 )
= −jF1 δq1 + δq2 +
∂q1 ∂q2
µ ¶
∂(ixF 2 + jyF 2 ) ∂(ixF 2 + jyF 2 )
−jF2 · δq1 + δq2 +
∂q1 ∂q2
µ ¶
∂(ixG1 + jyG1 ) ∂(ixG1 + jyG1 )
−iG1 · δq1 + δq2 +
∂q1 ∂q2
µ ¶
∂(ixG2 + jyG2 ) ∂(ixG2 + jyG2 )
−iG2 · δq1 + δq2 (2.76)
∂q1 ∂q2
Hence, simplifying the above expression one can get the following scalar expression
for the virtual work.
µ ¶ µ ¶
∂yF 1 ∂yF 1 ∂yF 2 ∂yF 2
δW = −F1 δq1 + δq2 − F2 δq1 + δq2 +
∂q1 ∂q2 ∂q1 ∂q2
µ ¶ µ ¶
∂xG1 ∂xG1 ∂xG2 ∂xG2
−G1 δq1 + δq2 − G2 δq1 + δq2 (2.77)
∂q1 ∂q2 ∂q1 ∂q2
Collecting terms in front of δq1 and δq2 we have

µ ¶
∂yF 1 ∂yF 2 ∂xG1 ∂xG2
δW = −F1 − F2 − G1 − G2 δq1 +
∂q1 ∂q1 ∂q1 ∂q1
µ ¶
∂yF 1 ∂yF 2 ∂xG1 ∂xG2
+ −F1 − F2 − G1 − G2 δq2 (2.78)
∂q2 ∂q2 ∂q2 ∂q2
Since δq1 and δq2 can not be equal to zero, the virtual work become zero if
∂yF 1 ∂yF 2 ∂xG1 ∂xG2
−F1 − F2 − G1 − G2 = 0
∂q1 ∂q1 ∂q1 ∂q1
∂yF 1 ∂yF 2 ∂xG1 ∂xG2
−F1 − F2 − G1 − G2 = 0 (2.79)
∂q2 ∂q2 ∂q2 ∂q2
According to expressions 2.75 the partial derivatives are
∂yF 1 ∂yF 2
= l cos q1 = l cos q1
∂q1 ∂q1
∂xG1 1 ∂xG2
= − l sin q1 = −l sin q1
∂q1 2 ∂q1
∂yF 1 ∂yF 2
=0 = l cos q2
∂q2 ∂q2
∂xG1 ∂xG2 1
=0 = − l sin q2 (2.80)
∂q2 ∂q2 2
PROBLEMS 62
Introduction of equations 2.73, 2.74 and 2.80 into equation 2.79 yields
1
2kl2 sin q1 cos q1 + (2kl sin q1 + 2kl sin q2 )(l cos q1 ) − mgl sin q1 − mgl sin q1 = 0
2
1
(2kl sin q1 + 2kl sin q2 )(l cos q2 ) − mgl sin q2 = 0
2
(2.81)
or after simplification
8kl sin q1 cos q1 + 4kl sin q2 cos q1 − 3mg sin q1 = 0

4kl sin q1 cos q2 + 4kl sin q2 cos q2 − mg sin q2 = 0 (2.82)
One can see from the above equations that if q1 = q2 = 0 or q1 = q2 = ±π the

system is in equilibrium. These trivial solutions of the equation 2.82 are interpreted
in Fig. 23a). In order to obtain the non-trivial equilibrium positions one have to
solve numerically the non-linear set of the algebraic equations 2.82. To this end let
us introduce the following functions.
f1 (q1 , q2 ) = 8kl sin q1 cos q1 + 4kl sin q2 cos q1 − 3mg sin q1

f2 (q1 , q2 ) = 4kl sin q1 cos q2 + 4kl sin q2 cos q2 − mg sin q2 (2.83)
These functions are shown in Fig. 21. Their zero point are presented in Fig. 22. The
continuous line represents zero points of the function f1 (q1 , q2 ) and the dotted one
zero points of the function f2 (q1 , q2 ). The intersection points of those two lines offers
the wanted solutions of the set of equations 2.82. The geometrical interpretation of
these solution is given in Fig. 23b),c),d) and e).
PROBLEMS 63
f (q ,q )
1 1 2
20
q
1
10
π
0
−π
-10
−π q2
π
-20
20 f (q ,q )
2 1 2
q
1
10
π
0
−π
-10 q2
−π
π
-20
Figure 21
q1
π
−π 0 π
q2
−π
zero points of f 1 (q 1,q 2)
zero points of f 2 (q 1,q 2)
Figure 22
PROBLEMS 64
(−π ,−π )
(−π , π )
(−π ,0) (π ,−π )
(π ,0) ( π , π )
a)
(0,0) ( 0, π )
( 0, −π )
o o o
( 85 ,87 ) ( 40 o ,-60 )
b) c)
o
( 68 o ,-126 ) ( 153 o,-75 o)
d) e)
Figure 23
PROBLEMS 65
Problem 14
A
q Y
l
B
l
X
Figure 24
Two uniform bars, each of mass m and length l, are joint as is shown in Fig.
24 to form a planar system. The point A is stationary whereas the point B can moves
along the vertical plane which is apart from A by distance a < 2l. Find angle q which
determines the equilibrium position of the system. Use principle of the virtual work.
Answer
Solution of the followinga equation
−sin q
− 32 sin q ± 12 cos q t a 2l a =0
1−( l ) +2 l sin q−sin2 q
PROBLEMS 66
Problem 15
l l y
l l
l
Figure 25
Five uniform and rigid bars each of mass m and length l are joined together
as shown in Fig. 25. Find equilibrium position by means of the principle of virtual
work.
PROBLEMS 67
Problem 16
x
l C
α
y l
B A F
G
l
Figure 26
Fig 26 shows the kinematic scheme of a mechanism. The link AB can be

considered as an uniform rod of mass m and length l. The link BC is massless and
its length is l. Both links can move only in the vertical plane xy. At point A the
horizontal force F is applied. The distance between point C and the line of action of
the force F is equal to l. By means of the virtual work principle determine the angle
α which corresponds to the system equilibrium position .
Given are: l, F, m
Answer:
Solution of the ³ following equation ´
- 2 Gl sin α + F l cos α + √(1−cos
1 α) sin α
2 cos α−cos2 α
=0
PROBLEMS 68
Problem 17
l
G
Θ
l/2
Figure 27
A uniform and rigid bar of mass m and length l is supported as shown in Fig.
27. Upon neglecting friction at the supports, determine the equilibrium position θ by
means of principle of the virtual work.
Given are: l, c, m
Answer:
Solution of the following equation
cos3 Θ = 2 cl
PROBLEMS 69
Problem 18
R G
mg
x
l
Figure 28
A thin and uniform bar of the length l and mass m shown in Fig. 28 is placed
into a smooth bowl of radius R. Applying the principle of the virtual work determine
the equilibrium position of the bar.
PROBLEMS 70
Problem 19
2l
2l
Figure 29
o x
A
α
Figure 30
Two uniform bars each of mass m and length 2l were welded together to form
the rigid body shown in Fig. 29). Two such rigid bodies were joined by means of
hinge A and suspended in the vertical plane xz as shown in Fig. 30). The general-
ized coordinates α and β determine uniquely position of this system. Upon taking
advantage of the principle of the virtual work, produce magnitudes of the generalized
coordinates corresponding to the system equilibrium position.
PROBLEMS 71
Problem 20
4 D
2
3 k
1
H
C
B r
G
l
L
A α
X
Figure 31
The mechanism shown in Fig. 31 can move in the vertical plane XY of an

inertial system of coordinates. The links 2 and 3 are massless. The link 1 can be
considered as a uniform rod of mass m and length l. The uncompressed length of
the uncompressed spring 4 is lo and its stiffness is k. By means of the virtual work
principle, determine the angle α corresponding to the equilibrium position of this
mechanism.
Answer:
Solution of the following equation √
∂
k(lo − H + x sin α) ∂α (L sin2 α ± sin α r2 − L2 cos2 α) + (−mg) ∂α
∂ l
( 2 sin α) = 0
√
where 2 2
x = L sin α ± r − L cos α 2
PROBLEMS 72
Problem 21
b
O
α X
B
r=0
a A 3 2
1
Figure 32
The uniform beam 1 (see Fig. 39) of mass m and length a is hinged at the
point O to the ground. Its end A is suspended on the massless rope 3. The rope is
loaded by the block 2 of mass M. By means of the virtual work principle determine
the angle α which corresponds to the system equilibrium position.
PROBLEMS 73
Problem 22
1 l
1
2 2 α
R R
a) b)
Figure 33
The arm 1 of the balance shown in Fig. 33 can roll over the cylinder 2 without
slipping. If this balance is not loaded, its arm remains in the horizontal position as is
shown in Fig. 33a). By means of the virtual work principle determine the relationship
between the weight 3 and the angular position α of the arm 1 (Fig. 33b)).
Given are:
R, l - distances shown in Fig. 33
M - mass of the unloaded arm 1
m - mass of the weight 3
Answer:
ml
α = R(M+m)
PROBLEMS 74
Problem 23
O
X
1
a α
3
o
90
A
z
B
a
Figure 34
Two massless rods, each of length a, were joint together at the point A to
form the rigid body 1 (see Fig. 34). This body is free to rotate about the horizontal
axis Z of the inertial system of coordinates XY Z. The body 2 which can be treated
as a particle of mass m can slide along the arm AB. It is supported by the spring 3
of stiffness k. The uncompressed length of this spring is equal to a/2. The system
has two degrees of freedom and the two generalized coordinates α and z determine
its position with respect to the inertial system of coordinates XY Z.
By means of the virtual work principle produce equations that determine the
coordinates α and z corresponding to the system equilibrium position.
Answer:
a sin α − z cos α = 0
Mg sin α + ka2
− kz = 0
LAGRANGE’S EQUATIONS OF MOTION. 75
2.7 LAGRANGE’S EQUATIONS OF MOTION.

2.7.1 Properties of a position vector partial derivatives.
Any position vector associated with a holonomic system has the following form.
rn = rn (q1 , ..qm , ..qM , t) (2.84)
Since the generalized coordinates qm are themselves functions of time, the first deriv-
ative of the position vector with respect to time is
∂rn ∂rn ∂rn ∂rn
ṙn = q̇1 + ... q̇m + ... q̇M + (2.85)
∂q1 ∂qm ∂qM ∂t
The functions q̇m are called generalized velocities. Since all position vectors do
∂rn
not depend on q̇m , the partial derivative ∂qm
do not depend on q̇m either. Hence,
∂ ∂rn
( )=0 (2.86)
∂ q̇m ∂qm
Therefore, differentiation of Eq. 2.85 with respect to q̇m yields
∂ ṙn
= ∂rn
∂ q̇m ∂qm
(2.87)
It is one of important properties of a position vector rn . Another one we obtain

∂rn
differentiating ∂qm
with respect to time
d ∂rn ∂ 2 rn ∂ 2 rn ∂ 2 rn ∂ 2 rn
( )= q̇1 + ... q̇m + ... q̇M + (2.88)
dt ∂qm ∂q1 ∂qm ∂qm ∂qm ∂qM ∂qm ∂t∂qm
Now, let us differentiated both sides of equation 2.85 with respect to qm
∂ ṙn ∂ 2 rn ∂ 2 rn ∂ 2 rn ∂ 2 rn
= q̇1 + ... q̇m + ... q̇M + (2.89)
∂qm ∂q1 ∂qm ∂qm ∂qm ∂qM ∂qm ∂t∂qm
The right hand sides of equation 2.88 and 2.89 are the same. Therefore we can
conclude that
d ∂rn ∂ ṙn
( )= ∂q
dt ∂qm m
(2.90)
The equalities 2.87 and 2.90 are to be used in the next paragraph.
2.7.2 Lagrange’s equations – general case.
According to the principle of the virtual work, for any particle of a holonomic system
with perfect constraints, we have.
X
N
(Fn − mn r̈n ) · δrn = 0 n = 1, 2, .....N (2.91)
n=1
where Fn is resultant of impressed forces, mn is mass of the particle and rn is position

vector of the particle
If the system considered has M degree of freedom, the virtual displacement

δrn is
XM
∂rn
δrn = δqm (2.92)
m=1
∂qm
XN XM
∂rn
(Fn − mn r̈n ) · δqm = 0 (2.93)
n=1 m=1
∂qm
Since generalized coordinates are independent, the above equation has to be fulfilled
for any combination of the virtual displacements along these generalized coordinates.
In particular, it has to be fulfilled for
δq1 = 0, δq2 = 0, ......δqm 6= 0, ........δqM−1 = 0, δqM = 0 (2.94)
Hence
XN
∂rn
(Fn − mn r̈n ) · δqm = 0 (2.95)
n=1
∂qm
or
X
N
∂rn X N
∂rn
mn r̈n · = Fn · (2.96)
n=1
∂qm n=1 ∂qm
Right hand side of the above equation represent generalized force along m − th coor-
dinate.
X N
∂rn
Qm = Fn · (2.97)
n=1
∂qm
Now, let us manipulate on the left hand side of equation 2.96.
X
N
∂rn X N
d ∂rn
L= mn r̈n · = mn ( ṙn ) · ( ) (2.98)
n=1
∂qm n=1 dt ∂qm
After adding and subtracting the same expression

X
N ∙ ¸
d ∂rn d ∂rn d ∂rn
L= mn ( ṙn ) · ( ) + (ṙn · ) − (ṙn · ) (2.99)
n=1
dt ∂qm dt ∂qm dt ∂qm
Upon developing the last term we have

X
N ∙ ¸
d ∂rn d ∂rn d ∂rn d ∂rn
L= mn ( ṙn ) · ( ) + (ṙn · ) − ( ṙn ) · ( ) − ṙn · ( )
n=1
dt ∂qm dt ∂qm dt ∂qm dt ∂qm
(2.100)
Reduction of the same terms yields
X
N ∙ ¸
d ∂rn d ∂rn
L= mn (ṙn · ) − ṙn · ( ) (2.101)
n=1
dt ∂qm dt ∂qm
Implementation of Eq. 2.87 and Eq. 2.90 produces

X N ∙ ¸
d ∂ ṙn ∂ ṙn
L= mn (ṙn · ) − ṙn · ( ) (2.102)
n=1
dt ∂ q̇m ∂qm
Now, it will be shown that the first term in Eq. 2.102 may by replaced by dtd ( ∂ q̇∂m T )
and the second one by ∂q∂m T where T is the kinetic energy of the system considered
X
N
mn (ṙn )2
T = (2.103)
n=1
2
Indeed
d ∂ X mn (ṙn )2
N
d ∂
( T) = ( )
dt ∂ q̇m dt ∂ q̇m n=1 2
XN
d ∂ mn (ṙn )2
= ( )
n=1
dt ∂ q̇m 2
X
N
d ∂ (ṙn )2
= mn ( )
n=1
dt ∂ q̇m 2
XN
d 1 ∂ ṙn
= mn ( 2ṙn · )
n=1
dt 2 ∂ q̇m
XN
d ∂ ṙn
= mn (ṙn · ) (2.104)
n=1
dt ∂ q̇m
and
∂ X mn (ṙn )2
N
∂
T =
∂qm ∂qm n=1 2
XN
∂ mn (ṙn )2
=
n=1
∂qm 2
X
N
∂ (ṙn )2
= mn
n=1
∂qm 2
XN
1 ∂ ṙn
= mn ( 2ṙn · )
n=1
2 ∂q m
X
N
∂ ṙn
= mn (ṙn · ) (2.105)
n=1
∂qm
Introduction of Eq’s. 2.104 and 2.105 into Eq. 2.102 yields

d ∂ ∂
L= ( T) − T (2.106)
dt ∂ q̇m ∂qm
Introduction of Eq’s. 2.106 and 2.97 into Eq. 2.96 gives the following final form of
Lagrange’s equations.
d
( ∂ T)
dt ∂ q̇m
− ∂
∂qm
T = Qm m = 1, 2, ....M (2.107)
According to the presented derivation, T refers to kinetic energy of the whole system
(links which motion is determined as explicit function of time do not have to be
included). In a general case of a system with n links, its kinetic energy is determined
by formula
⎛ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤⎞
X 1
n vGxi Ixi Ixiyi Ixizi ω xi
T = ⎝ mi [vGxi , vGyi , vGzi ] ⎣ vGyi ⎦ + 1 [ωxi , ωyi , ωzi ] ⎣ Iyixi Iyi Iyizi ⎦ ⎣ ωyi ⎦⎠
2 2
i=1 vGzi Izixi Iziyi Izi ω zi
(2.108)
where
vGxi , vGyi , vGzi −are components of absolute velocity of centre of gravity of the i − th
link vGi along a body system of coordinates xi yi zi through the centre of gravity.
ωxi , ωyi , ωzi −are components of absolute angular velocity ωi along the xi yi zi system
of coordinates.
[I ] – matrix of inertia about the xi yi zi system of coordinates.
mi – mass of the body.
If on the system considered acts a set of L impressed forces Fl , the generalized
force Qm may be obtained from the formula 2.16.
XL
∂rnX ∂rnY ∂rnZ
Qm = (FlX + FlY + FlZ ) (2.109)
l=1
∂qm ∂qm ∂qm
where
FlX , FlY , FlZ −are components of l − th force along an inertial system of coordinates
XY Z.
rlX , rlY , rlZ −are components of the absolute position vector of a point of application
of that force along the inertial system of coordinates XY Z.
2.7.3 Lagrange’s equations for conservative forces.
All impressed forces can be divided into two categories: conservative forces C and
non-conservative forces F.
DEFINITION: If there exists such a function V , called potential energy func-
tion, that its partial derivatives with respect to the coordinates of the point
of application of an impressed force taken with sign ’-’ are equal to the
component of the impressed force along these coordinates, the impressed
force is called conservative.
DEFINITION: Forces for which the potential energy function does not
exists are called non-conservative.
Hence, if V is a potential energy function corresponding to a set of the conservative
forces C1 , C2 , ...Ck , ...CK , and rkX , rkY , rkZ are coordinates of point of application of
a conservative force Ck , its components are
∂V
CkX = −
∂rkX
∂V
CkY = −
∂rkY
∂V
CkZ = − (2.110)
∂rkZ
The generalized force corresponding to all conservative forces is
X
K
∂rkX ∂rkY ∂rkZ
Qm = CkX + CkY + CkZ
k=1
∂qm ∂qm ∂qm
XK
∂V ∂rkX ∂V ∂rkY ∂V ∂rkZ
= − − −
k=1
∂rkX ∂qm ∂rkY ∂qm ∂rkZ ∂qm
∂V (q1 , q2 , ...qm , ...qM )
= − (2.111)
∂qm
Introduction of Eq. 2.111) into Eq. 2.107 yields
d
( ∂ T)
dt ∂ q̇m
− ∂
∂qm
T + ∂V
∂qm
= Qm m = 1, 2, ....M (2.112)
where Qm represents a generalized force of all non-conservative forces only.

If all impressed forces of a system are conservative equation 2.112 may be
simplify to the following form.
d ∂ ∂ ∂V
( T) − T+ =0 m = 1, 2, ....M (2.113)
dt ∂ q̇m ∂qm ∂qm
Introducing expression known as Lagrangian
L=T −V (2.114)
and taking into account that potential energy function does not depend on q̇m , the
equation 2.113 can be rewritten in form 2.115.
d ∂ ∂
( L) − L=0 m = 1, 2, ....M (2.115)
dt ∂ q̇m ∂qm
If apart of conservative forces there are non-conservative forces involved, the Lagrange
equations takes form
d
( ∂ L)
dt ∂ q̇m
− ∂
∂qm
L = Qm m = 1, 2, ....M (2.116)
where Qm , similarly to Eq. 2.112, represents generalized force of the non-conservative

forces only.
Gi
Z rGiZ
rG i
O Y
X
Figure 35
A
s
B
rA
Z rB
O Y
X
Figure 36
The only conservative forces which can be encountered in a mechanical system

are caused by gravity and springs connecting its links. Potential energy function for
the gravity force of the link i shown in Fig. 35 is
Vi = mi grGiZ (2.117)
Potential energy for forces at A and B caused by a spring s of stiffness ks and length
ls (see Fig. 36) is
1
Vs = ks (|rA − rB | − ls )2 (2.118)
2
Potential energy function for all conservative forces acting on the system is
X
I X
S
V = Vi + Vs (2.119)
i=1 s=1
PROBLEMS 81
2.8 PROBLEMS
Problem 24
A
2 l
β
Figure 37
An uniform and thin bar 2 of mass m and length l is hinged to link 1 which
rotates with a constant angular speed ω. Derive the differential equation of motion of
link 2 by means of Lagrange equations. Assume that β is the generalized coordinate.
PROBLEMS 82
z2 Z z1
y2
y1
o l/2
β
G
Figure 38
Solution.
Angular velocity of the link 2 is a sum of the absolute angular velocity of the
link 1 ω and the relative velocity of the link 2 with respect to the link 1.
ω2 = ω + i2 β̇ = k1 ω + i2 β̇ (2.120)
Since
k1 = j2 sin β + k2 cos β (2.121)
the absolute angular velocity of the link 2 is
ω 2 = i2 β̇ + j2 sin βω + k2 ω cos β
Its components are
ω2x = β̇
ω2y = ω sin β
ω2z = ω cos β (2.122)
The link 2 performs rotational motion about point O. Hence, its total kinetic energy
is.
⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤
I 0 0 ω 2x
1
T = [ω 2x , ω2y , ω 2z ] ⎣ 0 I 0 ⎦ ⎣ ω2y ⎦
2
0 0 0 ω 2z
1 1 2
= I(ω22x + ω 22y ) = I(β̇ + ω2 sin2 β) (2.123)
2 2
The potential energy function may be expressed as follow.
l
V = − mgl cos β (2.124)
2
PROBLEMS 83
Since all impressed forces are conservative ,motion of the system considered is gov-
erned by Lagrange equations of the following form.
µ ¶
d ∂T ∂T ∂V
− + =0 (2.125)
dt ∂ β̇ ∂β ∂β
where
µ ¶
d ∂T
= I β̈
dt ∂ β̇
∂T
= Iω 2 sin β cos β
∂β
∂V 1
= mgl sin β (2.126)
∂β 2
Introducing Eq’s. 2.126 into Eq. 2.125 one can obtained
1
I β̈ − Iω2 sin β cos β + mgl sin β = 0 (2.127)
2
Since I = 13 ml2 , the final form of equation of motion is
β̈ − ω 2 sin β cos β + 2l3 g sin β = 0 (2.128)

PROBLEMS 84
Problem 25
ω R
α 2
Figure 39
The bead 1 which can be considered as a particle of mass m, may slides

without any friction along the slide 2. The slide 2 rotates with the constant angular
velocity ω about the vertical axis Z ( see Fig. 39). The angle α can be considered
as the generalized coordinate. By means of Lagrange’s equations derive equation of
motion of the bead 1 and determine all possible equilibrium positions.
Given are : m = 1 kg, R = .25 m, ω = 10 rad/s.
PROBLEMS 85
Solution.
y Y
x
O,o
ωt
X
Z ,z
x
O,o
α R
Figure 40
In Fig. 40 the inertial system of coordinates is denoted by XY Z. System of

coordinates xyz is rigidly attached to the slide and rotates with the angular velocity
ω about axis Z. Vector of the absolute position vector of the bead 1 is
R = iR sin α + k(−R cos α) (2.129)
Its first derivative produces the absolute linear velocity v.

¯ ¯
¯ i j k ¯
¯ ¯
v = Ṙ = iRα̇ cos α+kRα̇ sin α + ¯¯ 0 0 ω ¯
¯
¯ R sin α 0 −R cos α ¯
= iRα̇ cos α + jRω sin α + kRα̇ sin α (2.130)
Hence
v 2 = α̇2 R2 + ω2 R2 sin2 α (2.131)
All forces acting on the system considered are conservative, therefore Lagrange’s
equations may be taken in the following form.
µ ¶
d ∂T ∂T ∂V
− + =0 (2.132)
dt ∂ α̇ ∂α ∂α
PROBLEMS 86
where
mv 2 1
T = = m(α̇2 R2 + ω 2 R2 sin2 α) (2.133)
2 2
V = −mgRcosα (2.134)
Hence
∂T
= mR2 α̇
µ ∂ α̇¶
d ∂T
= mR2 α̈
dt ∂ α̇
∂T
= mR2 ω 2 sin α cos α
∂α
∂V
= mgR sin α (2.135)
∂α
Introduction of Eq. 2.135 into Eq. 2.132 yields equation of motion.
mR2 α̈ − mω 2 R2 sin α cos α + mgR sin α = 0 (2.136)
Since for the static equilibrium position α̇ = α̈ = 0 they, according to (2.136), have
to satisfy the following equation.
ω2 R sin α cos α = g sin α (2.137)
Hence the possible equilibrium position are
αo = 0
αo = π
g 9.81
αo = arccos 2
= arccos 2 = ±66.89o
ω R 10 · 0.25
PROBLEMS 87
Problem 26
Y
1
r
2 z2
C
y2
ω21
Figure 41
A block 2 of mass m has the following matrix of inertia about axes x2 , y, z2

through the body centre of gravity C as shown in Fig. 41.
⎡ ⎤
Ix2 0 0
[I2 ] = ⎣ 0 Iy2 −Iy2z2 ⎦ where Iy2z2 = Iz2y2
0 −Iz2y2 Iz2
The block rotates about the axle 1 with a constant relative angular velocity ω21 . The
axle 1 is free to rotate about a horizontal axis Y which is fixed in the inertial space
XY Z. Centre of gravity C of the block 2 is on the axis of relative rotation at the
known distance r from axis Y . Use Lagrange’s approach to derive equation of motion
of the block 2.
PROBLEMS 88
Solution.
o1 o2
x1
ω1
ω21 t y2
x2
y1 Y
z2 z1 Z
ω21
X
O,o1
x1
α
C,o2
mg
Figure 42
The kinetic energy of the body considered is
T = TT + TR
⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤
Ix2 0 0 ω x2
1 2 1
= mv + [ω x2 , ωy2 , ω z2 ] ⎣ 0 Iy2 −Iy2z2 ⎦ ⎣ ωy2 ⎦ (2.138)
2 C 2
0 −Iz2y2 Iz2 ω z2
where vC is the absolute velocity of a centre of gravity of the body and ω x2 , ω y2 , ωz2
are components of its absolute angular velocity. The angular velocity of the system
of coordinates x1 y1 z1 , according to Fig. 42, is
ω1 = j1 α̇ = (i2 sin ω21 t + j2 cos ω21 t)α̇ (2.139)
The body considered rotates with respect to the system of coordinates x1 y1 z1 with
angular velocity ω21
ω21 = k2 ω 21 (2.140)
Hence,its absolute angular velocity is
ω2 = ω1 + ω 21 = i2 α̇ sin ω 21 t + j2 α̇ cos ω 21 t + k2 ω 21 (2.141)

PROBLEMS 89
The kinetic energy in rotational motion about its centre of gravity is

⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤
Ix2 0 0 α̇ sin ω21 t
1
TR = [ α̇ sin ω 21 t α̇ cos ω21 t ω 21 ] ⎣ 0 Iy2 −Iy2z2 ⎦ ⎣ α̇ cos ω 21 t ⎦
2
0 −Iz2y2 Iz2 ω 21
1
= (Ix2 α̇2 sin2 ω21 t − 2Iy2z2 ω21 α̇ cos ω21 t + Iy2 α̇2 cos2 ω21 t + Iz2 ω221 ) (2.142)
2
The position vector of centre of gravity C is
r = −k1 r (2.143)
Since its derivative with respect to time is

¯ ¯
¯ i1 j1 k1 ¯
¯ ¯
ṙ = vC = r0 + ω1 × r = ¯¯ 0 α̇ 0 ¯¯ = −i1 α̇r (2.144)
¯ 0 0 −r ¯
the kinetic energy in translating motion is

1
TT = mα̇2 r2 (2.145)
2
It follows that expression for the total kinetic energy has form.
1
T = (mα̇2 r2 +Ix2 α̇2 sin2 ω21 t−2Iy2z2 ω21 α̇ cos ω21 t+Iy2 α̇2 cos2 ω21 t+Iz2 ω 221 ) (2.146)
2
The potential energy function for the considered case is
V = −mgr cos α) (2.147)
Since the conservative forces are involved only, the following form of Lagrange’s equa-
tion may be used. µ ¶
d ∂T ∂T ∂V
− + =0 (2.148)
dt ∂ α̇ ∂α ∂α
where
µ ¶
∂T 1
= (2mr2 α̇ + 2Ix2 α̇ sin2 ω 21 t − 2Iy2z2 ω cos ω 21 t + 2Iy2 α̇ cos2 ω21 t)
∂ α̇ 2
= mr2 α̇ + Ix2 α̇ sin2 ω21 t − Iy2z2 ω 21 cos ω21 t + Iy2 α̇ cos2 ω21 t (2.149)
µ ¶
d ∂T
= mr2 α̈ + Ix2 α̈ sin2 ω 21 t + Ix2 α̇2 sin ω21 t(ω 21 cos ω21 t) + Iy2z2 ω221 sin ω21 t
dt ∂ α̇
+Iy2 α̈ cos2 ω 21 t − Iy2 α̇2 cos ω21 t(ω 21 sin ω 21 t)
= α̈(mr2 + Ix2 sin2 ω 21 t + Iy2 cos2 ω21 t)
+α̇(Ix2 ω21 sin 2ω 21 t − Iy2 ω21 sin 2ω 21 t) + Iy2z2 ω 221 sin ω 21 t (2.150)
PROBLEMS 90
∂T
=0 (2.151)
∂α
∂V
= mgr sin α (2.152)
∂α
Introduction of expressions. 2.149, 2.150, 2.151 and 2.152 into Eq. 2.148 yields the
equation of motion in form
α̈(mr2 + Ix2 sin2 ω 21 t + Iy2 cos2 ω 21 t) + α̇ω 21 sin 2ω21 t(Ix2 − Iy2 ) + mgr sin α
+Iy2z2 ω 221 sin ω 21 t = 0
(2.153)
PROBLEMS 91
Problem 27
y
O1
M1
a1
G1
l1
α1
O2
a2 α 2 G2
l2
Figure 43
Fig. 43 shows an arm of a robot operating in the horizontal plane. Motion of

the arm is controlled by two actuators installed at joints O1 and O2 . The actuators
produce moments which are functions of the angular position of the link 1 and 2. The
moment M1 is a function of the angular displacement α1 and the moment M2 is a
function of the relative angular displacement of the link 2 with respect to 1 (α2 −α1 ).
Derive differential equations of motion of the robot’s arm.
Given are:
I1 - moment of inertia of the link 1 about a vertical axis through its centre of gravity
G1 .
I2 - moment of inertia of the link 2 about a vertical axis through its centre of gravity
G2 .
m1 , m2 - masses of the link 1 and 2 respectively.
a1 , a2 , l1 , l2 - dimensions shown in Fig. 43
PROBLEMS 92
Solution.
y
O1
a1
l1 G1
α1
rG2
O2
a2 α 2
G2
l2
Figure 44
The system considered has 2 degree of freedom and the angles α1 and α2 may
be considered as the generalized coordinates. Hence, Lagrange equations for this case
can be adopted in the following form.
µ ¶ µ ¶
d ∂T ∂T
− = Q1
dt ∂ α̇1 ∂α1
µ ¶ µ ¶
d ∂T ∂T
− = Q2 (2.154)
dt ∂ α̇2 ∂α2
The kinetic energy T is a sum of kinetic energy of the link 1 (T1 ) and kinetic energy
of the link 2 (T2 ).
1
T1 = (I1 + m1 a21 )α̇21 (2.155)
2
1
T2 = (m2 ṙ2G2 + I2 α̇22 ) (2.156)
2
where
ṙG2 - is the absolute velocity of the centre of gravity G2 .
The position vector of centre of gravity G2 is
rG2 = i(l1 cos α1 + a2 cos α2 ) + j(l1 sin α1 + a2 sin α2 ) (2.157)
Its first derivative yields the velocity of the centre of gravity G2 .
ṙG2 = i(−l1 α̇1 sin α1 − a2 α̇2 sin α2 ) + j(l1 α̇1 cos α1 + a2 α̇2 cos α2 ) (2.158)
PROBLEMS 93
Squared magnitude of the velocity is
ṙ2G2 = (−l1 α̇1 sin α1 − a2 α̇2 sin α2 )2 + (l1 α̇1 cos α1 + a2 α̇2 cos α2 )2
= l12 α̇21 + a22 α̇22 + 2l1 a2 α̇1 α̇2 cos(α1 − α2 ) (2.159)
Upon introducing Eq. 2.159) into Eq. 2.156) one can obtain
1 1
T2 = m2 (l12 α̇21 + a22 α̇22 + 2l1 a2 α̇1 α̇2 cos(α1 − α2 )) + I2 α̇22 (2.160)
2 2
Hence the total kinetic energy is.
1
T = T1 + T2 = (I1 + m1 a21 )α̇21
2
1 1
+ m2 (l12 α̇21 + a22 α̇22 + 2l1 a2 α̇1 α̇2 cos(α1 − α2 )) + I2 α̇22 (2.161)
2 2
Since the robot operates in the horizontal plane, the only non-conservative forces
acting on the system are the driving moments shown in Fig. 45.
y
O1
M1
1
M12
α1 2
O2
M21
α2
Figure 45
The virtual work produced by these forces is
∂W = kM1 · kδα1 + kM12 · kδα1 + kM21 · kδα2 (2.162)
Since
M12 = M2 and M21 = −M2 (2.163)
PROBLEMS 94
the expression for the virtual force takes the following form
∂W = (M1 + M2 )δα1 − M2 δα2 (2.164)
Therefore, the generalized forces in the equations 2.154 are
Q1 = M1 + M2
Q2 = −M2 (2.165)
PROBLEMS 95
Problem 28
y 1 y
A
R
L
β
α=ω t x z
O
2
Figure 46
Link 1 of the mechanical system shown in Fig. 46 rotates about the horizontal
axis z with the constant angular speed ω. The link 2 is hinged to the link 1 at point
A. The system has one degree of freedom and the generalized coordinate β determines
the absolute angular position of the link 2. The link 2 comprises the massless rod
AB and a particle of mass m attached at its end B. Apply the Lagrange approach to
derive the differential equation of the system motion.
Given are:
m - mass of the particle
L - length of the link 2
R - distance between the axis of rotation z and the hinge A
ω - angular speed of the link 1.
PROBLEMS 96
Problem 29
1 2 Z
Z z
α
O O
Y X
x
z
Y,y
O R
Figure 47
The circular slide 1 of radius R is free to rotate about the horizontal axis Y
of the inertial system of coordinates XY Z. Its moment of inertia about that axis is
I. The body 2, which can be considered as a particle of mass m, can move along
the slide without friction. System of coordinates xyz, shown in Fig. 47, is rigidly
attached to the slide 1.
By means of Lagrange equations derive the differential equations of motion of the
system along the generalized coordinates α and β.
¡ Answer: ¢
I + mR2 sin2 β α̈ + 2mR2 α̇β̇ sin β cos β − mgR sin α sin β = 0
mR2 β̈ − mR2 α̇2 sin β cos β + mgR cos α cos β = 0
PROBLEMS 97
Problem 30
z1 r z2
Ω
ω C 3
y2 β b
y1
B
2
l
1
A
Figure 48
The wheel 3 of mass m (see Fig. 48)) rotates with a constant angular velocity
Ω about axis of the body 2 system of coordinates . The massless axle BC is hinged
to the vertical shaft 1 which rotates with a constant angular velocity ω. The system
has one degree of freedom, therefore the angle β determines uniquely its position.
Given are: Ω, ω, m, b, l, r
Take advantage of Lagrange’s approach to produce the equation of motion of the
system.
Answer:
IBx3 β̈ + (IBz3 − IBy3 ) ω2 sin β cos β + IBz3 ωΩ sin β − mgl sin β = 0
2 2 2
where IBx3 = IBy3 = mr4 + mb 12
+ ml2 IBz3 = mr2
PROBLEMS 98
Problem 31
1
A
k 3 r k R
4 G
2
Figure 49
The link 1 of a mass m1 , shown in Fig. 49), can move along the horizontal
slide and is supported by two springs 3 each of stiffness k. The ball 2 of mass m2
and a radius r is hinged to the link 1 at the point A by means of the massless and
rigid rod 4. All motion is in the vertical plane. Use Lagrange’s approach to derive
equations of motion of the system.
Given are:
m1 , m2 , r, R, k, I = 25 m2 r2 - moment of inertia of the ball about axes through its
centre of gravity G2 .
Answer:
(m1 + m2 )ẍ + m2 Rϕ̈ cos ϕ − m2 Rϕ̇2 sin ϕ + 2kx = 0
(m2 R2 + I)ϕ̈ + m2 Rẍ cos ϕ + m2 gR sin ϕ = 0
x - linear displacement of the block 1, ϕ - angular displacement of the link 2-4
PROBLEMS 99
Problem 32
O
x
E Y
B A
l C l
l l
l α l
X
2 4 6 7 1 5 3
Figure 50
Fig. 50 shows a mechanical system. Link 1 of the system moves along the
vertical axis X and its motion is governed by the following equation
x = xo sinωt
The links 2 and 3 are hinged to the link 1 at the point D. The links 4 and 5 join the
links 2 and 3 with the collar 6 as is shown in Fig. 50. The spring 7 has a stiffness k
and its length (when the spring is not compressed) is equal to 2l. The system has one
degree of freedom and its position may be determined by one generalized coordinate
α. The links 4 5 and 6 are assumed to be massless. The links 2 and 3 can be treated
as thin and uniform bars each of length 2l and mass m.
Derive equations of motion of the system.
PROBLEMS 100
Problem 33
2
L 1
l G
Figure 51
Fig. 51 shows the physical model of a centrifugal hammer. Its member 1

rotates in the vertical plane with a constant angular velocity ω. The member 2 has
mass m and moment of inertia I about its centre of gravity G. Applying Lagrange
approach derive differential equations governing motion of the member 2.
Given are: ω, L, l, a, m, I.
PROBLEMS 101
Problem 34
1 Z,z 1
3 2
4
r G
5 C
a
B l
k q
A r
y1
a
ω
Figure 52
Fig. 52 presents a physical model of Watt’s regulator. The link 1 performs

rotational motion about the vertical axis Z with a constant velocity ω. The link 2 is
hinged at A to the link 1. The link 2 is composed of a massless and rigid rod and
a ball of mass m which may be considered as a particle. The spring 5 has stiffness
k. Length of the not compressed spring is equal to 2r. Links 3 and 4 are rigid and
massless. Due to the imposed constraints, point A, B,C and G stay always in plane
y1 z1 which rotates with the angular speed ω. Derive equation of motion of the system
by means of Lagrange’s equations. Choose angular displacement q as the generalized
coordinate.
Given are:
m− mass of the link 2 concentrated at the point G,
ω− angular speed of the link 1,
lAB = lBC = r,
lAG = l,
a - distance of point A and C from axis Z,
k− stiffness of the spring 5,
lo = 2r− length of the not compressed spring 5
PROBLEMS 102
Problem 35
l0
O q1 k1 k2
q2
l 1, m 1 l 2, m 2
Figure 53
Produce equations of motion of the system shown in Fig. 53. Each link may be
considered as a uniform rod. Their mass and length is m1 , l1 and m2 , l2 respectively.
The links can move in a vertical plane of the inertial space only. Length of the not
compressed springs is lo and their stiffness is k1 and k2 . In Fig. 53, q1 and q2 stand
for the generalized coordinates. Take advantage of the Lagrange equations.
PROBLEMS 103
Problem 36
Z
1 2
O
R
α
o
r
Figure 54
The cylinder 2 may rolls over the stationary cylindrical surface 1 without
slipping. Taking advantage of the Lagrange’s equations produce equation of this
rolling motion. The angular displacement α may be considered as the generalized
coordinate. R and r stand for radius of the cylindrical surface and radius of the
cylinder respectively. Axis Z is the vertical axis an inertial system of coordinates.
Mass of the cylinder 2 is m and its moment of inertia about its axis of symmetry is
I.
Answer:
¡ ¢
α̈ (R − r)2 m + rI2 + mg sin α(R − r) = 0
PROBLEMS 104
Problem 37
Z
z
4R
C
3π
G
R
α
O
X
Figure 55
The semi-cylinder of mass m and radius R shown in Fig. 55 is free to roll over
the horizontal plane XY without slipping. The instantaneous angular position of this
semi-cylinder is determined by the angular displacement α. Produce the equation of
oscillations of the semi-cylinder.
¡ Answer:
¡ ¢¢ ³ ´
R2
IG + mR2 1 + 9π 16
2 − 8
3π
cos α α̈ + 4
3
m π
sin α α̇2 + 43 Rπ mg sin α = 0
¡ ¢2
where IG = 12 mR2 − m 43 Rπ
PROBLEMS 105
Problem 38
o1 x1
O ωt
Z z1 X
Y
y2
y1
B 2
G
x2 1
4
α
A C x1
o1 O
5
Figure 56
The slide 1 of the mechanical system shown in Fig.56 rotates about the vertical
axis Y of the inertial system of coordinates XY Z with a constant angular velocity ω.
The system of coordinates x1 y1 z1 is rigidly attached to the slide 1. The two sliders
3 and 4 are massless. They are joined together by the link 2. The link 2 can be
considered as a uniform rod of mass m and length l. The system is of one degree
of freedom and the only one generalized coordinate is denoted by α. The spring 5
possesses stiffness k. The length of the uncompressed spring is lo . Its left hand side
end is attached to the axle of the joint A and its right hand side end is attached to
the slide 1 at the point C. Produce:
1. the kinetic energy function of the system
Answer:
T = 6 ml2 (ω 2 cos2 α + α̇2 )
1
2. the potential energy function of the system

V = 2 lmg sin α + 12 k(lo − l cos α)2
1
3. the differential equation of motion of the system

1 1
3
ml 2
α̈ + 3
ml ω cos α sin α + 12 mgl cos α + kllo sin α − kl2 cos α sin α = 0
2 2
4. the equation for the angle α that defines the steady-state motion of the
system (α=constant)
( 13 ml2 ω 2 − kl2 ) cos α sin α + 12 mgl cos α + kllo sin α = 0
PROBLEMS 106
Problem 39
O
q1 Y
α l
a
k
A
q2 3
c
G 1
2
4
Figure 57
The angle α locates the angular position of the stationary slide 4 with respect
to the vertical plane XY of the inertial system of coordinates XY Z. The massless
link 1 is free to move along this slide and is supported by the spring 3 of stiffness k.
The length of the uncompressed spring is l. The link 2 is hinged to the link 1 at the
point A. The distance c locates the position of the centre of gravity G of the link 2.
The link 2 possesses mass m and its moment of inertia about axis through the centre
of gravity G is I. This system possesses two degrees of freedom and q1 and q2 stand
for the generalized independent coordinates.
1. Produce the kinetic energy function of the system
2. Produce the potential energy function of the system
3. Produce the equations of motion of the system (take advantage of the
Lagrange’s equations of motion)
4. Produce the expressions for the generalized coordinates corresponding
to the possible equilibrium positions of the system.
PROBLEMS 107
Solution
1. Since the link 1 is massless the total kinetic energy of the system is asso-
ciated with the link 2 only. The link 2 performs a general plane motion hence its
kinetic energy is.
1 2 1 2
T = mvG + I q̇2 (2.166)
2 2
where vG stands for the absolute linear velocity of the centre of gravity G of
the link 2 and q̇2 is its absolute angular velocity.
The velocity vG can be produced by differentiation of the following absolute position
vector
rG = I(q1 cos α + a sin α + c cos q2 ) + J(q1 sin α − a cos α + c sin q2 ) (2.167)
Hence the wanted velocity is
vG = ṙG = I(q̇1 cos α − cq̇22 sin q2 ) + J(q̇1 sin α + cq̇22 cos q2 ) (2.168)
Introduction of the expression 2.167 and 2.168 into 2.168 yields the wanted kinetic
energy function
1 ¡ ¢ 1
T = m (q̇1 cos α − cq̇22 sin q2 )2 + (q1 sin α − a cos α + c sin q2 )2 + I q̇22 =
2 2
1 2 1 2 2 1 2
= mq̇ + mcq̇1 q̇2 sin(α − q2 ) + mc q̇2 + I q̇2 (2.169)
2 1 2 2
2. The potential energy function due to gravitation is
Vg = −mgrGX = mg(q1 cos α + a sin α + c cos q2 ) (2.170)
The potential energy of the spring is
1
Vs = kq12 (2.171)
2
Therefore the potential energy function is
1
V = Vg + Vs = mg(q1 cos α + a sin α + c cos q2 ) kq12 (2.172)
2
3. Since the system is of two degree of freedom and the generalized coordinates
are q1 and q2 and all the impressed forces are conservative one can take advantage of
the following Lagrange’s equations
d ∂T ∂T ∂V
− + = 0
dt ∂ q̇1 ∂q1 ∂q1
d ∂T ∂T ∂V
− + = 0 (2.173)
dt ∂ q̇2 ∂q2 ∂q2
According to 2.169 and 2.172 the equations of motion are
mq̈1 + mc sin(α − q2 )q̈2 − mc cos(α − q2 )q̇22 − mg cos α + kq1 = 0
(2.174)
(I + mc2 )q̈2 + mc sin(α − q2 )q̈1 − mc cos(α − q2 )q̇12 +
+ mc cos(α − q2 )q̇1 q̇2 − mgc sin q2 = 0
PROBLEMS 108
4. The above set of equations allows the equilibrium position of the system to
be determined. If q1 and q2 are constant
−mg cos α + kq1 = 0

−mgc sin q2 = 0 (2.175)
Hence
mg cos α
q1 = q2 = 0 (2.176)
k
Chapter 3
MODELLING AND ANALYSIS OF COLLISIONS.
3.1 COLLISION OF TWO UNCONSTRAINED BODIES.

Let us assume, that two bodies 1 and 2 (see Fig. 1a) collide each other at a instant
ta .
a ωa2
2
b UF
2
y2 c 2
z2 F
G2 G2
G2
Z Z 2 Z a s
a rG2 = rG2
rG2 a rC2G2 s
vG2 C C vG2
C
Y a Y
rC1G1
Y ωs2
O vG1 O x2 y1 O
ra z1 a s
G1 G rG1 = rG1 G1
1 1 1 1
X X F X
G1
ωs1
UF s
1 vG1
ωa1
x1
a
t=t a t <t<t s t=t s
Figure 1
The instant ta is called instant of approach. Formulated in previous paragraphs

equations of motion allow us to assume that the linear and angular velocities of the
two bodies are known at the instant ta . Let vG1 a a
, vG2 , ωa1 , ωa2 be the linear velocities
of their centres of gravity and angular velocities respectively at the instant ta . For
further considerations we assume that the surface in the vicinity of the contact point
C is perfectly smooth. Hence, the contact force F is normal to the surface of the
body 1 and 2 at the contact point C (see Fig. 1b). If F represents reaction of the
body 2 on body 1, reaction of the body 1 on 2 can be represented by reaction −F.
Let us introduce the body system of coordinates x1 y1 z1 and x2 y2 z2 in such a
way that axis x1 and x2 are parallel to the line of action of the contact force F. After
a short period of time ∆t, at the instant ts = ta + ∆t called instant of separation,
the two bodies are separated. Then, they continue their motion due to external
forces and the initial conditions corresponding to the instant ts (see Fig. 1c). the
s s
initial velocities vG1 , vG2 , ωs1 , ω s2 , called velocities of separation, are to be obtained on
bases of the following analysis. To simplify this analysis we introduce the following
additional assumptions:
COLLISION OF TWO UNCONSTRAINED BODIES. 110
1. All external forces are small with respect to contact force F.

2. Position of the body 1 and 2 at the instant ts is the same as it was at the instant
ta
3. The line of action of the contact force is unchanged during period of time ta < t <
ts .
Each body involved in a collision may be considered as a separate system of
particles. Hence, the impulse – momentum principle can be applied to each of them.
∆P = UF ∆hG = UMG (3.1)
Application of this principle for ta < t < ts to the body 1 yields

s a
m1 (vG1 − vG1 ) = UF1 (3.2)
∆hG = rC1G1 × UF1 (3.3)

where
UF1 = i1 UF UF2 = −UF1 = −i2 UF (3.4)
¯ ¯
¯ i1 j k ¯
¯ 1 1 ¯
rC1G1 × UF ¯
= ¯ rC1G1x rC1G1y rC1G1z ¯¯
¯ UF 0 0 ¯
= j1 (rC1G1z UF ) + k1 (−rC1G1y UF ) (3.5)
Introduction of Eq’s. 3.4 and 3.5 into Eq’s. 3.2 and 3.3 produces six scalar equations.
s a
m1 (vG1x − vG1x ) = UF
s a
m1 (vG1y − vG1y ) = 0
s a
m1 (vG1z − vG1z ) = 0 (3.6)
⎡ ⎤⎡ s ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
I1x −I1xy −I1xz ω 1x − ωa1x 0
⎣ −I1yx I1y −I1yz ⎦ ⎣ ω s1y − ωa1y ⎦ = ⎣ rC1G1z UF ⎦ (3.7)
−I1zx −I1zy I1z ωs1z − ωa1z −rC1G1y UF
Similar set of equation may be obtained for body 2.
s a
m2 (vG2x − vG2x ) = −UF
s a
m2 (vG2y − vG2y ) = 0
s a
m2 (vG2z − vG2z ) = 0 (3.8)
⎡ ⎤⎡ s ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
I2x −I2xy −I2xz ω 2x − ω a2x 0
⎣ −I2yx I2y −I2yz ⎦ ⎣ ω s2y − ω a2y ⎦ = ⎣ −rC2G2z UF ⎦ (3.9)
−I2zx −I2zy I2z ω s2z − ω a2z rC2G2y UF
So far we have produced 12 equations with 13 unknown.
For perfectly elastic bodies there is no dissipation of energy during the contact
time ∆t. Hence the additional equation may be derived from principle of conservation
of energy. Since position of the two bodies at ta and ts has not been changed,
COLLISION OF TWO UNCONSTRAINED BODIES. 111
according to this principle, kinetic energy of the two bodies at instant ta and ts must
be the same.
Ta = Ts (3.10)
It is easy to show (proof is enclosed in Appendix 3), that the equation 3.10 is equiv-
alent to
vs − vC2x
s
− C1x
a a
=1 (3.11)
vC1x − vC2x
s s a a
where vC1x − vC2x , vC1x − vC2x are normal components of relative velocity of body 1
and 2 at contact point C at the instant of separation and approach respectively (see
Fig. 2).
s
vC2 y2
a
z2 vC1
G2 a a
2 vC1x- vC2x
s s
vC1 - vC2 C
a a
s vC1 - vC2
s s vC1 x2
vC1x - vC2x
z1 G1 y1
1
a
vC2
x1
Figure 2
On the other hand if the bodies involved in the collision are perfectly plastic
they stick to each other and travel after the collision together. Hence their relative
s s
velocity of separation is equal to zero (vC1x = vC2x ). Therefore
s s
vC1x − vC2x
− a a
=0 (3.12)
vC1x − vC2x
For the reals materials

s
we assume that the ratio of normal components of relative
v −vC2x
velocity − vC1x
a a takes value within range between 0 and 1, and it depends only on
C1x −vC2x
a a
normal component of relative velocity of approach vC1x − vC2x . This ratio is called
coefficient of restitution and is denoted by e.
s s
vC1x − vC2x
− a a
=e 0<e<1 (3.13)
vC1x − vC2x
The above formula expresses so called Newton’s hypothesis.

COLLISION OF CONSTRAINED BODIES. 112
e elastic materials
real materials
plastic materials
0
1 a a
|vC1x- vC2x |
Figure 3
Magnitude of the coefficient of restitution for different material may be found

in technical literature. Fig. 3. presents an experimentally obtained relationship
between the coefficient of restitution and the relative velocity of approach.
The equations 3.6, 3.7, 3.8, 3.9 and 3.13 form a closed set of the algebraic equa-
tions which permits for computation of all velocities of separation and the magnitude
of impulse at the contact point.
3.2 COLLISION OF CONSTRAINED BODIES.

Let us consider system shown in Fig. 4 and let us assume that its body i and j collide
each other at C. The system, before and after collision, has mobility MO Analysis so
far, allows to assume that all velocities of approach are known.
COLLISION OF CONSTRAINED BODIES. 113
Figure 4
During collision ,similarly to consideration in the previous section, we will

assume that all the driving forces are small as compare with the forces of interaction
in constraints. Hence, all driving forces during the time of collision can be neglected.
It follows that during the very short time of collision assumption that we know motion
of system along some of the generalized coordinates is not acceptable. Therefore,
number of degree of freedom during collision is always equal to its mobility.
M = MO (3.14)
Hence, during the collision, there is M unknown parameters which determine veloci-
ties of separation,r unknown components of impulses at constraints and 1 unknown
impulse at collision point C. Therefore, a total number of unknown T NU is
T NU = M + r + 1 (3.15)
where according to Eq. 1.8
M = MO = 6n − 5p1 − 4p2 − 3p3 − 2p4 − p5 (3.16)
r = 5p1 + 4p2 + 3p3 + 2p4 + p5 (3.17)
Introduction of Eq. 3.16 and 3.17 to Eq. 3.18 yields
T NU = 6n + 1 (3.18)
On the other hand, for each body involved, we can produce 6 equations reflecting
impulse – momentum principle of form
s a
mi (vGix − vGix ) = UF ix
s a
m1 (vGiy − vGiy ) = UF iy
s a
m1 (vGiz − vGiz ) = UFiz (3.19)
CENTRE OF PERCUSSION. 114
rG
rC
G1
C v
2
1
Figure 5
⎡ ⎤⎡ s ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
Iix −Iixy −Iixz ω ix − ω aix UMGix
⎣ −Iiyx Iiy −Iiyz ⎦ ⎣ ω siy − ω aiy ⎦ = ⎣ UMGiy ⎦ (3.20)
−Iizx −Iizy Iiz ωsiz − ω aiz UMGiz
where
i = 1, 2, ....n
UF i , UMG i − are resultant impulse and angular impulse of all impulses acting on i − th
body respectively.
The lacking equation is offered by Newton’s hypothesis
s s
vC1x − vC2x
− a a
=e 0<e<1 (3.21)
vC1x − vC2x
Hence, always we are able to produce 6n + 1 equations with 6n + 1 unknown which

allows for determination of all parameters of separation.
After collision motion of the system is controlled again by driving forces and
initial conditions (position at instance of approach and velocities of separation).
3.3 CENTRE OF PERCUSSION.

To introduce notion of centre of percussion let us consider the system shown in Fig.
5 The stationary pendulum 1 is hit at C by the bullet 2 travelling horizontally with
the velocity of approach v.
y1
UOy
UOx
O
rG y2
G1 rC
x1
UC C x2 UC
2
1
Figure 6
The system has three degree of freedom hence its position can determined by
three independent coordinates ϕ, x2 and y2 (see Fig. 6). At the instant of approach
ϕa = 0, ϕ̇a = ωa1 = 0, xa2 = 0, ẋa2 = v2a = v, y2a = 0 ẏ2a = 0 (3.22)
Impulse – momentum principle applied to the pendulum yields

s a
m1 (vG1y1 − vG1y1 ) = UOy1 (3.23)
s a
m1 (vG1x1 − vG1x1 ) = UC + UOx1 (3.24)
s a
IO (ω 1 − ω 1 ) = UC rC (3.25)
where
m1 – mass of the pendulum
IO – moment of inertia of the pendulum about point O
UC –-Impulse at contact point C
UOx1 , UOy1 – Components of impulse at constraint O
Impulse – momentum principle applied to the bullet yields
s a
m2 (v2y2 − v2y2 ) = 0 (3.26)
s a
m2 (v2x2 − v2x2 ) = −UC (3.27)
where
m2 – mass of the bullet
Newton’s hypothesis for the case considered can be written as follows
s s
vC1x1 − vC2x2
− a a
=e (3.28)
vC1x1 − vC2x2
s a a
Since vG1y1 = 0 and vG1y1 = 0, equation 3.23 yields UOy1 = 0. Since v2y2 = 0,
s
according to 3.26 the component y of the bullet velocity of separation v2y2 = 0.
Taking into consideration that
vG1x1 = ϕ̇s rG
s
a
vG1x1 =0
ωs1 = ϕ̇s
ωa1 = 0
v2s = ẋs2
v2a = v
s
vC1x1 = ϕ̇s rC
s
vC2x2 = ẋs2
a
vC1x1 =0
a
vC2x2 = v
the equations 3.24, 3.25, 3.27 and 3.28 take form
m1 (ϕ̇s rG ) = UC + UOx (3.29)

IO (ϕ̇s ) = UC rC (3.30)
m2 (ẋs2 − v) = −UC (3.31)
ϕ̇s rC − ẋs2
e = − (3.32)
−v
The above equations are linear with respect to unknown ϕ̇s , ẋs2 , UOx , and UC . Their
solution is
m2 vrC (1 + e)
ϕ̇s = (3.33)
IOx + m2 rC2
v(m2 rC2 − eIO )
ẋs2 = (3.34)
IOx + m2 rC2
m2 vIO (1 + e)
UC = (3.35)
IOx + m2 rC2
m2 v(1 + e)
UOx = (m1 rC rG − IO ) (3.36)
IOx + m2 rC2
The last equation allows to find position of the point of contact C having such a
peculiarity that any impact at that point produce no impulse at O. Indeed, for
IOx
rC = (3.37)
m1 rG
UOx is always zero. Point of contact, fulfilling the formula 3.37 is called centre of
percussion.
Motion of the system after the instance of separation will be controlled by
gravity forces and the following initial conditions
ϕo = ϕa = 0
ϕ̇o = ϕ̇s
x2o = xa2
ẋ2o = ẋs2
y2o = y2a = 0
ẏ2o = ẏ2s = 0
PROBLEMS 118
3.4 PROBLEMS
Problem 40
2
1
L l
ω
Figure 7
The motion of the shuttle 1 of a loom is initiated by an impact given by

hammer 2. The hammer 2 may be considered as a rigid and uniform bar of length
L and a mass M. The shuttle 1 has mass m and may be considered as a particle.
The point of contact C is at distance l from hinge A. At the instant of approach the
angular velocity of the hammer 2 is ω and the shuttle 1 is motionless. Derive an
expression for velocity of the shuttle at the instant of separation and the impulse of
reaction at A if the coefficient of restitution is e.
PROBLEMS 119
Solution.
2
z z 1
U U
C
L l
ωa= ω
x x
UA A
Figure 8
Angular impulse – momentum principle applied to the hammer 2 yields.
I(ωs − ω) = −U l (3.38)
Impulse – momentum principle applied to the shuttle 1 yields.
m(v s − 0) = U (3.39)
By means of Newton hypothesis one can gain.

vs − ωs l vs − ωs l
e=− = (3.40)
0 − ωl ωl
Upon introducing of Eq. 3.39 into Eq. 3.38 one may obtain.
Iωs − Iω = −mlv s (3.41)
From Eq. 3.40

vs = eωl + ω s l (3.42)
Incorporation of Eq. 3.42 into Eq. 3.41 yields.
Iω s − Iω = −ml2 (eω + ω s ) (3.43)
The above formula allows to determine the angular velocity of separation.

Iω − ml2 eω
ωs = (3.44)
I + ml2
Introduction of Eq. 3.44 into Eq. 3.42 yields velocity of separation of the shuttle.
Ilω − ml3 eω + eωl(I + ml2 ) Ilω(1 + e)
vs = 2
= (3.45)
I + ml I + ml2
PROBLEMS 120
Impulse – momentum principle applied to the hammer yields

L L
M(ω s − ω ) = −U + UA (3.46)
2 2
Hence, the impulse of reaction at A is.
L L L
UA = U + M (ω s − ω) = mv s + M ω s − M ω (3.47)
2 2 2
Upon introducing Eq’s. 3.44 and 3.45 into Eq. 3.47 one may obtain the impulse UA
in its final form.
mlω(e + 1)(I − M L2 l)
UA = (3.48)
I + ml2
PROBLEMS 121
Problem 41
v C
Figure 9
Two thin uniform bars, each of mass m and length l, are connected by a
pin joint to form a double pendulum. Initially the bars are hanging vertically and
are motionless. Then, a particle of mass mo traveling horizontally with a constant
velocity v strikes the joint between the bars. Upon assumption that the collision is
plastic one ( the coefficient of restitution e = 0) solve this problem for the angular
velocity of each bar immediately after the impact.
PROBLEMS 122
Solution.
3
l
1
2
v C x
4
Figure 10
Collision of two mechanical systems is considered. First system is assembled

of the particle 1 ( see Fig. 10). Second system is assembled of three bodies denoted
in Fig. 10 by 2, 3, 4. The collision, between the body 1 and 2, takes place at the
point C. Upon taking into account Newton’s hypothesis one may write the following
relationship.
v s − vC2x
s
e = − C1x
a a
=0 (3.49)
vC1x − vC2x
Hence,
s s
vC1x = vC2x = ωs3 l (3.50)
Impulse - momentum principle applied to the particle 1 (Fig. 11) yields
s
mo (vC1x − v) = −U (3.51)
Angular impulse - momentum principle about the point of rotation O applied to the
link 3 ( Fig. 12) yields.
ml2 s
(ω 3 − 0) = U3 l (3.52)
3
Link 4 performs a general motion ( Fig. 13.). It is possible to formulate two equation.
First, reflected the impulse - momentum principle
s a
m(vG4x − vG4x ) = m(ωs3 l + ω s4 (l/2) − 0) = U4 (3.53)
PROBLEMS 123
1 y 2
U x
Figure 11
y UO
O
ω3
3
l
U3 x
Figure 12
U4 x
C
4
l/2
G
ω4
Figure 13
y 2
U U3 x
C U4
Figure 14
PROBLEMS 124
and second, reflected the angular impulse - momentum principle about the centre of
gravity G.
ml2 s l
(ω 4 − 0) = −U4 ( ) (3.54)
12 2
Since the link 2 is considered as massless, it has to fulfill equilibrium conditions ( Fig.
14.)
U = U3 + U4 (3.55)
So far, we have produce 6 independent equations 3.50 to 3.55 with 6 unknown (U ,
U3 , U4 , ω s3 , ωs4 , vC1x
s
). Since this is a set of linear equations, it can be easily solved
for the unknown angular velocities ω s3 and ω 24 .
v
ω s3 = 7m
1(1 + 12m o
)
3v
ω s4 = − 7m (3.56)
1(1 + 12m o
)
PROBLEMS 125
Problem 42
rG
G rC
2 1
Figure 15
To assess muzzle velocity of a bullet, it was fired to strike a stationary pendu-

lum at a point C ( Fig. 15). After the collision the maximum swing of the pendulum
2 was observed to be α. Upon assuming that velocity of the bullet at the instant of
approach is horizontal and coefficient of restitution is equal to zero, derive a formula
for the muzzle velocity of the bullet.
Given are:
m - mass of the bullet
IO - moment of inertia of the pendulum about the point O
M - mass of the pendulum.
rG - distance between axis of rotation of the pendulum and its centre of gravity.
rC - distance between axis of rotation of the pendulum and the point of collision C.
α - maximum swing of the pendulum.
PROBLEMS 126
Solution
y2
α
Uoy 2
Uox 2
O
rG
y1
x2 G
U x1 U
C
2 1
Figure 16
Angular momentum – impulse principle applied to the pendulum yields.
IO ωs2 = UrC (3.57)
Since the collision is plastic, from Newton’s hypothesis one can see that the velocity
s
of separation of the bullet v1x1 is
s
v1x1 = ωs2 rC (3.58)
The momentum – impulse principle applied to the bullet can be written as follows
m(ω s2 rC − v) = −U (3.59)
Implementation of Eq. 3.59 into 3.57 allows the velocity of the bullet to be expressed
as function of angular velocity of separation.
IO ω s2 = −mrC (ω s2 rC − v) (3.60)
Hence
Io + mrC2 s
v= ω2 (3.61)
mrC
Principle of energy conservation
1
IO (ω s2 )2 = Mg(rG − rG cosα) (3.62)
2
PROBLEMS 127
yields the angular velocity of separation in form.

s
2MgrG (1 − cos α)
ω s2 = (3.63)
Io
Upon introducing Eq. 3.63 into Eq. 3.61 one may obtain
s
2
Io + mrC 2MgrG (1 − cos α)
v= (3.64)
mrC Io
PROBLEMS 128
Problem 43
yp
xp
G α
h
v
C
Figure 17
A football of mass m and principal moments of inertia Ixp , Iyp , Izp falls down
vertically and hits the ground at the angle α with velocity v and the angular velocity
ω = 0. Find the equations of motion of the ball after the impact. Dimensions h and
r locate the position of the centre of gravity G at the instant of impact.
Answer:
PROBLEMS 129
Problem 44
y
a
m b
v
G x
Figure 18
A rectangular block, resting vertically as shown in Fig. 18, is struck at point

C by a bullet of mass m traveling with a constant velocity v. Assuming that the
impact is inelastic (the coefficient of restitution e = 0) determine the smallest velocity
v which is needed to overturn the block.
Given are:
m – mass of the bullet
M – mass of the block
Ix , Iy , Iz - principal moments of inertia of the block about axes through its centre of
gravity G
a, b, c, – dimensions of the block
PROBLEMS 130
Problem 45
l
2
b
A
Figure 19
The mast 1, which can by considered as an uniform beam of mass m and

length l, is released from its vertical position without any initial velocity. The mast
pivots about point A to strike the wall 2. Assuming that the coefficient of restitution
is e determine the angular velocity of the mast immediately after the impact with the
wall.
Given are:
m = 200kg
l = 10m
a = 2m
b = 3m
e = 0.5
PROBLEMS 131
Problem 46
p 1
v
2
α =45o
C
3
k
Figure 20
The body 1, which can be considered as a particle of mass m, is travelling

with the constant velocity v along path p to strike the block 2 of mass M at the
point of collision C. The block 2 is supported by spring 3 of stiffness k and before
the collision is motionless. The coefficient of restitution is e.
Produce the expression for:
1. velocity of separation of the particle 1
qAnswer:
2
v1s = v 12 (m−Me)
(M+m) 2 + 2
1
2. velocity of separation of the block 2

√ Answer:
s m
v2 = 22 v M+m (1 + e)
3. impulse of force during collision at the point C
√ Answer:
mM
U = 22 v M+m (1 + e)
4. amplitude
q of oscillation of the block 2 after collision.
√
2 M
A= 2
v m
k M+m
(1 + e)
PROBLEMS 132
Problem 47
R O
G α
r r
2 3
1 G
C
Figure 21
The pendulum, shown in Fig. 21, is assembled of the ball 1 of radius r and the
massless and rigid rod 2. Mass of the pendulum is m and its moment of inertia about
its centre of gravity is G is I. The pendulum was release from position determined
by angle α with initial velocity equal to zero to collide the vertical wall 3. Determine
the angular velocity of separation of the pendulum, impulse of force at the point of
collision C and impulse of force at the constraint O.
PROBLEMS 133
Problem 48
3 1
R
G
α 2
Figure 22
The cylinder 1 of mass m and radius R rolls without slipping over the hori-
zontal floor 2 to eventually collide with the wall 3 (see Fig. 22). The angular velocity
of approach of the cylinder is ω. Produce expression for the angular velocity of the
cylinder and the linear velocity of its centre of gravity G at the time of separation if
the coefficient of restitution is e.
Answer:
s s
vGx1 = Rωe sin α vGy1 = Rω cos α ωs = ω
PROBLEMS 134
Problem 49
yp
xp
v
γ
G
b
a
zp
c G
Figure 23
A rectangular block which sides are equal to a, b and c translates in the

horizontal plane with the constant velocity v to strike the vertical wall (see Fig. 23).
Direction of motion of the block with respect to the wall is determined by the angle
γ. The principal moments of inertia of the block about its principal axis xp , yp , zp
through the centre of gravity G are Ixp , Iyp , Izp respectively and its mass is equal to
m.
Derive expression for the linear and angular velocity of the block immediately after
the collision.
PROBLEMS 135
Problem 50
v1
1 2
G1
v2 G2
C
Figure 24
The ship 1 and 2 are traveling with constant velocities v1 and v2 to collide
each other at point C as shown in Fig. 24. Upon assuming that the coefficient of
restitution is equal to 0, produce equations of motion of these ships after collision
and formulate the initial conditions. Friction between water and the ships can be
neglected.
Given are:
m1 , m2 - mass of the ship 1 and 2 respectively
I1 , I2 - moment of inertia of the ship 1 and 2 about the vertical axis through
their centers of gravity G1 , G2 respectively
v1 , v2 - velocity of the ship 1 and 2 respectively
e = 0 - coefficient of restitution
a - the distance shown in Fig. 24
PROBLEMS 136
Problem 51
1 A
h
2
G C
ω α
O
a
b
H
Figure 25
The tennis racket 2 (see Fig. 25rotates about the point O with the constant
angular velocity ω. The tennis ball 1, that can be considered as a particle of mass
m, is released from the position A with the initial velocity equal to zero. The ball
collides with the racket at the point C. At the instant of approach the racket makes
angle α with horizon. The coefficient of restitution is e. After the collision the ball
hits the ground at the point B.
Given are:
m - mass of the ball 1
M, I - mass and the moment of inertia of the racket 2 about its centre of
gravity G respectively
e - coefficient of restitution
h, H, a, b - given distances
α - angular position of the racket at the instance of approach
ω - angular velocity of the racket at the instance of approach.
Produce the expression for the horizontal distance L between the point C and the
point B.
Answer:
³ q ´
vX gH
L = vY g 1 + 1 + v2
X
where
s s s s
vX = vx1 cos α ³− vy1 sin α ³ vY = ´vx1 sin α + vy1 ćos α
s 1
√ mb2
s
√
vx1 = mb2 2gh cos α Io + e + ωb (1 + e) vy1 = 2gh sin α
1+ Io
PROBLEMS 137
Problem 52
1 r position 1
2
position 2 a
C α
position 3 b
Figure 26
A spherical object 1 of mass m and the principal moment of inertia I is released

from position 1 with the initial linear and angular velocity equal to zero (see Fig. 26).
This object collides with the wall 2 at position 2. The slope of the wall at the point
of collision C is equal to α. After separation, this object collides with the horizontal
wall at position 3.
Determine coefficient of restitution e at the point of collision C.
Given are:
a, b, c - dimensions shown in Fig. 26
m, I - mass an the principal moment of inertia of the object 1 respectively
α - slope of the wall
PROBLEMS 138
Problem 53
b1 a1
b1 a1
G1
1
2
v1
α
C
a2
v2 G2
a2
b2 b2
Figure 27
The two cars shown in Fig. 27, 1 and 2, collide each other at the point of
collision C. Their masses are m1 and m2 respectively. The moments of inertia of
the cars about the axes through the centre of gravity G1 and G2 are I1 and I2 . At
the instant of approach the linear velocity of their centers of gravity were v1 and v2
respectively and their angular velocities were equal to zero. Upon assuming that the
coefficient of restitution is equal to zero, produce:
1. the equations which allow the kinematic parameters of separation to be determined
Answer:
Solution of the following set of equations
s
m1 (vG1x1 − v1 sin α) = −U
s
m1 (vG1y1 − v1 cos α) = 0
I1 (ωs1 − 0) = U(b1 cos α − a1 sin α)
s
m2 (vG2x2 − 0) = U
s
m2 (vG2y2 − v2 ) = 0
I2 (ωs2 − 0) = 0
s
vG1x1 − ωs1 (+b1 cos α − a1 sin α) − vG2x2
s
=0
2. the expression for the energy dissipated during the collision
¡ 1Answer ¢
E ³= 2 m³1 v12 + 12 m2 v22
1 s 2 ¡ s ¢2 ´ 1 s 2 1
³
s 2 ¡ s ¢2 ´ 1 s 2
´
− 2 m1 (vG1x1 ) + vG1y1 + 2 I1 (ω1 ) + 2 m2 (vG2x2 ) + vG2y2 + 2 I2 (ω 2 )
PROBLEMS 139
Problem 54
1 3 2
G1 C G3
v a G2
A
Figure 28
The two cars shown in Fig.28, 1 and 2, collide with each other at the point of
collision C. At the instant of approach the car 1 was translating with velocity v. The
second car at the instant of approach was stationary. The passenger 3 of the second
car is modeled as a rigid body hinged to the car at the point A. Its mass is m3 and
its moment of inertia about the center of gravity G3 is I. The distance a determines
the position of the center of gravity G3 at the instant of approach. The mass of the
car 1 is m1 and the mass of the car 2 without the passenger is m2 .
Assuming that the coefficient of restitution is equal to e, produce:
1. the relative angular velocity of the passenger 3 at the instant of separation
2. the expression for the energy dissipated during the collision
PROBLEMS 140
Answer:
Question 1
y1 UA
y2
1 2
UAy
G1 C1 C2 G2 x2
v x1 UAx
A
UC UC
K L N M
U UL UN UM
3
y3
G3
x3
a
A UAx
UAy
Figure 29
The relative angular velocity of the passenger ω s3 is the solulution of the fol-
lowing set of equations
s
m1 (vG1x1 − v) = −UC
s
m2 (vG2x2 − 0) = +UC + UAx
s
m3 (vG2x2 − ω s3 a − 0) = −UAx
I(ω s3 − 0) = −aUAx
vs −vs
e = − G1x1v−0G2x2
Question 2
∆T = T a −T s = 12 m1 v 2 −( 12 m1 (vG1x1
s
)2 + 12 m2 (vG2x2
s
)2 + 12 m3 (vG2x2
s
− ω s3 a)2 + 12 I (ω s3 )2 )
PROBLEMS 141
Problem 55
1 2 3
Figure 30
The carriage 1 (see Fig.30) ) moves with a constant velocity v to collide with
the two stationary carriages 2 and 3. The carriages 2 and 3 are unconstrained (there
is a negligible gap between them). Mass of each carriage is identical and it is equal
to m. The coefficient of restitution e is the same for each point of collision.
1. Produce the equations for the velocity of separation of individual car-
riages and the impulses between the carriages.
2. Solve the equations for the coefficient of restitution e = 1 and e < 1
3. Produce the expression for the energy lost due to the collision if e < 1.
PROBLEMS 142
Solution.
Collision 1.
1 v1a1=v y2 2 3
y1 v2a1=0
x1 x2
U11 U11
C1 C2
Figure 31
At the time of approach ta1 the carriage 1 collides with the carriage 2 at the
point of collision C1 (see Fig. 31). Since the carriage 2 and 3 are unconstrained (there
is a gap between them) and during the collision carriages 1 and 2 are stationary, the
impulse at the point C2 is equal to zero. Hence one can write the following equations
reflecting the linear impulse-linear momentum principle applied to the carriage 1 and
the carriage 2.
m(v1s1 − v) = −U11 (3.65)
m(v2s1 − 0) = +U11 (3.66)
The Newton’s hypothesis yields
v1s1 − v2s1 v1s1 − v2s1

e=− = − (3.67)
v1a1 − v2a1 v
Solving these equations one can get
(1 − e)v
v1s1 = (3.68)
2
(1 + e)v
v2s1 = (3.69)
2
(1 + e)v
U11 = m (3.70)
2
Since the carriage 2 after collision possesses positive velocity of separation it will
collide with the carriage 3. Taking into account that the gap between the carriage
2 and 3 is negligible, one can assume that the velocity of separation v2s1 is equal to
velocity of approach v2a2 for the second collision
v2a2 = v2s1 (3.71)
Collision 2
PROBLEMS 143
In Fig.32 the free body diagram for the collision 2 is presented.
1 v1s1 y2 2 v3a2= 0 y 3
v2a2 3
x2 x3
U22 U22
C1 C2
Figure 32
Application of the linear impulse-linear momentum principle to the carriage 2

and 3 yields
m(v2s2 − v2s1 ) = −U22 (3.72)
m(v3s2 − 0) = U22 (3.73)
The Newton’s hypothesis yields
v2s2 − v3s2 v2s2 − v3s2

e=− = − (3.74)
v2a2 − v3a2 v2s1
where according to 3.69

(1 + e)v
v2s1 =
2
Solution of these equations gives:
(1 − e)v2s1 (1 − e) (1 + e)v (1 − e2 )v
v2s2 = = = (3.75)
2 2 2 4
(1 + e)v2s1 (1 + e) (1 + e)v (1 + e)2 v
v3s2 = = = (3.76)
2 2 2 4
(1 + e)v2s1 (1 + e) (1 + e)v (1 + e)2 v
U22 = m =m =m (3.77)
2 2 2 4
According to the consideration so far after the second collision:
the first carriage possesses velocity v1s1 = (1−e)v
2
2
the second carriage possesses velocity v2s2 = (1−e4 )v
2v
the third carriage possesses velocity v3s2 = (1+e)4
If the coefficient of restitution is equal to one (perfectly elastic collision) the situation
is clear:
the first carriage possesses velocity v1s1 = 0
the second carriage possesses velocity v2s2 = 0
the third carriage possesses velocity v3s2 = v
It means that the carriage 1 and 2 are stationary after collision and the carriage 3
moves with the velocity v. Such a behaviour of the unconstrained bodies is often
referred to as "Newton’s cradle".
PROBLEMS 144
The situation is more complicated if e 6= 1. It is easy to see that in this case,

after the second collision, the velocity of the first carriage is greater then the velocity
of the second one regardless the coefficient of restitution e.
(1 − e)v (1 − e2 )v
v1s1 = > v2s2 =
2 4
2 > (1 + e)
Therefore immediately after the second collision mast taken place third collision be-
tween the first and second carriage.
The velocity of approach of the first carriage is
(1 − e)v
v1a3 = v1s1 = (3.78)
2
and the velocity of approach of the second carriage is
(1 − e2 )v
v2a3 = v2s2 = (3.79)
4
Collision 3.
1 v1a3 y2 2 v3s2 3
y1 v2a3
x1 x2
U13 U13
C1 C2
Figure 33
The free body diagram shown in Fig.33 allows the following set of equations
to be formulated.
m(v1s3 − v1a3 ) = −U13 (3.80)
m(v2s3 − v2a3 ) = U13 (3.81)
v1s3 − v2s3
e=− (3.82)
v1a3 − v2a3
Its solution yields the wanted velocities of separation after the collision 3.
µ ¶ µ ¶
s3 1 a3 a3 1 1 2
v1 = (1 − e) v1 + (1 + e) v2 = (1 − e) (1 − e) + (1 + e) v (3.83)
2 4 8
µ ¶ µ ¶
s3 1 a3 a3 1 1 2
v2 = (1 + e) v1 + (1 − e) v2 = (1 + e) (1 − e) + (1 − e) v (3.84)
2 4 8
PROBLEMS 145
Since the third carriage does not take part in this collision its velocity is
1
v3s3 = v3s2 = (1 + e)2 v (3.85)
4
The results shown below was computed for the coefficient of restitution e = 0.5
After the first collision the velocities of the individual carriages are:
v1s1 = (1−e)
2
v = (1−0.5)
2
v = 0.25v
s1 (1+e) (1+0.5)
v2 = 2 v = 2 v = 0.75v
v3s1 = 0
The energy lost due to the first collision
∆T = T0 −T1 = 12 mv 2 − 12 m (0.25v)2 − 12 m (0.75v)2 = 12 mv 2 (1−(0.25)2 −(0.75)2 )
= 12 mv 2 (0.375)
After the second collision the velocities of the individual carriages are
v1s2 = v1s1 = 0.25v
2) 2)
v2s2 = (1−e4
v = (1−0.5
4
v = 0.187 5
(1+e)2 (1+0.5) 2
v3s2 = 4 v = 4
v = 0.562 5
The energy lost due to both collisions is
∆T = T0 − T12 = 12 mv 2 (1 − (0.25)2 − (0.1875)2 − (0.562 5)2 )
= 12 mv 2 (0.585 94)
After the third ¡collision the velocities of ¢the individual carriages are
v1s3 = (1 − 0.5) 14 (1 − 0.5) + 18 (1 + 0.5)2 v = 0.203 13v
¡ ¢
v2s3 = (1 + 0.5) 14 (1 − 0.5) + 18 (1 − 0.5)2 v = 0.234 38v
v3s3 = 14 (1 + 0.5)2 v = 0.562 5v
The energy lost due to all three collisions is
∆T = T0 − T123 = 12 mv 2 (1 − (0.203 13)2 − (0.234 38)2 − (0.562 5)2 )
= 12 mv 2 (0.587 40)
It is necessary to notice that our analysis is true for arbitrarily small gap between
the carriage 2 and 3. Therefore it is true in the extreme case of zero gap.
PROBLEMS 146
Problem 56
1 2 3
Figure 34
The carriage 1 (see Fig.34) ) moves with a constant velocity v to collide with
the two stationary carriages 2 and 3. The carriages 2 and 3 are constrained by means
of a hinge. Mass of each carriage is identical and it is equal to m. The coefficient of
restitution at the point of collision is e.
1. Produce the equations for the velocity of separation of individual car-
riages and the impulses between the carriages.
2. Solve the equations
3. Produce the expression for the energy lost due to the collision for e = 1,
e = 0.5 and e = 0.
PROBLEMS 147
Solution
1 2 3
v1a=v y2 v2a= v3a =0 y
y1 3
x1 x2 x3
U1 U1 U2 U2
C1 C2
Figure 35
If the carriges 2 and 3 are constrained the collision at the point C1 causes the
inpulse U1 at the point of collision and the impulse U2 at the constrain C2 . Therefore
one may produce the following three equations reflected the linear impulse linear
momentum principle.
m(v1s − v1a ) = −U1
m(v2s − v2a ) = +U1 − U2 (3.86)
m(v3s − v3a ) = +U2
In the above equations
v1a = v v2a = 0 v3a = 0 (3.87)
and due to the constraint at C2
v2s = v3s = v2−3
s
(3.88)
Introducing the equations 3.87 and 3.88 in equations 3.86 we have
m(v1s − v) = −U1
s
mv2−3 = +U1 − U2 (3.89)
s
mv2−3 = +U2
The fourth equation is offered by the Newton’s hypothesis
v1s − v2s v1s − v2−3
s
e=− = − (3.90)
v1a − v2a v
Solution of the equations 3.89 and 3.90 yields
1 − 2e
v1s = v
3
s 1+e
v2−3 = v (3.91)
3
and
2(1 + e)
U1 = mv
3
1+e
U2 = mv (3.92)
3
PROBLEMS 148
If the coefficient of restitution is equal to 1

v1s = − 13 v
s
v2−3 = 23 v
the energy lost is ¡ ¢2 ¡ ¢2
∆T = T a − T s = 12 mv 2 − 12 m 13 v − 12 2m 23 v = 0
If the coefficient of restitution is equal to 0.5
v1s = 1−2e
3
v=0
v2−3 = 3 v = 12 v
s 1+e
the energy lost is ¡ ¢2

∆T = T a − T s = 12 mv 2 − 12 2m 12 v = 14 mv 2
If the coefficient of restitution is equal to 0
v1s = 13 v
s
v2−3 = 13 v
the energy lost is ¡ ¢2
∆T = T a − T s = 12 mv 2 − 12 3m 13 v = 13 mv 2
Part II
ANALYSIS.
149
150
INTRODUCTION.
This part provides bases for the analytical solution and analysis of the math-
ematical model developed in the previous part. It allows to predict motion of the
mechanical system if the forces acting on the system are known. If the motion of
the system can be assumed known, analysis of the mathematical model yields driving
forces which are necessary to maintain the assumed motion. The stability analysis
provides informations about feasibility of the solution obtained.
Chapter 4
ANALYTICAL SOLUTIONS AND THEIR STABILITY.
4.1 ANALYTICAL SOLUTION OF EQUATIONS OF MOTION.

Consideration carried out in the previous part leads to conclusion that motion of
any dynamic system of N degree of freedom, can be described by a set of N ordinary
differential equations of second order. These equations may be written in the following
matrix form.
[M]{q̈} = {g(q1 , q2 ..qn ...qN , q̇1 , q̇2 ..q̇n ..q̇N , t)} n = 1, 2.....N (4.1)
Since the equations 4.1 are always linear with respect to the second derivatives of the
generalize coordinates qn , it follows that
⎧ ⎫
⎪
⎪ ϕ1 (q1 , q2 ..qn ..qN , q̇1 , q̇2 ..q̇n ..q̇N , t) ⎪
⎪
⎨ ⎬
−1 .
{q̈} = [M] {g} = (4.2)
⎪
⎪ . ⎪
⎪
⎩ ⎭
ϕN (q1 , q2 ..qn ..qN , q̇1 , q̇2 ..q̇n ..q̇N , t)
Hence, the equation of motion can be always transferred to the form 4.3
q̈n = ϕn (q1 , q2 ..qn ..qN , q̇1 , q̇2 ..q̇n ..q̇N , t) n = 1, 2..N (4.3)
Functions ϕn are nonlinear and because of that, a general solution can not be ef-
fectively obtained by means of analytical manipulations. However, same particular
solutions, which represent usually so called steady state motion, may by predicted.
Each set of function {qn (t)} which fulfill the equation 4.3 may be considered as its
particular solution.
Relatively easy is to obtain particular solution if the equation 4.3 does not
contain time in explicit form. Such a systems are called autonomous systems and
corresponding equations take form.
q̈n = ϕn (q1 , q2 ..qn ..qN , q̇1 , q̇2 ..q̇n ..q̇N ) n = 1, 2..N (4.4)
Successful prediction of a particular solution is demonstrated in part 1,chapter II
section 6. Always, for autonomous systems, it is possible to predict particular solu-
tions which presents possible equilibrium positions of the system considered. In this
case, velocities q̇n as well as accelerations q̈n may be assumed to be 0. Hence, the
particular solutions of mathematical model 4.4 can be obtained from the following
set of algebraic nonlinear equations.
ϕn (q1 , q2 ..qn ..qN ) = 0 n = 1, 2..N (4.5)
STATE - SPACE FORMULATION OF EQUATIONS OF MOTION. 152
Each set of solution {qno } of equations 4.5 is a particular solution of mathematical

model (4.4) and represents an equilibrium position of the system considered.
Obtained in this way analytical solutions can by divided into two categories:
stable solutions and unstable solutions. To classify a particular solution to one of
the two categories it is necessary to consider effect of small perturbations in initial
conditions of the particular solution. If the initially small perturbation remain small
for any instant of time the solution is stable. If the perturbations grows in time
the particular solution is called unstable. It means that only stable solutions are
realizable in practice.
Strict definition of stable solution and unstable solution as well as analysis
which allows the particular solutions to be classified will be given in the following
chapters.
4.2 STATE - SPACE FORMULATION OF EQUATIONS OF MOTION.

For further consideration is convenient to introduce the following substitutions.
qn = xn (4.6)
q̇n = xN +n (4.7)
Differentiation of Eq. 4.6 with respect to time yields
q̇n = ẋn (4.8)
According to 4.8, the Eq. 4.7 may be rewritten as follow
ẋn = xN+n (4.9)
Introduction of Eq’s. 4.7 and 4.8 into Eq. 4.3 yields
ẋN+n = ϕn (x1 , x2 ..xn ..xN , xN+1 , xN+2 ..xN+n ..x2N , t) (4.10)
The equations 4.9 and 4.10 form one set of differential equation of first order, which
may be written in the following form.
ẋk = fk (x1 , x2 ..xk ..xK , t) (4.11)
where
K = 2N (4.12)
The coordinates xk are called state - space coordinates and the vector
{x} = {x1 , x2 ..xk ..xK }T (4.13)
is called state - space vector.

The first K2 state - space coordinates represent displacement of the system
along generalized coordinates
K
xk = qk for k≤ (4.14)
2
EQUATIONS OF PERTURBATIONS. 153
The others represent velocities along generalized coordinates

K
xk = q̇k− K for k> (4.15)
2 2
The equations 4.11 represents equations of motion of the system considered in 2N -
dimensional Euclidean space called state - space.
4.3 EQUATIONS OF PERTURBATIONS.

Let us assume that
x̃k k = 1, 2, ..K (4.16)

is a particular solution of the set of equations 4.11
ẋk = fk (x1 , x2 ..xk ..xK , t). (4.17)

The solution 4.16 is called nominal motion or undisturbed motion. All other solutions
are called perturbed motion or disturbed motion.
Let us consider the perturbed motion
xk k = 1, 2, ..K (4.18)
caused by perturbation in initial conditions
∆xok k = 1, 2, ..K (4.19)
The perturbed motion 4.18 always can be determined as follows.
xk = x̃k + ∆xk k = 1, 2, ..K (4.20)
where ∆xk is called perturbation.
xk
∆ xk
∆ x ok x~k x k
~x ok
t
Figure 1
The geometrical interpretation of the introduced motions is given in Fig. 1

DEFINITIONS OF STABILITY IN LAPUNOV’S SENSE. 154
To obtain differential equations for the perturbations, let us introduce the

solution 4.20 into differential equations 4.17.
.
˜
xk +∆ẋk = fk (x̃1 + ∆x1 , x̃2 + ∆x2 , ..x̃k + ∆xk ..x̃K + ∆xK , t) (4.21)
Since x̃k is a particular solution it fulfills the equations of motion 4.17. Hence,
.
˜
xk = fk (x̃1 , x̃2 ..x̃k ..x̃K , t). (4.22)
Incorporation of Eq. 4.22 into Eq. 4.21 yields
∆ẋk = −fk (x̃1 , x̃2 ..x̃k ..x̃K , t)

+fk (x̃1 + ∆x1 , x̃2 + ∆x2 , ..x̃k + ∆xk ..x̃K + ∆xK , t) (4.23)
The right hand side of equation 4.21 may be developed into Taylor’s series in a vicinity
of the nominal motion x̃k
fk (x̃1 + ∆x1 , x̃2 + ∆x2 , ..x̃k + ∆xk ..x̃K + ∆xK , t)

Ãi=K !
X ∂fk
= fk (x̃1 , x̃2 ..x̃k ..x̃K , t) + (x̃1 , x̃2 , .., x̃K , t) · ∆xi + h (4.24)
i=1
∂xi
Since the perturbations ∆xi are small, h which contains term of second order and
higher may be neglected. Introduction of Eq. 4.24 into Eq. 4.23 yields equations of
perturbations.
X
i=K
∂fk
∆ẋk = (x̃1 , x̃2 , .., x̃K , t) · ∆xi (4.25)
i=1
∂xi
Upon adopting notation

∂fk
Ak,i =
(x̃1 , x̃2 , .., x̃K , t) (4.26)
∂xi
the equation of perturbations takes form
X
i=K
∆ẋk = Ak,i · ∆xi k = 1, 2, ....., K (4.27)
i=1
From Eq. 4.27 one can see that perturbations are determined by a set of linear
differential equations of first order.
4.4 DEFINITIONS OF STABILITY IN LAPUNOV’S SENSE.

Let
1. ẋk = fk (x1 , x2 ..xk ..xK , t) k = 1, 2, ..K be equations of motion of a mechanical
system,
2. x̃k be its nominal solution,
3. ∆ẋk = Ak,i ∆xi be equations of perturbations corresponding to the nominal solu-
tion x̃k ,
p
4. k∆xk = ∆x21 + ∆x22 + .. + ∆x2k + .. + ∆x2K be a norm in the K− dimensional
Euclidean space.
DEFINITION: The nominal motion x̃k is stable in the Lapunov’s sense if for
every ε > 0, there exists a δ > 0, where δ depends on ε and to only, such that
k∆x(to )k ≤ δ implies kx(t)k ≤ ε for t > to .
DEFINITION: The nominal motion x̃k is asymptotically stable if it is stable
and limt→∞ k∆xk = 0
DEFINITION: The nominal motion x̃k is unstable if there exists ε > 0 such
that for any δ > 0, where δ depends on ε and to only, there exists such a
time t > to that k∆x(to )k ≤ δ implies kx(t)k > ε.
The following figures give geometrical interpretation of stable, asymptotically stable
and unstable solutions respectively.
~
x x
x2 =q
||∆ x(t)||= ∆ x1(t) +∆ x2(t) <ε

2 2
||∆ x(t o )||= ∆ x1(to ) +∆ x2(to ) <δ

2 2
∆ x2(t)
∆ x2(to )
∆ x1(to ) δ ∆ x1(t)
ε to t>to t
x1 =q
Figure 2
~
x x
x2 =q
||∆ x(t)||= ∆ x1(t) +∆ x2(t) <ε

2 2
lim || ∆ x(t)||=0
||∆ x(t o )||= ∆ x1(to ) +∆ x2(to ) <δ
2 2
t
∆ x2(t)
∆ x2(to )
∆ x1(to ) δ ∆ x1(t)
ε to t>to t
x1 =q
Figure 3
||∆ x(t)||= ∆ x1(t) +∆ x2(t) >ε

2 2
~
x x
x2 =q
||∆ x(t o )||= ∆ x1(to ) +∆ x2(to ) <δ

2 2
∆ x2(t)
∆ x2(to )
∆ x1(to ) δ ∆ x1(t)
ε to t>to t
x1 =q
Figure 4
CRITERIA OF STABILITY OF EQUILIBRIUM POSITION. 157
4.5 CRITERIA OF STABILITY OF EQUILIBRIUM POSITION.

In a case of autonomous system always exists a particular solution which does not
depends time
{qno } (4.28)
Such a solution presents equilibrium position of the system considered. Equations of
perturbations for equilibrium position has form 4.25, but the elements Ak,i are time
independent.
XK
∆ẋk = Ak,i ∆xk k = 1, 2, ....., K (4.29)
i=1
General solution of equation of perturbations 4.29 as the linear combination of its

particular solution is.
XK
∆xk = Ck,i eri t (4.30)
i=1
where ri are roots of the following characteristic equation

¯ ¯
¯ A11 − r A12 A13 ..... A1K ¯
¯ ¯
¯ A21 A − r A ..... A24 ¯
¯ 22 23 ¯
¯ ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ¯=0 (4.31)
¯ ¯
¯ ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ¯
¯ ¯
¯ AK1 AK2 AK3 ..... AKK − r ¯
The following criteria, which permit any equilibrium position {qno } to be classified as
stable or unstable, are formulated in terms of roots ri .
STATEMENT: If all roots of the characteristic equation 4.31 has negative
real part, the nominal motion {qno } is asymptotically stable.
STATEMENT: If at least one of roots of the characteristic equation 4.31
has positive real part, the nominal motion is unstable.
STATEMENT: If one root of the characteristic equation 4.31 has real part
equal 0 and all the other have negative real part, the nominal motion is
stable.
STATEMENT: If more then one root of the characteristic equation 4.31
has real part equal to 0 and all other have negative real part, stability of the
nominal motion can not be determined in terms of roots of characteristic
equation only.
PROBLEMS. 158
4.6 PROBLEMS.
Problem 57
Motion of a mechanical system of one degree of freedom is governed by the

following equation.
q̈ + (1 + cos2 q)q̇ − π 2 q + q3 = 0 (4.32)
In the above equation q is the generalized coordinate. Find possible equilibrium
positions of the system and determine their stability.
Solution.
STATE - SPACE FORMULATION OF EQUATIONS OF MOTION AND THE

SYSTEM EQUILIBRIUM POSITIONS.
Let us denote the generalised displacement q by x1 and the generalised velocity

q̇ by x2 .
q = x1
q̇ = x2 (4.33)
Introduction of the above notations into the equation 4.32 results in the following
state-space equation of motion of the system considered.
ẋ1 = x2 = f1
ẋ2 = −(1 + cos2 x1 )x2 + π 2 x1 − x31 = f2 (4.34)
For ẋ1 = 0, and ẋ2 = 0 the above equations yields equations which allow the equilib-
rium positions of the system to be determined.
0 = x2
0 = −(1 + cos2 x1 )x2 + π 2 x1 − x31 (4.35)
The equation 4.35 has the following solutions.
x̃11 = 0
x̃12 = 0 (4.36)
x̃21 = π
x̃22 = 0 (4.37)
x̃31 = −π
x̃32 = 0 (4.38)
ANALYSIS OF STABILITY OF THE EQUILIBRIUM POSITIONS.

PROBLEMS. 159
To formulate the characteristic equation, one has to produce the following

partial derivatives.
∂f1
A11 = =0
∂x1
∂f1
A12 = =1
∂x2
∂f2
A21 = = 2x2 cos x1 sin x1 + π 2 − 3x21
∂x1
∂f2
A22 = = −(1 + cos2 x1 ) (4.39)
∂x2
Stability analysis of solution 4.36
For x̃11 = 0 and x̃12 = 0 the above partial derivatives have the following magni-
tudes
A111 = 0 A112 = 1 A121 = π 2 A122 = −2 (4.40)
Therefore the characteristic equation is
¯ ¯
¯ −r 1 ¯
¯ 2 ¯ = 0
¯ π −2 − r ¯
r2 + 2r − π2 = 0 (4.41)
Its roots are

√
−2 + 4 + 4π2 √
r1 = = −1 + 1 + π 2 > 0
√2
−2 − 4 + 4π 2 √
r2 = = −1 − 1 + π 2 < 0 (4.42)
2
Since the root r1 > 0 this equilibrium position is unstable.
For x̃11 = π and x̃12 = 0 the above partial derivatives have the following mag-
nitudes
A111 = 0 A112 = 1 A121 = −2π2 A122 = −2 (4.43)
¯ ¯
¯ −r 1 ¯
¯ ¯ = 0
¯ −2π 2 −2 − r ¯
r2 + 2r + 2π 2 = 0 (4.44)
Its roots are

√
−2 + 4 − 8π2 √ √
r1 = = −1 + 1 − 2π 2 = −1 + i 2π 2 − 1
√2
−2 − 4 + 4π2 √ √
r2 = = −1 − 1 + π2 = −1 − i 2π 2 − 1 (4.45)
2
PROBLEMS. 160
Since both roots have negative real parts this equilibrium position is stable.
For x̃11 = −π and x̃12 = 0 the above partial derivatives have the following
magnitudes
A111 = 0 A112 = 1 A121 = −2π2 A122 = −2 (4.46)
¯ ¯
¯ −r 1 ¯
¯ ¯ = 0
¯ −2π 2 −2 − r ¯
r2 + 2r + 2π 2 = 0 (4.47)
Its roots are

√
−2 + 4 − 8π2 √ √
r1 = = −1 + 1 − 2π 2 = −1 + i 2π 2 − 1
√2
−2 − 4 + 4π2 √ √
r2 = = −1 − 1 + π2 = −1 − i 2π 2 − 1 (4.48)
2
Since both roots have negative real parts this equilibrium position is stable.
Chapter 5
MODELLING AND ANALYSIS OF A CENTRIFUGE.
5.1 MODELLING
5.1.1 Description of the centrifuge.
Figure 1
To separate heavier fractions from lighter ones, the fluid containing them is subjected
to high acceleration. The high acceleration is produced by installations called cen-
trifuges. The kinematic scheme of a centrifuge is shown in Fig. 1. Container with
the fluid is attached to the whirling arm 2 which is hinged to the rotating with high
speed column 1. Due to centrifugal acceleration the heavier fractions concentrates at
the bottom of the container whereas the lighter ones are still inside the fluid.
MODELLING 162
5.1.2 Physical model
O
y1
α
Y
X x1
Z z1 z2
j1 a A
l
y1
rG
ω - k2 l
β y2
G
1 2
Figure 2
Let XY Z be the inertial system of coordinates. The column 1 is considered as a

rigid body of moment of inertia I1 about axis Z. System of coordinates x1 y1 z1 is
fixed to the body 1. Its instantaneous position with respect to the inertial system of
coordinates XY Z is determined by angle α. The column 1 is driven by a DC electric
motor which characteristic can be approximated by the following relationship.
M = Mo + ∆Mω (5.1)
M− is the driving moment

Mo , ∆M− are parameters
ω = α̇− is the instantaneous angular velocity of the column.
If all arms are identical and can by considered as rigid bodies, they can be
replaced by one, marked in Fig. 2 by number 2, which possesses a mass m equal to
mass of all arms. Its centre of gravity G is chosen as the origin of its body system
of coordinates. The angular position of this body system of coordinates x2 y2 z2 is
determined by the angular displacement β. Axes x2 y2 z2 are principal axis of the
body 2 and moments of inertia, which represent moments of inertia of all arms, are
respectively I2x , I2y , I2z . The system has two degree of freedom. The angles α and β
are chosen as the generalized coordinates.
MODELLING 163
5.1.3 Mathematical model.

KINEMATICS.
ω1 = k1 α̇ (5.2)
ω2 = ω 1 +ω 21 = k1 α̇ + i2 β̇ (5.3)
ω 2x2 = ω2 · i2 = k1 ·i2 α̇ + i2 ·i2 β̇ = β̇

ω 2y2 = ω2 ·j2 = k1 ·j2 α̇ + i2 ·j2 β̇ = α̇ sin β
ω2z2 = ω2 ·k2 = k1 ·k2 α̇ + i2 ·k2 β̇ = α̇ cos β (5.4)
Position vector of the centre of gravity of the link is
rG = j1 a−k2 l (5.5)
rGx2 = rG ·i2 = j1 ·i2 a − k2 ·i2 l = 0

rGy2 = rG ·j2 = j1 ·j2 a − k2 ·j2 l = a cos β
rGz2 = rG ·k2 = j1 ·k2 a − k2 ·k2 l = −a sin β − l (5.6)
Absolute velocity of the centre of gravity is
vG = ṙG = r0G + ω 2 × rG
¯ ¯
¯ i2 j2 k2 ¯
¯ ¯
¯
= j2 (−aβ̇ sin β) + k2 (−aβ̇ cos β) + ¯ β̇ α̇ sin β α̇ cos β ¯
¯
¯ 0 a cos β −a sin β − l ¯
= i2 (−aα̇ − lα̇ sin β) + j2 lβ̇ + k2 (0) (5.7)
Hence, its components along x2 y2 z2 are
vGx2 = −aα̇ − lα̇ sin β

vGy2 = lβ̇
vGz2 = 0 (5.8)
KINETICS.
Motion of the system considered is governed by Lagrange’s equations.

d ∂T ∂T ∂V
( )− + = Qα
dt ∂ α̇ ∂α ∂α
d ∂T ∂T ∂V
( )− + = Qβ (5.9)
dt ∂ β̇ ∂β ∂β
ANALYSIS 164
Kinetic energy function T is assembled of kinetic energy of the link 1 (T1 ) and kinetic
energy of the link 2 (T2 ).
T = T1 + T2 (5.10)
where
T1 = 0.5I1 α̇2 (5.11)
⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤
I2x 0 0 ω2x2
T2 2
= 0.5m(vGx2 2
+ vGy2 2
+ vGz2 ) + 0.5[ω 2x2 , ω 2y2 , ω 2z2 ] ⎣ 0 I2y 0 ⎦ ⎣ ω 2y2 ⎦
0 0 I2z ω2z2
2
= 0.5m(a2 α̇2 + l2 α̇2 sin2 β + 2alα̇2 sin β + l2 β̇ )
2
+0.5(I2x β̇ + I2y sin2 β + I2z α̇2 cos2 β) (5.12)
There is only one conservative force G. The corresponding potential energy function
is
V = mgrGz1 = mgk1 ·rG = mgk1 · (i2 rGx2 + j2 rGy2 + k2 rGz2 )

= mgk1 ·(i2 0 + j2 a cos β + k2 (−a sin β − l)) = −mgl sin β (5.13)
The non-conservative driving moment M produces virtual work.
δW = δα M (5.14)
Hence, the generalized forces are
Qα = M
Qβ = 0 (5.15)
Introduction of Eq’s. 5.12, 5.13, 5.15 and 5.1 into Eq. 5.9 yields the following equation
of motion.
[(I1 + ma2 ) + (I2y + ml2 ) sin2 β + 2mal sin β + I2z cos2 β]α̈+
+[2(I2y − I2z + ml2 ) sin β cos β + 2mal cos β]α̇β̇ − Mo + ∆M α̇ = 0

(I2x + ml2 )β̈ − (I2y − I2z + ml2 )α̇2 sin β cos β − malα̇2 cos β + mgl sin β = 0 (5.16)
5.2 ANALYSIS
5.2.1 Space state formulation of equations of motion.
Since the equations of motion do not depend on α, it is easy to lower the order of the
first equation. Upon introducing
α̇ = ω (5.17)
the equations 5.16 can be rewritten in the following form
[(I1 + ma2 ) + (I2y + ml2 ) sin2 β + 2mal sin β + I2z cos2 β]ω̇+
ANALYSIS 165
+[2(I2y − I2z + ml2 ) sin β cos β + 2mal cos β]ω β̇ − Mo + ∆Mω = 0

(I2x + ml2 )β̈ − (I2y − I2z + ml2 )ω2 sin β cos β − malω 2 cos β + mgl sin β = 0 (5.18)
Introduction of the following notation
β̇ = Ω (5.19)
yields equation of motion in terms of space state coordinates β, ω, and Ω
β̇ = Ω
1
ω̇ = (BΩω sin β cos β + CΩω cos β + Mo − ∆Mω)
A
1
Ω̇ = (Eω 2 sin β cos β + F ω 2 cos β + G sin β) (5.20)
D
where
A = (I1 + ma2 ) + (I2y + ml2 ) sin2 β + 2mal sin β + I2z cos2 β

B = −2(I2y − I2z + ml2 )
C = −2mal
D = I2x + ml2
E = I2y − I2z + ml2
F = mal
G = −mgl (5.21)
5.2.2 Equilibrium positions.

Upon assuming the particular solution of equations 5.20 in the following form
β = β s = constant
ω = ωs = constant (5.22)
one can obtain the following equilibrium conditions
Ωs = 0
Mo − ∆Mω s = 0
Eω2s sin β s cos β s + F ω2s cos β s + G sin β s = 0 (5.23)
Solutions of the above equations for different magnitude of ωs are presented in Fig.
3 The following set of data was adopted for numerical computation.
I1 = 2.5 [kgm2 ]
m = 8 [kg]
I2x = 2 [kgm2 ]
I2y = 2 [kgm2 ]
I2z = 0.2 [kgm2 ]
a = 0.3 [m]
ANALYSIS 166
l = 0.5 [m]
10
ωs
ωs 5
rad/s
β s1 β s2 β s3 β s4
0
-3 -2 -1 0 1
β s rad
Figure 3
β s1 β s2 β s4
β s3
Figure 4
From Fig. 3 one can see that for 0 < ωs < 5.1[rad/s] there exists two equilib-
rium position. For ω s > 5.1[rad/s] there exists four possible equilibrium position. The
four equilibrium positions β s1 , β s2 , β s3 and β s4 which correspond to ω s = 7[rad/s]
are presented in Fig. 4. Not all of them have to be stable. Hence, stability analysis
is required to distinguish between stable and unstable equilibrium positions.
5.2.3 Equations of perturbation - stability of the equilibrium positions.
The already found particular solution forms the nominal motion.
β = βs ω = ωs Ω = Ωs = 0 (5.24)
Equations of motion 5.20 may by rewritten as follow.
β̇ = ϕ1 (β, ω, Ω)
ω̇ = ϕ2 (β, ω, Ω)
Ω̇ = ϕ3 (β, ω, Ω) (5.25)
ANALYSIS 167
where
ϕ1 = Ω
1
ϕ2 = (BΩω sin β cos β + CΩω cos β + Mo − ∆Mω)
A
1
ϕ3 = (Eω 2 sin β cos β + F ω 2 cos β + G sin β) (5.26)
D
Equation of perturbations has the following form.
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤
∆β̇ A11 A12 A13 ∆β
⎣ ∆ω̇ ⎦ = ⎣ A21 A22 A23 ⎦ ⎣ ∆ω ⎦ (5.27)
∆Ω̇ A31 A32 A33 ∆Ω
where
∂ϕ1
A11 = (β s , ωs , Ωs ) = 0
∂β
∂ϕ1
A12 = (β , ωs , Ωs ) = 0
∂ω s
∂ϕ1
A13 = (β , ωs , Ωs ) = 1
∂Ω s
∂ϕ2
A21 = (β s , ωs , Ωs )
∂β
(2(I2y + ml2 ) sin β s cos β s + 2mal cos β s − 2I2z sin β s cos β s )(Mo − ∆Mω s )
=
A(β s )2
Since according to Eq. 5.23 Mo − ∆Mωs = 0
A21 = 0
∂ϕ2 −∆M
A22 = (β s , ω s , Ωs ) =
∂ω A(β s )
∂ϕ2 B sin β s cos β s ω s + C cos β s ω s
A23 = (β s , ω s , Ωs ) =
∂Ω A(β s )
∂ϕ3 Eω s cos β s − Eω 2s sin2 β s − F ω 2s sin β s + G cos β s
2 2
A31 = (β s , ω s , Ωs ) =
∂β D
∂ϕ3 2Eω s sin β s cos β s + 2F ω s cos β s
A32 = (β s , ω s , Ωs ) =
∂ω D
∂ϕ3
A33 = (β , ω s , Ωs ) = 0 (5.28)
∂Ω s
The characteristic equation is
¯ ¯
¯ A11 − r A A ¯
¯ 12 13 ¯
¯ A21 A − r A ¯=0 (5.29)
¯ 22 23 ¯
¯ A31 A32 A33 − r ¯
If all roots of the above equation have negative real parts, solution β s , ω s , Ωs is con-
sidered as stable. Application of this criterion to the system considered leads to
conclusion that only solution shown in Fig. 5 are stable.
ANALYSIS 168
10
ωs
ωs
rad/s 5
β s2 β s4
0
-3 -2 -1 0 1
β s rad
Figure 5
For ω s = 7[s−1 ] there exists two stable equilibrium positions. They are ωs =
7[s ], β s2 = −1.25[rad] and ω s = 7[s−1 ], β s4 = 1.399[rad]. Roots of the equation
−1
5.29 corresponding to these equilibrium positions were computed to be
r21 = −0.1352 + i5.733 r22 = −0.1352 − i5.733 r23 = −1.2765 + i0

r41 = −0.0200 + i7.811 r42 = −0.0200 − i7.881 r43 = −0.7215 + i0
(5.30)
respectively. Their real parts proves stability of the equilibrium positions. Their imag-
inary conjugated parts represents frequencies of the decaying oscillations in vicinity
of the equilibrium positions ( see Fig. 6 and 7).
Which stable position the system finally obtains depend on initial conditions.
Numerical simulation carried out for Mo = 50[Nm] and ∆M = Mo /7[Nms], indicates
that for initial conditions
β(0) = 0 ω(0) = 0 Ω(0) = −2.5 (5.31)
the system tends to equilibrium position β s2 = −1.25[rad] (see Fig. 6). But, for
initial conditions
β(0) = 0 ω(0) = 0 Ω(0) = 0 (5.32)
the system tends to position β s4 = 1.399[rad] (see Fig. 7).
ANALYSIS 169
6
β rad
4
ω rad/s
2
-2
0 10 20 30 40
time s
Figure 6
6
β rad
4 ω rad/s
0
0 10 20 30 40
time s
Figure 7
Part III
EXPERIMENTAL
INVESTIGATIONS.
170
171
INTRODUCTION.
The results obtained by modeling and analyzing a dynamic problem corre-
spond strictly to the physical model we have created. Assumptions adopted for the
physical model always simplify the problem considered. Hence, the obtained results
(e.g.. dynamic behavior of the physical model) are different then a true dynamic
behavior of the real object. Experimental investigation allows to assess these differ-
ences. If they are negligible from practical point of view, one can adopt the developed
mathematical model as well as the methods used for its solution for further design.
If experimental investigation shows unacceptable differences the physical model or
methods of its analysis must be improved.
If the object is still on design stage, experimental investigation can be car-
ried out on especially design models supplied with measuring equipment (laboratory
installations). Models for experimental investigation should possesses all features of
the real object which has an qualitative influence on the problem considered. Results
of the experimental investigation can not be transfer directly to the real object, but
form a base for verification of mathematical model and methods used for its analysis.
After verification the mathematical model can be used for qualitative description of
the problem existing in the real object.
In some cases it is possible to design model which reflect the dynamic prob-
lem both qualitatively and quantitatively. Theory of dynamic similarity permits the
scaling factors between the real object and the model to be calculated. Upon using
these scaling factors, experimental results can be transfer to the real object without
any mathematical model.
The following chapters provide examples of modeling analysis and experimen-
tal investigation of two dynamic problems.
Chapter 6
INVESTIGATION OF THE EFFECT OF A GYROSTABILIZER
ON MOTION OF A SHIP.
6.1 DESCRIPTION OF THE GYROSTABILIZER.
Z y2
z1
z2 α
2 Y y1
3 β
1
X
O
Ω
x1 x2
Figure 1
Housing 2 of the gyroscope 3 is free to rotate about axis x1 as shown in Fig. 1. The
gyroscope 3, driven by a motor, rotates with respect to the housing about axis z2 .
Such device attenuates greatly the rolling motion of the ship 1. caused by impacts of
waves and blows of wind. Fig. 2 shows the stabilizer installed on the board of a ship.
MODELLING. 173
Figure 2
6.2 MODELLING.
6.2.1 Physical model.
The physical model of the system considered is shown in Fig. 3. In this figure XY Z
are axis of the inertial system of coordinates. System of coordinates x1 y1 z1 is rigidly
attached to the ship whereas x2 y2 z2 makes body 2 ( housing) system of coordinates.
Axis x2 y2 z2 are principal axis of the body 2 through centre of rotation O.
z1 Z
z2 z1
β
α
y2 Mb Ω
y1 3 2 1
o
G3 Mr = -G 1 h
G2 a3
O X
a2
G1 H1
a1
x1
h
G1
Figure 3
The ship 1 is considered as a rigid body which is free to rotate about axis Y .
Its angular position is determined by the angle α. All linear displacements as well as
MODELLING. 174
pitching and yawing of the ship are neglected. Moment of inertia of the ship about
its axis of rotation will be denoted by I1y and its centre of gravity is determined by
the distance a1 . Due to the gravity force G1 and the buoyancy force H1 there exists
the righting moment which in this physical model is denoted by Mr .
Housing 2 can to rotate about axis x2 and the angle β uniquely determines
its relative angular position with respect to the ship. Its principal moments of inertia
along axes x2 y2 z2 will be denoted by I2x , I2y , I2z respectively. Centre of gravity G2 is
determined by distance a2 and its mass will be denoted by m2 . Between the housing
and the ship there is a brake installed. It produces the braking moment about the
axis of relative rotation x2 . This braking moment is denoted in Fig. 3by Mb .
The gyroscope 3 rotates with the constant angular speed Ω about axis z2
relatively to its housing. Axis z2 is an axis of symmetry of the gyroscope. The
principal moments of inertia of the gyroscope are denoted by I3 = I3x = I3y , I3z
and its mass by m3 . The centre of gravity of the gyroscope G3 is determined by the
distance a3
If one adopts the above assumptions, the system can be considered as system
of two degree of freedom. The two generalized coordinates are denoted by α and β.
Kinematics.
Angular velocity of the ship 1. along body 1 system of coordinates x1 y1 z1 .
ω 1 = j1 α̇ (6.1)
Angular velocity of the housing 2 along body 2 system of coordinates x2 y2 z2
ω 2 = ω1 + ω21 = j1 α̇ + i2 β̇ = i2 β̇ + j2 α̇ cos β − k2 α̇ sin β (6.2)
Angular velocity of the gyroscope 3 along body 2 system of coordinates x2 y2 z2 .
ω3 = ω2 + ω 32 = i2 β̇ + j2 α̇ cos β + k2 (−α̇ sin β + Ω) (6.3)
Velocity of the centre of gravity G1 along system of coordinates x1 y1 z1 may be ob-

tained by differentiation of its position vector rG1 = k1 (−a1 ).
¯ ¯
¯ i1 j1 k1 ¯
¯ ¯
vG1 = ω1 × k1 (−a1 ) = ¯¯ 0 α̇ 0 ¯¯ = −i1 α̇a1 (6.4)
¯ 0 0 −a1 ¯
Velocity of the centre of gravity G2 along system of coordinates z2 y2 z2 may be ob-

tained by differentiation of its position vector rG2 = k2 (−a2 ).
¯ ¯
¯ i2 j k ¯
¯ 2 2 ¯
vG2 = ω2 × k2 (−a2 ) = ¯¯ β̇ α̇ cos β −α̇ sin β ¯¯ = −i2 a2 α̇ cos β + j2 a2 β̇ (6.5)
¯ 0 0 −a2 ¯
MODELLING. 175
Equations of motion of the gyroscope (body 3).
z1
z2
β Ω
y
2
R 32y2 R 32z2
y1 M32y2 M32z2 z2
Ω
G3 o2
a3 R 32z2
M32z2 3
o1
G3
M32x2
R 32x2
x
2
Figure 4
The free body diagram of the gyroscope 3 is shown in Fig. 4. The origin o2 is
chosen as the point of reduction of the interaction forces (M32 and R32 ) between
the gyroscope and its housing. The component M32z2 stands for the driving moment
that has to apply to the gyroscope to keep it going with the assumed velocity Ω. The
gyroscope performs rotational motion about point O and its axis of relative rotation
is axis of symmetry. Hence, the modified Euler’s equations may be used.
I3 ω̇ 2x + (I3z − I3 )ω 2y ω 2z + I3z ω 2y Ω = M32x2 − m3 a3 g cos α sin β (6.6)

I3 ω̇ 2y − (I3z − I3 )ω 2x ω 2z − I3z ω 2x Ω = M32y2 − m3 a3 g sin α (6.7)
I3z (ω̇ 2z + Ω̇) = M32z2 (6.8)
Introduction of Eq. 6.2 into Eqs. 6.6, 6.7 and 6.8 yields.
I3 β̈ + (I3z − I3 )(−α̇2 sin β cos β) + I3z Ωα̇ cos β =
= M32x2 − m3 a3 g cos α sin β (6.9)

I3 (α̈ cos β − α̇β̇ sin β) − (I3z − I3 )(−α̇β̇sinβ) − I3z Ωβ̇ = M32y2 − m3 a3 g sin α (6.10)
I3z (−α̈ sin β − α̇β̇ cos β) = M32z2 (6.11)
MODELLING. 176
Equations of motion of the housing (body 2).
z1 z2
y2 R 21z2
R 21y2 β
M21z2
M21y2
Mb
R 23y2 R 23z2
y1 2
M23y2
o M23z2
G2
a2
Figure 5
The free body diagram of the housing is shown in Fig. 5. The housing is interacting
with both the gyroscope 3 and the ship body 1. M23 and R23 represent the moment
and force due to interaction with the gyroscope whereas M21 and R21 stand for the
moment and force due to interaction with the ship. Mb represents the breaking
moment produced by a break installed between the body of ship and the housing.
The housing performs rotational motion about the point O. Hence Euler equations
may be used.
I2x ω̇ 2x + (I2z − I2y )ω 2y ω 2z = M23x2 − m2 a2 g cos α sin β + Mb (6.12)

I2y ω̇ 2y + (I2x − I2z )ω 2x ω 2z = M23y2 + M21y2 − m2 a2 g sin α (6.13)
I2z ω̇2z + (I2y − I2x )ω 2x ω 2y = M23z2 + M21z2 (6.14)
Introducing Eq. 6.2 into Eqs. 6.12, 6.13 and 6.14 one can obtain
I2x β̈ + (I2z − I2y )(−α̇2 sin β cos β) =
= M23x2 − m2 a2 g sin β + Mb (6.15)

I2y (α̈ cos β − α̇β̇ sin β) + (I2x − I2z )(−α̇β̇ sin β) =
= M23y2 + M21y2 − m2 a2 g sin α (6.16)
I2z (−α̈ sin β − α̇β̇ cos β) + (I2y − I2x )α̇β̇ cos β = M23z2 + M21z2 (6.17)
MODELLING. 177
Equations of motion of the ship (body 1).
z1
Z
z2 z1
β
α
y2
M12y2 M12z2
y1 2 1
Y o
Mr Mr = -G 1 h
O X
G1 H1
a1
x1
h
G1
Figure 6
The ship performs rotational motion about axis y1 , which is fixed in the inertial space.
Hence its motion may be described by Newton’s generalized equation.
I1y α̈ = M12y1 + Mr (6.18)
Since according to Fig. 6
M12y1 = M12y2 cos β − M12z2 sin β (6.19)
the equation ( 6.18) can be rewritten in the following form.
I1y α̈ = (M12y2 cos β − M12z2 sin β) + Mr (6.20)
Equations of motion.
Taking into consideration, that
M23x2 = −M32x2 M23y2 = −M32y2 M23z2 = −M32z2

M12y2 = −M21y2 M12z2 = −M21z2 (6.21)
the derived equations may be rewritten in the following form.
I3 β̈ + (I3z − I3 )(−α̇2 sinβcosβ) + I3z Ωα̇ cos β = M32x2 − m3 a3 g cos α sin β

I3 (α̈ cos β − α̇β̇ sin β) − (I3z − I3 )(−α̇β̇sinβ) − I3z Ωβ̇ = M32y2 − m3 a3 sin α
I3z (−α̈ sin β − α̇β̇ cos β) = M32z2
ANALYSIS. 178
I2x β̈ + (I2z − I2y )(−α̇2 sin β cos β) = −M32x2 − m2 a2 g sin β + Mb

I2y (α̈ cos β − α̇β̇ sin β) + (I2x − I2z )(−α̇β̇ sin β) = −M32y2 − M12y2 − m2 a2 g sin α
I2z (−α̈ sin β − α̇β̇ cos β) + (I2y − I2x )α̇β̇ cos β = −M32z2 − M12z2
I1y α̈ = (M12y2 cos β − M12z2 sin β) + Mr (6.22)

The above 7 equations comprises 7 unknown: α, β, M12y2 , M12z2 , M32x2 , M32y2 , M32z2 .
Upon eliminating the five unknown components of reaction moments, one may obtain
two differential equations which govern motion of the system considered.
[I1y + (I2y + I3 ) cos2 β + (I2z + I3z ) sin2 β]α̈ + (I2z − I2y + I3z − I3 )α̇β̇ sin 2β
−I3z Ωβ̇ cos β + (m2 a2 + m3 a3 )g cos β sin α − Mr = 0

1
(I2x + I3 )β̈ + (I3 − I3z + I2y − I2z )α̇2 sin 2β + I3z Ωα̇ cos β
2
+(m2 a2 + m3 a3 )g cos α sin β − Mb = 0 (6.23)
6.3 ANALYSIS.
For analysis of the mathematical model derived in the previous section, it is assumed
that the righting moment may by approximated by function
Mr = −Mro sin α (6.24)
and the breaking moment is considered as a linear function of the angular displace-
ment β and its first derivative β̇
Mb = −kβ − cβ̇ (6.25)
Introducing the above relationships into equations 6.23, the equations of motion take
the following form
[I1y + (I2y + I3 ) cos2 β + (I2z + I3z ) sin2 β]α̈ + (I2z − I2y + I3z − I3 )α̇β̇ sin 2β
−I3z Ωβ̇ cos β + (m2 a2 + m3 a3 )g cos β sin α + Mro sin α = 0

1
(I2x + I3 )β̈ + (I3 − I3z + I2y − I2z )α̇2 sin 2β + I3z Ωα̇ cos β
2
+(m2 a2 + m3 a3 )g cos α sin β + kβ + cβ̇ = 0 (6.26)
The above equations has been solved by means of Runge Kutta method for numerical
data corresponding to a liner of length 110m. and total mass 5.1 × 106 kg. Figure
7 presents proportions between the ship and gyroscope. To see the influence of the
gyroscope on the dynamic behavior of the ship let us compute motion of the ship
caused by an impact of wave for rotating and stationary gyroscope. Let us assume
that the impact initiates motion of the previously motionless ship with initial angular
velocity α̇o = 0.1rad/s. Hence, the initial conditions may be chosen as follow.
αo = 0 α̇o = .1 β o = 0 β̇ o = 0 (6.27)
ANALYSIS. 179
0.4m
110m
4m
15m
Figure 7 Parameters of the ship and gyroscope., I3 = 0.1 × 106 kgm2 , I3z = .05 ×
106 kgm2 , I2x = 0.2 × 106 kgm2 , I2y = 0.1 × 106 kgm2 , I2z = 0.2 × 106 kgm2 , I1y =
198.5 × 106 kgm2 , m1 = 5.1 × 106 kg, Mro = 9. × 106 Nm, m2 a2 + m3 a3 = 1. × 103 Nm,
k = 1. × 104 Nm/rad, c = 1. × 106 Nms/rad, Ω = 300 rad/s
0.5
0
α &β
-0.5
[rad]
-1.0
-1.5
0 50 100 150 200
time [s]
α β
Figure 8 Motion for the stationary gyroscope.
0.5
0
α &β
-0.5
[rad]
-1.0
-1.5
0 50 100 150 200
time [s]
α β
Figure 9 Motion for the rotating gyroscope.

EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATIONS. 180
Solution of equations with the above initial conditions for stationary gyroscope (Ω =
0) is presented in Fig. 8. The ship, in this case, performs an oscillatory motion with
period T ≈ 30s whereas the housing is motionless with respect to the ship.
Solution of the equations 6.26 with the same initial conditions for the gyroscope
rotating with angular velocity Ω = 300rad/s is presented in Fig. 9 In this case
the energy of the impact is adopted not only by the ship, but by the housing with
gyroscope as well. Due to large relative motion of the housing the energy is dissipated
by the brake. It results in three times smaller swing of the ship and fast return to its
equilibrium position.
6.4 EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATIONS.

Results of the above analysis are more reliable if they are supported by an experimen-
tal investigation which usually is aimed to assess assumptions done during creation of
physical model, evaluate mathematical methods adopted for solution of mathematical
model as well as to make sure that there is no mistakes in derivation of mathematical
model or programming.
The experimental investigation can be curried out on real objects (if they
exist and are available for experiment), dynamically similar models (if feasible), or
on especially design laboratory installations which contains all important features of
the real system but only qualitatively reflect its dynamic properties.
This section presents the last approach to experimental investigations aimed
to verify mathematical model 6.23.
6.4.1 Description of the laboratory installation
Schematic of the laboratory installation is shown in Fig. 10.
S
B
10
H 11
7
A
1 6
2 8
3
A
5
1
4
Figure 10
Frame 1, which represents the ship, is free to rotate about the horizontal axis
with respect to the motionless base 4. Housing 2 of the gyroscope 3 is free to rotate
with respect to the frame 1. the hydraulic damper 8 produces a damping moment
which depend on relative motion of the housing with respect to the frame 1. The
gyroscope 3 is driven by electric motor 5 with a constant speed. Protractors 6 and
7 allows to measure the angular position of the ship α and housing β. They are used
for scaling of transducers A and B. The transducers A and B produce the analog
signals which are proportional to the angular displacements α and β. These signals,
in a digitized form, are send to a memory of the computer 11.
The laboratory installation was design to fulfil some of the adopted assump-
tions. Similarly to the physical model the body which represents the ship may only
rotates about one axis Y. Of course, those assumption can not be evaluated by means
of the following experimental investigation.
6.4.2 Mathematical model of the laboratory installation.
In the case of laboratory installation the righting moment Mr is produced by gravity
forces and friction which is here approximated by a linear damping with coefficient
cα . Hence
Mr = −m1 a1 gsinα − cα α̇ (6.28)
Assume that the real friction produced by the break is a linear friction with coefficient
cβ .
Mb = −cβ β̇ (6.29)
Introduction of Eqs.6.28 and 6.29 into Eq. 6.23 yields
[I1y + (I2y + I3 ) cos2 β + (I2z + I3z ) sin2 β]α̈ + (I2z − I2y + I3z − I3 )α̇β̇ sin 2β+
−I3z Ωβ̇ cos β + (m2 a2 + m3 a3 )g cos β sin α + m1 a1 g sin α + cα α̇ = 0

1
(I2x + I3 )β̈ + (I3 − I3z + I2y − I2z )α̇2 sin 2β + I3z Ωα̇ cos β+
2
+(m2 a2 + m3 a3 )g cos α sin β + cβ β̇ = 0 (6.30)
The mathematical model above has the following parameters:
m2 a2 + m3 a3 − static moment of the housing and gyroscope
m1 a1 − static moment of the ship
I1y − moment of inertia of the ship about axis y1
I2x − moment of inertia of the housing about axis x2
I2y − moment of inertia of the housing about axis y2
I2z − moment of inertia of the housing about axis z2
I3 − moment of inertia of the gyroscope about axis x2 and y2
I3z − moment of inertia of the gyroscope about axis z2
cα − damping coefficient corresponding to velocity α̇
cβ − damping coefficient corresponding to velocity β̇
Ω− angular speed of the gyroscope
All of the above parameters have to be identified.
6.4.3 Identification of parameters.

Identification of static moments (m2 a2 + m3 a3 and m1 a1 ).
Static moment m2 a2 + m3 a3 may be obtained by measuring angle β H caused by a
weight of the known mass mH suspended from the point H. (see Fig. 10).
βH
a2
a3
lH
3
O
G3 2
G2
H
m3 g
m2 g
mH g
Figure 11
From Fig. 11 one can see that
(m2 a2 + m3 a3 )g sin β H = mH glH cos β H (6.31)
Hence
m2 a2 + m3 a3 = mH lH cot β H (6.32)
In a similar manner, upon suspending a weight mS at point S, (see Fig. 10), one can
identify static moment m1 a1 + m2 a2 + m3 a3
m1 a1 + m2 a2 + m3 a3 = mS lS cot αS (6.33)
Hence
m1 a1 = mS lS cot αS − mH lH cot β H (6.34)
Identification of damping coefficients and moments of inertia of the whole

assembly.
Estimation by means of the linear theory of vibrations.
Damping coefficient and moment of inertia of the whole assembly (I1y +I2y +I3 )
about axis y1 can be obtained by analysis of the free motion of the whole assembly
about axis y1 for stationary gyroscope and motionless housing with respect to the
ship (Ω = 0, β = 0, β̇ = 0, β̈ = 0).
According to Eq. 6.30 the free motion of the ship is governed by the following
equation
(I1y + I2y + I3 )α̈ + (m1 a1 + m2 a2 + m3 a3 )g sin α + cα α̇ = 0 (6.35)
The estimation of moment of inertia I1y + I2y + I3 as well as damping coefficient cα
may be obtained with help of the linearized equation 6.35. It is as follows.
I α̈ + kα + cα α̇ = 0 (6.36)
where
Iα = I1y + I2y + I3
kα = (m1 a1 + m2 a2 + m3 a3 )g
or
α̈ + ω 2o α + 2hα̇ = 0 (6.37)
whereq
ωα = kIαα
cα
2hα = Iα
The moment of inertia Iα may be assessed from relationship between the period
of free oscillation Tα and the natural frequency ω α .
r
2π Iα
Tα = = 2π (6.38)
ωα kα
The period Tα can be obtained from the recorded free motion of the ship. An example
of the recorded free motion of the ship αex (t) is presented in Fig. 12.
α ex
α ex (t) α ex (t+Tα )
t
Tα
t
t+Tα
Figure 12
Since kα has been already identified the formula 6.38 yields approximate mag-
nitude of the moment of inertia Iα .
Tα2 kα Tα2 (m1 a1 + m2 a2 + m3 a3 )g
Iα = = (6.39)
4π 2 4π 2
The damping coefficient may be assessed from the following relationship.

µ ¶
αex (t) cα
ln = Tα hα = Tα (6.40)
αex (t + Tα ) 2Iα
Hence, µ ¶
αex (t) 2Iα
cα = ln (6.41)
αex (t + Tα ) Tα
Damping coefficient cβ and moment of inertia Iβ = I2x + I3 of the gyroscope
and housing about axis x1 can be obtained by means of analysis of the free motion of
the gyroscope and housing about axis x1 for the stationary gyroscope and motionless
ship 1 (see Fig. 10) (Ω = 0, α = 0, α̇ = 0, α̈ = 0). In the same manner as previously
one can obtained the following formulae for estimation of parameters Iβ = I2x + I3
and cβ .
Tβ2 kβ Tβ2 (m2 a2 + m3 a3 )g
Iβ = = (6.42)
4π 2 4π 2
µ ¶
αex (t) 2Iβ
cβ = ln (6.43)
αex (t + Tβ ) Tβ
Magnitude of these parameters can be improved by fitting solution of the non-linear
model 6.35 into the recorded motion by means of the curve fitting technique. Com-
puted in this way parameters may be considered as the ’identified’ ones.
The curve fitting technique.
Very often, to identify parameters of a mathematical model, the curve fitting

technique is used. To explain it, let us assume that xex (t) is the recorded motion of a
system. This motion is approximated by solution of x(t) of the following mathematical
model.
ϕ(ẍ, ẋ, x, t, a, b) = 0 (6.44)
where a and b are parameters to be identify.
The recorded motion always allows to assess the initial conditions.
xo = xex (0)
xex (∆t) − xex (0)
ẋo = (6.45)
∆t
where ∆t is the sampling interval.
At this stage one can solve equation 6.44 for estimated magnitudes of para-
meters a, b and initial conditions 6.45. Let x(t) be this solution.
Accuracy of approximation of the recorded motion xex (t) by the solution x(t)
may by determined by error function as follow.
Ãn=N !1/2
X
ER = (xex (tn ) − x(tn ))2 (6.46)
n=1
Now, upon varying the parameters a and b one can minimize the error ER. Parame-
ters ai and bi for which error has the smallest magnitude can be considered as the
identified ones.
Parameters I3 and I3z may be assessed with sufficient accuracy analytically
and parameter I2y may be assumed as equal to I2x . Therefore
I2x = Iβ − I3
I2y = I2x
I1y = Iα − I2y − I3 (6.47)
The gyroscope is driven by one phase AC electrical motor, hence its angular speed
may by assumed to be 3000RP M.
6.4.4 Verification of the mathematical model.
Having all parameters of the mathematical model identified, one may verify it. This
verification can be obtained by comparison of the recorded motion of the laboratory
installation with solution of its mathematical model. The necessary initial conditions
have to coincide initial condition of the recorded motion.
Chapter 7
INVESTIGATION OF AN INDICATOR OF ANGULAR
VELOCITY.
7.1 DESCRIPTION OF THE INDICATOR.
y2
Z,z1
z2 β y1
1 2 3 4 α
Y
ω1 X
x1
Figure 1
It is easy to measure the absolute angular velocity of an object if it performs its

rotational motion in an immediate neighborhood of another which can be considered
as motionless. For example, relative angular velocity of a rotor measured with respect
to its housing may be considered as absolute one if the housing is founded on the
Earth. Much more difficult is to measure or control the absolute velocity of an object
which performs its motion far away from the Earth (planes, ships, floating platforms,
etc.) or are installed on vehicle performing its own rotational motion (a radar antenna
installed on a track). In such cases the principle of work of indicators of the absolute
angular velocity are based on gyroscopic effect.
Fig. 1. presents an indicator which may be used to measure and control
MODELLING 187
absolute angular velocity of a floating platform.

The gyroscope 3 is driven by the motor 4 which is fixed to the housing 4 of
the gyroscope. Since the housing is free to rotate about the horizontal axis x1 , its axis
z2 , due to gravity forces, is vertical if the platform 1 is motionless. If the platform
rotates, the housing changes its angular position β.
The following analysis is aimed to establish a relationship between the an-
gular velocity of the platform and angular position of the housing. Experimental
investigations allows to verify the derived mathematical model.
7.2 MODELLING
7.2.1 Physical model.
O y1
β α
X x1 Y
z2 Z z1 y2
3
ω1
β
O y1 2
G3
G2
l3
l2
Figure 2
The physical model of the described indicator is shown in Fig. 2. Axes XY Z forms
the inertial system of coordinates. The system of coordinates x1 y1 z1 is rigidly con-
nected to the platform 1 and rotates with the constant angular velocity ω1 . Housing,
with all attached accessories, form the rigid body 2, and x2 y2 z2 is the body 2 sys-
tem of coordinates. The centre of gravity G2 of the body 2 is located at distance l2
from the centre of rotation C. Its angular position with respect to the platform 1 is
determined by an angle β.
The gyroscope 3, together with rotor of the motor 4, is regarded as rigid body
3. Axis z2 is its axis of symmetry and the dimension l3 locates its centre of gravity G3 .
The body 3 rotates with the constant angular rate Ω about axis z2 . Axes x2 y2 z2 are
MODELLING 188
principal axes of body 2 and 3. Moments of inertia of the two bodies are I2x2 , I2y2 , I2z2
and I3x2 = I3y2 = I3 , I3z2 respectively.
Between the housing 2 and platform 1 there exists damping which can be
approximated as viscous damping Md = −cβ̇.
Equations of motion of the gyroscope.
O y1
α
M32x2 Y
X x1 x2
z2 Z z1 y2
β M32y2
M32z2
y1
O
G3
l3
m3 g
Figure 3
The gyroscope 3, whose the free body diagram is shown in Fig. 3, performs rotational
motion about the origin O, and axis z2 is its axis of symmetry. Hence, the modified
Euler equations may be used to describe its motion. The gyroscope 3 rotates with the
angular velocity Ω with respect to system of coordinates x2 y2 z2 whereas the system
of coordinates has its own angular velocity ω 2 .
ω 2 = ω1 + ω21 = k1 ω 1 + i2 β̇ (7.1)
Its components along the system coordinates x2 y2 z2 are
ω 2x2 = i2 · ω2 = i2 · (k1 ω 1 + i2 β̇) = β̇

ω 2y2 = j2 · ω2 = j2 · (k1 ω1 + i2 β̇) = ω 1 sin β
ω 2z2 = k2 · ω2 = k2 · (k1 ω 1 + i2 β̇) = ω 1 cos β (7.2)
MODELLING 189
Introduction of equations 7.2 into the modified Euler equations
I ω̇ x + (Iz − I)ωy ω z + Iz Ωω y = Mx
I ω̇ y − (Iz − I)ωx ω z − Iz Ωω x = My
Iz (ω̇ z + Ω̇) = Mz (7.3)
yields
I3 β̈ + (I3z2 − I3 )ω 21 sin β cos β + I3z2 Ωω 1 sin β = M32x2 − m3 gl3 sin β

I3 (ω̇1 sin β + ω1 β̇ cos β) − (I3z2 − I3 )ω1 β̇ cos β − I3z2 Ωβ̇ = M32y2
I3z2 (ω̇1 cos β − ω1 β̇ sin β + Ω) = M32z2 (7.4)
where
M32x2 , M32y2 , M32z2 are components of the resultant moment of reactions of the body
2 on the gyroscope 3.
Equations of motion of the housing 2.
O y1
M21x2 = M d α
M23x2 Y
X x1 x2
z2 Z z1 y2
M21y2
M21z2
β M23y2
M23z2
y1
O
G2
l2
m2 g
Figure 4
ANALYSIS 190
The housing 2 whose the physical model is shown in Fig. 4 performs rotational
motion about point O. Hence Euler unmodified equations may be used.
Ix ω̇ x + (Iz − Iy )ωy ω z = Mx
Iy ω̇ y + (Ix − Iz )ω x ω z = My
Iz ω̇ z + (Iy − Ix )ωy ω x = Mz (7.5)
Upon introducing the relationship 7.2, the equations of motion takes the following
form.
I2x2 β̈ + (I2z2 − I2y2 )ω21 sin β cos β = M23x2 − m2 gl2 sin β − cβ̇
I2y2 (ω̇1 sin β + ω1 β̇ cos β) + (I2x2 − I2z2 )ω 1 β̇ cos β = M23y2 + M21y2
I2z2 (ω̇ 1 cos β − ω 1 β̇ sin β) + (I2y2 − I2x2 )ω 1 β̇ sin β = M23z2 + M21z2 (7.6)
Equations of motion of the system.

Taking into consideration that
M23x2 = −M32x2 (7.7)
the first of equation 7.4 and first of equation 7.6 yield the following equation of motion.
Ix β̈ + (Iz − Iy )ω 21 sin β cos β + I3z2 Ωω1 sin β + MG sin β + cβ̇ = 0 (7.8)
where
Ix = I2x2 + I3 – moment of inertia of the whole assembly about axis x2
Iy = I2y2 + I3 – moment of inertia of the whole assembly about axis y2
Iz = I2z2 + I3z2 – moment of inertia of the whole assembly about axis z2
MG = m2 gl2 + m3 gl3 – static moment with respect to point of rotation O.
7.3 ANALYSIS
7.3.1 Particular solutions. (equilibrium positions).
Let us find a particular solution which can be predicted in the following form.
β = β o = constant (7.9)
Introduction of Eq. 7.9 into Eq. 7.8) yields.
((Iz − Iy )ω 21 cos β o + I3z2 Ωω1 + MG ) sin β o = 0 (7.10)
Hence, µ ¶
I3z2 Ωω 1 + MG
β o = arccos − , β o = 0 and β o = π (7.11)
(Iz − Iy )ω 21
For the following set of numerical data
Ix = 0.5kgm2 Iy = 0.6kgm2 Iz = 0.25kgm2 I3z2 = 0.01kgm2

Ω = 150.rad/s MG = 5.Nm c = 0.2 Nms2 /rad.
ANALYSIS 191
the particular solutions 7.11, representing possible equilibrium positions, are pre-
sented in Fig. 5. as a function of angular speed ω 1 .
3.5
2.5
2
βo
1.5
[rad]
1
0.5
0
-30 -25 -20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
ω 1 [rad/s]
Figure 5
Not all these solution are stable. To assess stability of these solutions let us
analyze motion of the system in vicinity of an equilibrium position β o .
7.3.2 Stability analysis.
Motion in vicinity of the equilibrium position β o always can be assumed in the fol-
lowing form.
β = β o + ∆β (7.12)
where ∆β ,called perturbation, is an unknown function of time. To determine this
function let us introduce 7.12 into the equation of motion 7.8.
Ix ∆β̈ + (Iz − Iy )ω21 sin(β o + ∆β) cos(β o + ∆β) + I3z2 Ωω 1 sin(β o + ∆β)
+MG sin(β o + ∆β) + c∆β̇ = 0 (7.13)

Since the perturbations ∆β can be treated as a small magnitudes, it is possible to
linearize the equation 7.13 in vicinity of the equilibrium position β o .
(Iz − Iy )ω 21 sin(β o ) cos(β o ) + I3z2 Ωω1 sin(β o ) + MG sin(β o )
+Ix ∆β̈ + ((Iz − Iy )ω 21 cos 2β o + I3z2 Ωω1 cos β o + MG cos β o )∆β + c∆β̇ = 0 (7.14)
According to 7.10 the first three terms are equal to zero. Therefore the equation of
perturbations takes the following form.
Ix ∆β̈ + ((Iz − Iy )ω 21 cos 2β o + I3z2 Ωω1 cos β o + MG cos β o )∆β + c∆β̇ = 0 (7.15)
or
∆β̈ + B∆β̇ + C∆β = 0 (7.16)
where
1
C= ((Iz − Iy )ω21 cos 2β o + I3z2 Ωω 1 cos β o + MG cos β o ) (7.17)
Ix
ANALYSIS 192
c
B= (7.18)
Ix
Solution of the equation of perturbations depends on roots of the characteristic equa-
tion associated with the equation 7.16.
r2 + Br + C = 0 (7.19)
Roots of the characteristic equation of equation are

√
−B ± B 2 − 4C
r1,2 = (7.20)
2
Hence, the solution of equation 7.16 is as follows.
∆β = C1 er1 t + C2 er2 t (7.21)
It can be seen from Eq. 7.21 that if the real part of both roots is negative, the
perturbations decay to zero and the equilibrium considered is stable. Since Ix and c
are always positive, roots 7.20 have negative real parts if and only if
C>0 (7.22)
Hence, only those solutions 7.11 can be considered as stable which additionally fulfill
stability condition 7.22.
7.3.3 Stable and unstable equilibrium positions.
In Figures 6 to 11 the equilibrium positions which fulfil the condition 7.22 (the stable
solutions) are marked by solid line. The broken line corresponds to the unstable
equilibrium positions. Stable and unstable equilibrium positions for Iy > Iz are
shown in Fig. 6 to Fig. 8 for Ω = 0 Ω = 150 and Ω = 300 rad/s respectively.
Different behavior may be predicted in case when Iy < Iz . From solutions
presented in Fig. 9to Fig. 11 one can see that the only possible equilibrium positions
(solid line) are β o = 0, β o = π or both of them. It means, that for certain magnitude
of angular velocity of the platform (e.g.. ω 1 = −10, Fig. 9.) the housing considered
may perform oscillations about equilibrium position β o = 0, as well as β o = π. This
oscillatory motion depends on initial conditions. Fig. 12 presents solution of equation
of motion 7.8 for two sets of initial conditions very close to each other. One of them
(β in = 1, β̇ in = 0) corresponds to the point A shown in Fig. 10. The other (β in = 1.1,
β̇ in = 0) corresponds to the point B in the same figure. Despite of the fact that the
above initial conditions differs very little, the corresponding solutions (see Fig. 12)
are totally different. One of them tends to equilibrium position β o = 0, whereas the
other tends to equilibrium position β o = π. In the case considered, the unstable
solution (broken line) divides all possible initial positions β o corresponding to initial
velocity β̇ in = 0 into two categories. One of them produces solutions which tend
to equilibrium position β o = 0. Solutions belonging to the other category of initial
conditions tend to equilibrium β o = π.
ANALYSIS 193
3.5
2.5
βo 2
[rad] 1.5
0.5
0
-30 -25 -20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
ω 1 [rad/s]
stable equilibrium positions unstable equilibrium positions
Figure 6 Stable and unstable solution for : Ω = 0 and 0.6 = Iy > Iz = 0.25 kgm2
3.5
2.5
2
βo
1.5
[rad]
1
0.5
0
-30 -25 -20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
ω 1 [rad/s]
Figure 7 Stable and unstable solution for : Ω = 150rad/s and 0.6 = Iy > Iz = 0.25
kgm2
ANALYSIS 194
3.5
2.5
βo 2
[rad]
1.5
0.5
0
-30 -25 -20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
ω 1 [rad/s]
Figure 8 Stable and unstable solution for : Ω = 300rad/s and 0.6 = Iy > Iz = 0.25
kgm2
3.5
2.5
βo 2
[rad] 1.5
0.5
0
-30 -25 -20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
ω 1 [rad/s]
Figure 9 Stable and unstable solution for : Ω = 0 rad/s and 0.6 = Iy < Iz = 0.8 kgm2
ANALYSIS 195
3.5
2.5
βo 2
[rad] 1.5 B
1
A
0.5
0
-30 -25 -20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
ω 1 [rad/s]
Figure 10 Stable and unstable solution for : Ω = 150 rad/s and 0.6 = Iy < Iz = 0.8
kgm2
3.5
2.5
βo 2
[rad]
1.5
0.5
-30 -25 -20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
ω 1 [rad/s]
Figure 11 Stable and unstable solution for : Ω = 300 rad/s and 0.6 = Iy < Iz = 0.8
kgm2
ANALYSIS 196
3
β
2
B
[rad] A
1
-1
0 25
t [s]
Figure 12 Solution of equation of motion for : Ω = 150 rad/s, ω 1 = −10 rad/s and
0.6 = Iy < Iz = 0.8 kgm2 ; A) initial magnitude of β in = 1rad; B) initial magnitude of
β in = 1.1rad
EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION. 197
7.4 EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION.

7.4.1 Description of the laboratory installation.
9
z1 1
3
4
FM
5
11
x2
2
10
8 7
6
R
Figure 13
The gyroscope 3 is driven by the electric motor 4. with a constant angular speed
Ω. The housing 2 of the gyroscope is free to rotate about axis x2 with respect to
the frame 1, which represent the platform. The transducer 5 allows for recording
the actual relative angular position of the housing as a function of time. The frame
1 is driven by the electric motor 6 via gearbox 7. Regulator 8 permits variation of
angular speed of the frame 1. Transducer 9 allows to measure this angular speed.
The indicator of angular position 10 permits to scale the transducer 5.
7.4.2 Identification of the system’s parameters.
The mathematical model of the laboratory installation has form 7.8 and it is repeated
here.
Ix β̈ + (Iz − Iy )ω 21 sin β cos β + I3z2 Ωω 1 sin β + MG sin β + cβ̇ = 0 (7.23)

The following parameters of the mathematical model above have to be identified:
I3z2 – moment of inertia of the gyroscope about axis z2
MG = m2 gl2 + m3 gl3 – static moment with respect to point of rotation O.
Ix = I2x2 + I3 – moment of inertia of the whole assembly about axis x2
Iy = I2y2 + I3 – moment of inertia of the whole assembly about axis y2
Iz = I2z2 + I3z2 – moment of inertia of the whole assembly about axis z2
Ω – angular speed of the gyroscope.
Identification of static moment MG .
z2 Z z1
y2
3
βs
O y1 2
G3
G2
F
l3
l2
m3 g
m2 g
Figure 14
The arrangement for identification of the static moment due to gravity forces m2 g
and m3 g is shown in Fig. 14. Its magnitude may be obtained from the following
formula.
MG = m2 l2 g + m3 l3 g = F L (7.24)
where
F - is the reading from spring balance (see Fig. 14)
L = - is the distance between point of application of the force F and point of rotation
O
Identification of moments of inertia.

The moments of inertia which appear in the mathematical model 7.23 may be assessed
in the following manner.
Moment of inertia I3z2 is to be assessed analytically.
Moment of inertia Ix is to be obtained experimentally by means of analysis
of a small oscillations of the housing for stationary frame (ω 1 = 0) and stationary
gyroscope (Ω = 0). Period of small oscillations of the assembly is
2π
T = (7.25)
α
where
MG
α2 = (7.26)
Ix
Hence
MG MG T 2
Ix = 2 = (7.27)
α 4π 2
where
T - is the measured period of small free oscillations of housing
MG - is the static moment measured in the previous experiment.
Moment of inertia Iy , due to symmetry of the housing, is to be assumed to
be equal to Ix .
Moment of inertia Iz is to be obtained from the equilibrium position of the
system for stationary gyroscope (Ω = 0) and rotating frame 1. According to equation
7.11, for the case considered, one can obtain
MG
Iz = Iy − (7.28)
cos β s ω21
where
ω1 - is the angular velocity of the frame.
β s - is the corresponding equilibrium position of the housing.
7.4.3 Collection of experimental data.
The transducer 9 produces 500 impulses per one revolution of the frame 1. Frequency
of these impulses can be read from the frequency meter 11 (see Fig. 13). Therefore
the angular velocity of the frame can be computed from the following formula.
2π
ω1 = rad/s
500 f1
where
f - is the frequency measured in Hz.
For any angular velocities of the frame 1 within the range −10 < ω1 <
+10 rad/s,the indicator of the angular position 10 (see Fig. 13) allows the equilibrium
position β o to be assessed. This data forms so called experimental static character-
istics of the laboratory installation. The developed software permits to compute, for
the identified parameters, static characteristic of the physical model. Comparison of
the analytical and experimental static characteristic allows to assess correctness and
accuracy of the derived mathematical model as well as the applied stability analysis.

Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

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436-354 MECHANICS 3

THE UNIVERSITY OF MELBOURNE

DYNAMICS OF MECHANICAL SYSTEMS

Copyright C 2008 by J.M. Krodkiewski

The University of Melbourne

2 MODELLING OF MECHANICAL SYSTEMS BY MEANS OF LA-

3 MODELLING AND ANALYSIS OF COLLISIONS. 109

5 MODELLING AND ANALYSIS OF A CENTRIFUGE. 161

III EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATIONS. 170

7 INVESTIGATION OF AN INDICATOR OF ANGULAR VELOC-

7.3.3 Stable and unstable equilibrium positions. . . . . . . . 192

EXPERIENCE AND KNOWLEDGE

Development of the physical and the mathematical model of the dynamic

Experimental verification of the developed mathematical models is the main

1.1 CONSTRAINTS - CLASSIFICATION OF MECHANICAL SYSTEMS.

Since there is NCE = 4 constraint equations, only 6 − NCE = 2 coordinates may

r = 6 − c = 6 − (6 − NCE) = NCE (1.3)

Figure 3 Constraint equations: xi = 0, yi = a, zi = 0, αx = αz , αy = 0; Number of

Figure 4 Constraint equations: xi = 0, yi = 0, zi = 0; Number of constraint equations:

Figure 5 Constraint equations: xi = 0, zi = 0, Number of constraint equations:

Figure 6 Constraint equations: zi = a Number of constraint equations: NCE = 1;

1.1.2 Classification of mechanical systems.

To show diﬀerence between holonomic and nonholonomic system let us con-

Hence, there are five independent coordinates which may be chosen as xi , yi , αx , αy ,

vAj,Ai = ii ẋi + ji ẏi + ωj,i × rAj,Oj

The above vector equation yields two scalar constraint equations

ẋi − ω j,iyi (αx , αy , αz , α̇x , α̇y , α̇z ) · a = 0

Therefore, in this case, class of this constrain is c = 3. The constraint equations

1.2 MOBILITY - GENERALIZED COORDINATES.

MO = 6n − (6 − 1)p1 − (6 − 2)p2 − (6 − 3)p3 − (6 − 4)p4 − (6 − 5)p5

DEFINITION: The number MO determined by the formula 1.8 is called

The system is assembled of n = 2 moving links connected by p = 2 constraints.

The mobility MO is equal to number of independent coordinates which must be in-

r = r(q1 , q2 , .....qMO ) (1.9)

1.3 NUMBER OF DEGREE OF FREEDOM - DRIVING FORCES.

DEFINITION: If all possible points of a mechanical system have positions

1.4 EQUATIONS OF MOTION.

Upon introducing Eq. 1.8 into Eq. 1.12) we have

m(v̇Gx + vGz ω y − vGy ω z ) = Fx

IGx ω̇ x + (IGz − IGy )ω z ω y = MGz

Kinematics (Chap. 2) provides methods which permit the kinematic parameters vG

vG = vG (q1 ...qm ....qM , q̇1 ...q̇m ....q̇M , t)

Since the system considered is assembled of n bodies we are able to generate 6n

Angular velocity of the system of coordinates x2 y2 z2

Its components along system of coordinates x2 y2 z2 are

Position vector of the centre of gravity of the link 2 is

Its components along system of coordinates x2 y2 z2 are

rGx2 = rG ·i2 = j1 ·i2 a − k2 ·i2 ( 12 l) = 0

Absolute velocity of the centre of gravity

vG = ṙG = r0G + ω2 ×rG

Hence, its components along x2 y2 z2 are

vGx2 = −aα̇ − 2l α̇ sin β

The link 2 performs a general motion. Hence, its motion is governed by

m(v̇Gx2 + vGz2 ω y2 − vGy2 ωz2 ) = F2x2

Ix2 ω̇x2 + (Iz2 − Iy2 )ωy2 ω z2 = M2x2

I(ω̇ x2 − ωy2 ωz2 ) = M2x2

Kinematic parameters as function of the generalized coordinates are given by formulae

According to Fig. 12 the components of resultant force are

F2x2 = RAx2 (1.30)

and the components of resultant moment are

M2x2 = −RAy2 ( 12 l) (1.33)

MAy2 = Md / sin β − MAz2 cot β + RAx2 a/ sin β (1.37)

M2y2 = F2x2 (l/2 + a/ sin β) − M2z2 cot β + Md / sin β (1.38)