Elements of RF Link Design

Elements of
Communication Link Design
S.Pal Ph.D
S.N.Prassad
Draft
Digital & Communication Area.
ISRO Satellite Centre.
Bangalore.
2005.
2
CONTENTS
PAGE
1.0 Preface. 8
2.0 General. 9
2.1 Power Spectral Density. 9
2.2 Spectral Capacity 9
2.3 Transmission Area 9
2.4 TABLE 2.1:International 9
Radio Frequency Designated Bands 4-11.
2.5 TABLE 2.2:The old and new Listing of Frequency Bands.
10
2.6 TABLE 2.3: Most commonly used International System.
10
2.7 TABLE 2.4: Frequency Bands for Public and Military
Communications. 11
2.8 TABLE 2.5: comparison of Low-side and High side
Tuning for AM broadcast band with fIF=455KHz. 11
2.9 TABLE 2.6 Power Spectral density of some common
wireless broadcast and communication systems. 12
2.10 Satellite Slant Range Power. 12
2.10.1 Range or Wireless Distance Measurement. 13
2.11 Flux Density. 15
2.12 Spatial Capacity. 15
APPENDIX-A 16
A-1 Some Common Conversion Factors: 17

A-2 Electromagnetic Frequency Spectrum. 18
A-3 Frequency-Wavelength Conversion Spiral Nomogram. 19
A-4 Satellite Elevation angle, Range and Loss due to
Range; Spiral Nomogram. 20
A-5 Power Flux Density Limitations. 21
A-6 Power Flux Density Limitation Space to Earth. 22
A-7 Maximum EIRP Limits. 23
A-8 Low Energy Density & High Energy Density Systems 24
3
A-9 Fundamentals of Range Intersection Methods. 25
A-10 Fundamentals of multiple Range Intersection Methods. 26
A-11 Global Positioning System (GPS) with satellite navigation. 27
A-12 GPS Receiver Function. 28
A-13 Digital Signal Processing for GPS Receivers. 29
A-14 Precise Positioning Service (PPS) error budget. 30
A-15 Standard Positioning Service (SPS) error budget. 31
A-16 Differential GPS error budget. 32
A-17 GPS for civil aviation. 33
A-18 Key requirements for military grade GPS receivers. 34
3.0 LINK. 35
3.1 EIRP: Effective Isotropic Radiated Power. 35
3.2 Free-Space Loss /Spreading or Path Loss. 35
3.3 Elements of Link Budget. 36
3.4 TABLE 3-1: Steps in Ground to satellite Link Calculation. 37
3.5 TABLE 3-2:Uplink Link Parameters in tabular form. 38
C
3.6 . 38
N
C
3.7 System . 39
N0
3.8 Link Budget for Digital satellites. 39
3.9 Table 3-3: Uplink and Downlink values of Eb/N0 for PE = 10-6
39
3.10 Typical example of a link. 40
3.11 G/T of different categories of INTELSAT Ground
Stations. 42
3.12 Propagation above 10 GHz.
43
APPENDIX-B 44
B-1 Point to multipoint service. 45

B-2 Typical antenna pattern in one plane. 46
B-3 Electrical field polarization. 47
B-4 Radiation pattern-intensity pattern. 48
B-5 Frequency reuse by orthogonal polarization. 49
B-6 Some typical antenna gain and bandwidths. 50
B-7 Antenna gain wrt diameter. 51
4
B-8 Frequency reuse by Spatial Separation. 52
B-9 Frequency reuse by orthogonal polarization. 53
B-10 Carrier to Noise ratio in a link. 54
B-11 Digital link performance. 55
B-12 Spiral Nomogram for total link. 56
B-13 Digital Television Performance. 57
B-14 Television total quality measurement. 58
4.0 NOISE. 61
4.1 White Noise. 61
4.2 Colored Noise. 61
4.3 Noise bandwidth. 61
4.4 Matched Filter. 61
4.5 Thermal noise threshold. 61
4.6 Intermodulation Noise. 62
S
4.7 Signal to Noise Ratio   . 62
N
4.8 Eb/N0 62
4.9 Table 4-1: Uplink and Downlink values of Eb/N0
required for PE = 10-6 63
4.10 Noise Figure. 64
4.11 Noise Temperature. 64
4.12 Thermal Noise aspects of Low-Noise Systems. 64
C
4.13 66
N0
C
4,14 Calculation of . 66
N0
4.15 S/N of a typical FM system. 67
4.15.1 FM/FM Configuration. 67
4.16 G/T. 68
4.17 G/T Example. 69
4.18 Intelsat Standard Ground Stations. 70
4.19 Signal Fading. 71
4.20 Diversity Reception. 71
4,21 Types of Diversity combiners. 73
4.22 FM threshold. 75
4.23 FM threshold Extension. 75
4.24 Noise in Analog modulated systems. 76
4.24.1 S/N Ratio. 76
5
4.24.2 Base band System: Coherent System. 76
4.24.3 Signal to noise ratios: DSB Systems. 76
4.24.4 Signal to noise ratios: SSB System. 77
4.24.5 Signal to noise ratios: AM system. 77
4.3 Noise in Angle Modulation Systems. 78
4.4 Pre emphasis & De-emphasis.
79
4.4.1 Pre Emphasis.
79
4.4.2 De-Emphasis.
80
4.5 Threshold Extension. 81
4.5.1 FMFB. 81
4.5.2 Phase Locked Loop (PLL). 81
4.6 PLL as a demodulator. 82
APPENDIX-C 83
C-1 Angle Modulation with sinusoidal message signal. 84

C-2 Illustration of spike noise with sinusoidal modulation. 85
C-3 Spiral Noise figure to Noise temperature chart. 86
C-4 Tropospheric Noise Temperature. 87
C-5 Cosmic & Galatic noise temperatures. 88
C-6 Carrier/Total IMP power ratio for n carriers. 89
C-7 TABLE 4.1 Summary of noise performance characteristics, 90
C-8 Attenuation due to rainfall at 18 C.
0
91
C-9 S/N ratio improvement in Diversity system for various
orders of diversity. 92
C-10 Rainfall attenuation at 24 GHz. 93
C-11 Spectra of angle modulated signal. 94
C-12 Amplitude spectrum of a FM signal wrt β. 95
C-13 FM performance with sinusoidal modulation. 96
C-14 Comparison of PM & FM modulator output. 97
C-15 FM power density spectra at discriminator output
and at LPF output. 98
C-16 S/N and C/N of FM system. 99
C-17 FM output vs. input SNR due to non-sinusoidal modulating signal. 100
C-18 S/N ratio to probability of BER. 101
6
5.0 MODULATION. 102
5.1 Why Modulation. 102
5.2 Types of Modulation. 102
5.3 Types of Analog Modulation. 102
5.4 Types of Digital Modulation. 103
5.5 Amplitude Modulation. 103
5.6 Features of Amplitude Modulation/ Double Side band AM. 103
5.7 Single Side Band (SSB) AM.
104
5.8 Vestigial Side band (VSB) AM.
104
5.9 S/N ratio Improvement after demodulation.
104
5.10 S/N ratio Improvement AM System.
104
5.11 Frequency Modulation.
105
5.12 Phase Modulation.
106
5.13 Demodulation of narrow band FM and PM signals.
107
5.14 Local carrier generation methods.
108
5.15 Digital Modulation.
109
5.16 Types of Digital Modulation.
111
5.17 Amplitude Shift Keying.
112
5.18 Frequency Shift Keying.
112
5.19 FSK signal waveform.
113
5.20 Phase Shift Keying.
113
5.21 Comparison of Binary Digital Modulation Schemes.
114
7
5.22 Differential Phase Shift Keying (DPSK).
116
5.23 Optimum Receiver.
117
5.24 TABLE 5-1: Typical Prrobability of Error For a PE of 10-4.
118
5.25 M-ary Data Communication.
118
5.26 Qadrature Multiplexing.
119
5.27 OQPSK or Staggered QPSK system.
121
5.28 MSK.
122
5.29 TABLE 5-2:Comparison of different Digital modulation
Systems. 123
5.30 QPSK & MSK Waveforms.
123
5.31 Implementation Techniques of MSK Modulator.
124
5.32 Spectral Efficiency.
126
5.33 Spectral Features of Digital Modulation Systems.
126
Eb
5.34 TABLE 5-3: forPE = 10 −6
N0
127
5.35 Bandwidth Efficiency on a main lobe spectrum
of M-ary systems. 127
5.36 Bandwidth efficiency on a main lobe spectrum of M-ary
Systems. 128
APPENDIX-D 129
D-1 Waveform of ASK, PSK, FSK modulations. 130

D-2 An example of digital modulation schemes. 131
D-3 Bit error probability vs. Eb/No for M-ary PSK and 16QASK. 132
D-4 Bit error probability Pe for various digital systems. 133
8
D-5 Bit error probability vs. Eb/No for coherent M-ary FSK. 134
D-6 Digital link performance. 135
D-7 Waveform for different line codes. 136
D-7 Power Spectral Density of different line codes. 137
6.0 RF Radiation hazards. 138
6.1 Introduction. 138
6.2 RF Radiation. 138
6.3 Sources of Radiation. 139
6.3.1 Broadcasting. 140
6.3.2 Communications. 140
6.3.3 Radar. 141
6.3.4 RF Equipments or Machines. 142
6.4 Effects of RF Radiation. 143
6.4.1 Thermal Effects. 141
6.4.2 Non-thermal Effects. 144
6.4.3 TABLE-
6.2
146
6.4.4 Non thermal Effects 146
6.5 RF Safety standards. 147
6.5.1 Leakage Standard. 148
6.5.2 Exposure Standards 148
6.5.3 TABLE- 6.3
149
6.5.4 TABL
E- 6.4
151
6.5.5 TABL
E- 6.5
152
6.6 Radiation Safety Management. 153
7.0 Abbreviations. 154
8.0 References. 155
XXX---XXX
9
1.0 PREFACE:
During estimation of a communication link for satellite lot of issues have

to be considered. In this brief report an effort has been made to include as
many related topics as possible, which a communication engineer normally
faces during day-to-day working. It puts forward a brief reference to move
along with design or analysis. It is recommended to consult more specialized
books or literature for any detailed analysis of a topic. On these topics,
related formulae, curves, nomograms and some examples have been also
provided.
S.N.Prasad
10
2.0 GENERAL:
2.1 Power Spectral Density:

PSD = P (Power)/B (Bandwidth) = W/Hz.
2.2 Spectral Capacity:

For narrow band systems the spectral capacity is given as:
Maxm data rate (bps)/ Bandwidth (Hz) : bps/ Hz.
2,3 Spatial Capacity:

The normally used term equivalent to spectral capacity in wide band
systems is Spatial Capacity. It is defined as maximum data rate of a
system over an area in which it is transmitted. The transmission area is
calculated from the circular area assuming a transmitter in the centre.
However, as a rule of thumb is to use the square of the maximum
transmission distance.
Maxm data rate (bps)/ Transmission Area (m2); bps/ m2.
For narrow band systems,
Spectral Capacity: bps/ Hz = Maxm data rate (bps)/ (Bandwidth)
2.3 Transmission Area (m2) = π (Transmission distance) 2
2.4 TABLE 2.1

International Radio Frequency Designated Bands 4-11
Band no Symbols Frequency range Metric subdivision
4 VLF 3-30 KHz Myriametric waves
5 LF 30-300 KHz Kilometric waves
6 MF 300-3000 KHz Hectometric waves
7 HF 3-30MHz Decametric waves
8 VHF 30-300MHz Metric waves
9 UHF 300-3000MHz Decimetric waves
10 SHF 3-30GHz Centrimetric waves
11 EHF 30-300GHz Millimetric waves
The microwave frequencies apply 300 MHz and above.
11
2.5 TABLE: 2.2
The old and new listing of Frequency Bands.
Old Frequency New Frequency
band letter (GHz) NATO band (GHz)
L 1-2 D 1-2
S 2-4 E 2-3
C 4-8 F 3-4
X 9-12.4 G 4-6
J/Ku 12.4-18 H 6-8
K 18-26.5 I 8-10
Q/Ka 26.5-40 J 10-20
U 33-60 K 20-40
V 50-70 L 40-60
E, O 60-90 M 60-100
W 75-110
T 110-170
2.6 TABLE 2-3:

Most commonly used International System.
Symbol Name Factor
K Kilo 103
M Mega 106
G Giga 109
T Terra 1012
M milli 10-3
µ micro 10-6
N nano 10-9
P pico 10-12
12
2.7 TABLE 2.4
Frequency Bands for Public and Military Communications
Use Frequency
Omega navigation 10-14 KHz
World-wide submarine communication 30 KHz
Loran C navigation 100 KHz
Standard AM broadcast 540-1600 KHz
FM broadcast 88-108 MHz
Television: channels 2-4 54-72 MHz
Channels 5-6 76-88 MHz
2.8 TABLE 2.5:

Comparison of Low-side and High side tuning for AM broadcast band with
fIF=455KHz.
Lower frequency Upper Tuning range of
frequency Local Oscillator
Standard AM 540 KHz 1600 KHz -----
broadcast band
LO frequency (540 –455) KHz (1600-455) KHz 13.7 to 1
for low-side = 85 KHz = 1145 KHz
tuning
LO frequency (540 +455) KHz (1600+455) KHz 2.07 to 1
for high-side = 995 KHz = 2055 KHz
tuning
13
2.9 TABLE 2.6 Power Spectral Density of some wireless broadcast and
communication systems:
Systems Transmission Bandwidth Power Classificatio

Power(W) (Hz) Spectral
Density
(W/MHz)
Radio 50KW 75KHz 666.6 Narrowband
Television 100 KW 6MHz 16.7 Narrowband
2G Cellular 10mW 8.33 KHz 1.2 Narrowband
Ultra 1mW 7.5 GHz 0.013 Ultra wideband
Wideband
2.10 Satellite Slant Range:
Earth station
Earth radius Re γ
R=Range
β
Satellite Position
C Orbit radius = r
α
Fig 2.12 Satellite slant Range
Slant range is given as:

R = r cos α − Re2 − r 2 Sin 2α
r = Re + h
Here α + (90 + γ + β ) = 180 : Re = Earth’s radius, R=slant range:
0
h= Satellite height from Earth: C= centre of earth.

Example:
Range = ( R + H ) 2 − R 2 cos 2 θ − RSinθ
R= Radius of earth 6380 Km; H=Height of the satellite=800Km
θ = Angle of elevation= 150
14
Range = ( 6380 + 800) 2 − ( 6380) 2 cos 2 150 − 6380 Sin15 0 = 3684.4 − 1651.27 Km = 2034 Km
2.10.1 Range or Wireless Distance Measurement:

Most wireless distance measuring systems operate either by resolving
two-ways phase delays of a modulated electromagnetic carrier mono-pulse
signal between the object and the reference transmitter or by measuring
the two-way propagation time of a coded electromagnetic pulse between
these points.
For pulse system the distance or range is computed as:
t −t
d =c m d
2
Where c = Velocity of propagation of wave (m/sec), t m is the measured round
trip time delay (secs), and td is the internal system time delays (secs), it
should be known precisely, the resultant range d is in meters.
For a ranging signal, multi-path propagation is a major cause of errors in
determining the position. Errors due to that are difficult to ascertain. Due
to various uncertainties exact modeling of signal path (medium) is not
possible, but fairly good approximation is possible. The ranging data obtained
is used for satellite orbit prediction and its orbit maintainance.
Positioning by microwave systems is accomplished by determining the
coordinates of intersection of two or more measured ranges from different
known ground stations. This is called trilateration method. The ranges of a
radio source from different stations are measured. The intersection of the
circular ranges (Figs A-9 & A-10) gives the desired range of the radio
source. Since each range contains errors, all the circles will not intersect at
the same point. In case of three observed ranges (Fig A-10), three different
coordinates result. The final position is derived by adjustment of these
redundant coordinates, usually by least square minimizing techniques. The
range accuracy is obtained by computing the residual errors v1, v2, and v3 for
each position. These are the corrections to be added to each range value
obtained. Using multiple ranging can minimize positional uncertainties. Using
multiple ranging can minimize positional uncertainties.
Many times tones are transmitted to satellite and round trip delay of
the tones are measured. This delay is used to compute the range. It time
delay or the phase change of the transmitted and received tone provides
range. A set of coherently generated tones is used for obtaining successive
15
range accuracy. A lower frequency tone is for estimating an unambiguous
range value.
The global positioning system or GPS (Fig A-11) has rapidly become the
standard surveying and navigation mode, replacing microwave and other
types of ranging systems. It provides the best positional accuracy, does not
require time consuming calibration and is very user friendly providing all
weather, 24 hrs, world wide, 3-dimensional satellite-based positioning
system. There are 24 satellites at 10000 km height orbiting in 6 planes.
It provides:
• The precise positioning service (PPS) developed for military and
other authorized users and provides an accuracy of 5-10 meters in
absolute positioning mode. It uses precise P code.
• The standard positioning service (SPS), is available for civilian use
and provides an accuracy of 10-20 meters in absolute positioning
mode. It uses coarse acquisition C/A code.
The measurement is made by phase comparison techniques:
• Carrier-phase tracking.
• Code-phase tracking.
Either the satellite’s carrier frequency phase or the phase of the digital code
modulated on the carrier is tracked for resolving the distance between the
satellite and the receiver.
The GPS satellites broadcast at two carrier frequencies: L 1 at 1575.42
MHz (λ=19 cm) & L2 at 1227.60 MHz (λ=24 cm). The coarse acquisition code
(C/A, 300m wavelength) and the precision code (P, 30m wavelength) modulate
the carrier. C/A and P codes are both present on L 1 frequency while only P
code is present on L2 carrier. In addition to that a 50 bps satellite navigation
message containing the ephemeris and health status of each satellite is also
transmitted. For fixing a position minimum 4 satellites should be visible at
ground station to provide coordinates and timing information.
The main sources of errors in range measurements are: Tropospheric,
Ionospheric and Multipath errors. The Differential GPS (DGPS) technique is
used to improve accuracy in range measurement from a few meters to a few
millimeters.
2.11 Power Flux Density:

PFD at receiving station is expressed in terms of ratio (in dB) of RF
power wrt 1W/m2 per 4KHz.
Power received by parabolic antenna P = EIRP-L+G
16
Where L= Path loss = 92.45+20log10R+20log10f
4πAη a
G = Receiving antenna gain= G =
λ2
Where A=Antenna area in sq cm. ηa=antenna efficiency,
λ=Wave length in cm. D=antenna dia in meters,
F=frequency in GHz.
πD 2
For circular antenna A = πr = 2
cm 2
4
2
 πDf 
Hence G =   η a wrt isotropic antenna.
 c 
Or, G = ( 20 log10 π − 20 log10 c ) + 20 log10 D + 20 log10 f + 20 log10 η a (dBi)
20log10π, 20log10c, D& f can be combined = a constant ka.
G = k a + 20 log10 D + 20 log10 f + 10 log10 η a
 B 
PFD = EIRP − L + G − 10 log10  t  dBW/m2per BCCIR
 BCCIR 
BCCIR= 4KHz: Bt = Transponder Bandwidth.
 PT GT 
In general PFD =  2 
w / m2
 4π R 
Power Spectral Density:
PSD = P (Power)/B (Bandwidth) = W/Hz.
2.12 Spectral Capacity:

Maxm data rate (bps)/ Transmission Area (m2); bps/ m2
For narrow band systems
Spectral Capacity: bps/ Hz = Maxm data rate (bps)/ (Bandwidth)
Transmission Area (m2) = π (Transmission distance)2
17
APPENDIX-A
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
3.0 LINK:
Before designing a radio link it is essential that link estimates be
made. This would help in understanding about the uplink and downlink power
level requirements, sizing of ground and onboard antenna systems,
configuring the type of ground and onboard systems for desired data
quality.
3.1 EIRP: Effective Isotropic Radiated Power;

If Transmitter power = Pt
Antenna Gain = Gt
Ground station Losses = Lg
EIRPdBW = Pt + Gt − Lg
When EIRP is expressed as EIRPdBW then all power notations should be in
dBW. The factors affecting the onboard EIRP are the available power,
number of carriers in transponder, the antenna type and size, and the
required flux density on ground. A limit on EIRP also comes from the
tolerable interference limit at other ground stations formulated by CCIR
standard.
3.2 Free-Space Loss /Spreading or Path Loss:

The attenuation undergone by an EM wave in transit between a transmitter
and a receiver in a communication system is called Path loss.
Free Space
Antenna Antenna
R
TX RX
If the distance between the receive (RX) and transmit (TX) antenna is d, the
frequency of transmission is f MHz, then the free space loss PL is emperically
given as:
PL dB = 32.44 + 20logR + 20logf: Where R is in Km, f is in MHz.
PL dB = 36.58 + 20logR + 20logf: Where R is in miles, f is in MHz.
PL dB = 37.8 + 20logR + 20logf: Where R is in nautical miles, f is in MHz.
37
• For double the distance LdB is increases by 6 dB.
• For half the distance LdB is decreased by 6 dB.
Path loss may be due the following effects such as:
• Free space loss
• Refraction.
• Reflection.
• Diffraction.
• Clutter.
• Antenna aperture-medium coupling loss.
• Absorption.
3,3 Elements of Link Budget:
A break up of various elements to be taken into consideration
for link estimate are shown below.
Ground losses
EIRP
Pt
Gt
Power received at the input
of onboard antenna
Onboard losses
Free space loss
(PL)
Gr
in dBW
Power Prec
Distance in Kms
Fig: 3.3 Typical Satellite link
38
3.4 TABLE 3.1:
Steps in Ground to satellite Link Calculation:
Items Symbols Unit Typical values
A) Uplink Frequency fu MHz/GHz 6GHz
B) Uplink EIRP
1) Ground transmitter Power Pt Watts/dBW 12 dBW
2) Input back off: for multi carrier Lb dB 3-4 dB, depends upon
operation requirement
3) Ground Station Losses Lg dB 2-3 dB
eg; connectors, cables/wave guides,
filters,
Rotary joints etc.
4) Ground Station antenna gain: Function Gt dBi 45-50 dB
of: size, Beam width, Efficiency (η =60%),
Directivity.
5) EIRP EIRPu Watts/dBW EIRPu = Pt - Lb- Lg + Gt
C) Losses
1)Free Space loss: It dpends upon: PL dB (4πR/λ) 2
satellite altitude, elevation angle λ= Signal wavelength
subtended at ground station by satellite, R= Distance of satellite
Slant range of satellite. from ground station.
2) Loss due to polarization mismatch Ppol dB 0.1 for matched
polarization
3) Antenna contour in which ground Lgu dB Around 2dB
station exists.
4) Rain and all other losses LAu dB Up to C band = 1dB
maxm.
At 18 GHz: 8-10dB
Total Losses Ptot dB PL + Ppol + Lgu + LAu
D) Satellite G/T
Satellite antenna gain: Gr dBi 25-30
Size (0.6m), Efficiency (η =60%),
1) Satellite system noise temperature: T Deg K T = Tant + Ttot + Trec
Antenna noise temp Tant, All losses from
antenna to receiver input Ttot
2) Receiver noise temperature Trec
Satellite G/T Gr / T dB/K
39
3.5 TABLE 3.2:
Uplink Parameters in tabular form:
Ground transmitter power Pt
Ground station losses Lg
Ground station antenna gain Gt
Ground station EIRP Pt- Lg+ Gt
 4πR 
2
PL
Free Space Loss:  
 λ 
Signal received at the input of EIRP- PL
onboard antenna
Onboard antenna gain Gr
Onboard losses Lo
Power received at the input of C = Prec = EIRP+ Gr- Lo
onboard receiver
Onboard receiver Bandwidth B
Receiver Noise Temperature Tsys
Noise Power N = KTB
C/N available at the input of C
= EIRP+ Gr- Lo – (KTB)
detector in dB N
C C
3.6 : can be also expressed as:
N N
C/N = EIRP + Gr + PL – K TSYS – B; all expressed in dB.

Or, C/N = EIRP + (Gr/TSYS) – PL – K - all other losses.
C/N0 = EIRP +(Gr/TSYS) – PL - all other losses.
The threshold requirement of C/N varies for different types of detector as
well as for different types of signal modulation. A threshold of 10 dB is
recommended for FM receivers while an AM detectors theoretically do not
have any threshold.
The other losses may include:
• Polarization loss.
• Antenna pointing loss.
• Antenna pattern off-contour loss.
• Gaseous absorption loss.
• Excess attenuation due to rainfall if any.
40
C
3.7 System :
N0
C C
For estimating over all link of a system we must know for uplink,
N0 N0
C C C
for downlink, for intermodulation (in case multicarrier operation),
N0 N0 N0
for the system is given as:
(C/N0) sys = 1/1/(C/N0)-1u+ (C/N0)-1d+ (C/N0)-1i
The subscripts: sys, u, d, and i refer to link uplink, downlink, and
intermodulation, respectively.
To reduce IM products to an acceptable limits a “back off” is
employed to the input of power amplifier. A C/IM ratio of 20 dB or better is
commonly recommended value.
3.8 Link Budget for Digital satellites:

Steps involved are to calculate:
- Uplink C/N0
- Downlink C/N0
- Overall C/N0
- Calculate Eb/N0 for the modulation type.
- Subtract appropriate value of modulation implementation
loss.
- Find out BER from the available final Eb/N0 value for the
station.
Eb/N0 = C/N0 – 10log(Bit rate)
3.9 Table 3.3:
Uplink and Downlink values of Eb/N0 required for PE = 10-6
(Eb/N0) U dB (Eb/N0) D dB
50.0 10.54
30.0 10.59
20.0 11.06
15.0 12.47
14.0 13.14
13.55 13.55
12.0 15.98
11.0 20.52
10.6 29.17
10.56 33.92
3.10 Typical example of a satellite link:
41
An earth station has a G/T of +25 dB/K. up and downlink
frequencies are 6.0 & 4 GHz respectively. The bit rate is 45 Mbps and
satellite EIRP is +34 dBW; satellite G/T is +0.5 dB/k. The uplink and downlink
free space losses are 199.6 dB & 196.2 dB. The required Eb/N0 is 12dB that
includes modulation implementation loss. The earth station EIRP is +67dBW.
Uplink Budget:
Earth Station EIRP +67 dBW
Pointing Loss 0.5 dB
Polarization Loss 0.5 dB
Satellite Pointing Loss 0.5 dB
Free Space Loss 199.6 dB
Power received by satellite -134 dBW
G/T of satellite +0.5 dB/K
Total carrier power received C -133.6 dBW
K -(-228.6) dBW/Hz
C 95 dB/Hz
N0
Downlink Budget:
Satellite EIRP +34 dBW
Pointing Loss 0.5 dB
Polarization Loss 0.5 dB
Satellite Pointing Loss 0.5 dB
Free Space Loss 196.2 dB
Power received by earth station -163.7 dBW
G/T of earth station +25 dB/K
Total carrier power received C -138.7 dBW
K -(-228.6) dBWHz
C 89.9 dBHz
N0
Using formula: 89.9 dB = 0.977x109: 95 dB = 3.16 x109

1
 C 
  = 1 1 1
N
 0  SYS (C / N ) + +
U (C / N ) D (C / N ) IM
42
1
 C
  = 1 1 = 88.73 dB.
 SYS 0.977x10 9 + 3.16 x10 9
 N0
C  C 
Applying equation: avl =   – 10log(Bit rate)
N0  N 0  SYS
= 88.73-10log(45x104)
C
avl = 12.19 dB.
N0
C
required = 12.0 dB. Margin = 0.19 dB.
N0
Typical G/T for ISTRAC ground stations:
X band: 32-34 dB/K
S band: 19-22 dB/K
VHF band: -13 to -15 dB/K
43
3.11 G/T of different categories of INTELSAT ground stations:
Standards Frequency bands G/T
A 6/4 GHz G/T≥35.0 20Log(f/4) dB/K
Previous:
3.7-4.2 GHz (UL)
5.925-6.425 GHz (DL)
Extended:
3.625-4.2 GHz (UL)
5.850-6.425 GHz (DL)
B 6/4 GHz G/T≥31.7+ 20Log(f/4) dB/K
C 14/12 and 14/11 GHz G/T≥37.0+ 20Log(f/11.2) dB/K
For degraded weather
conditions:
G/T≥37.0+ 20Log(f/11.2) + XdB
dB/K; where
X=Excess attenuation of
downlink degradation
D
There are two versions
of Standard D station
D1 ----------------------- G/T≥22.7.7+ 20Log(f/4) dB/K
D2 ----------------------- G/T≥31.7+ 20Log(f/4) dB/K
E 14/12 and 14/11 GHz
There are three versions
of Standard E station.
E1 ----------------------- G/T≥25.0(but<29.0)
+ 20Log(f/11) dB/K
E2 ----------------------- G/T≥29.0(but<34.0)
+ 20Log(f/11) dB/K
E3 ----------------------- G/T≥34.0 + 20Log(f/11) dB/K
For degraded weather
E1 ----------------------- conditions:
E2 ----------------------- G/T≥25.0 + 20Log(f/11) + X dB/K
E3 ----------------------- G/T≥29.0 + 20Log(f/11) + X dB/K
G/T≥34.0 + 20Log(f/11) + X dB/K
44
3.12 Propagation above 10 GHz:
The propagation of radio waves above 10 GHz not only involves free-
space loss but several other factors are also to be considered as below:
1) The contribution of in homogeneities in the atmosphere.
2) The gaseous contribution of the homogeneous atmosphere due to
resonant and non-resonant polarization mechanism.
3) Contribution due to rain, fog, mist, and haze (dust, smoke, and salt
particles on air).
Propagation through atmosphere gets affected due to several molecular
resonance such as water vapor at 22 and 183 GHz, Oxygen with lines
around 60 GHz. Other gasses like N2O2, SO2, O3, NO2, AND NH3, also
display resonance but do not have much effect on propagation of radio
waves. The major offender is precipitation. It can exceed that of all
other sources of attenuation in atmosphere above 10 GHz. The total
transmission loss is given as:
PL dB = 32.44 + 20logR + 20logf: Where R is in Km, f is in MHz.
It can be re written as below:
PL dB = 32.44 + 20logR + 20logf + a + b + c + d + e
Where: a = Excess attenuation in dB due to water vapor.
b = Excess attenuation in dB due to mist and fog.
c = Excess attenuation in dB due to O2 .
d = Sum of absorption losses in dB due to other gasses.
e = Excess attenuation in dB due to rainfall.
45
APPENDIX-B
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
4.0 Noise:
Noise has very drastic effects on signal transmission. The quality of
signal suffers unpredictably in presence of noise. Sometimes making it
impossible to receive. There are various types of noise such as below.
4.1 White noise:

White noise has constant power spectrum density at all frequencies.
Thermal noise derived from resistive networks approximates white noise up to
1013Hz. Other noise sources can also be considered as white noise if the
bandwidth of the noise is much larger than the bandwidth of the network or
to the system to which it is applied.
4.2 Colored noise:

Noise characterized by a power density, which is either band limited or
non-uniform, is called a colored noise. A white noise passed through a network
of finite bandwidth (filter) will come out as colored noise.
4.3 Noise bandwidth:

The noise bandwidth of a network is the bandwidth of an equivalent
ideal rectangular pass band filter, having same mid band gain as that of an
actual filter, and producing the same output noise power for white noise
applied at the input.
4.4 Matched filter:

A digital signal may comprise of a data stream of ‘zeros’, ‘ones’ and
transmission associated noise. During reception it is very essential to
determine if, at an instant of time, ‘zeros’, ‘ones’ or just noise is present.
For a given input signal it is conceivable that some filter may exist that
enhances the signal as much as possible while reducing noise as much as
possible until the ratio of peak signal power to average noise power is
maximum. Such a filter is called a “matched” filter. Its transfer function is
matched to the signal spectrum. The optimum Eb/N0 ratio for the signal is
achieved at some selected instant of time.
4.5 Thermal noise threshold:

The received signal must be higher in magnitude than the receiver noise
floor or noise threshold (Pn).
63
( Pn ) = KTB; Where K = Boltzmann Constant = -228.6 dBW/Hz
T = Absolute temperature of thermal
noise.
B = Rx Bandwidth in Hz.
( Pn ) dB = −228.6dBW + 10 log T + 10 log B
For T = 170 or 290 K, the above equation reduces to
( Pn ) dB = −204dBW + NFdB + 10 log BHz
4.6 Intermodulation Noise:
Due to Intermodulation products (IMP) generated in a system
Intermodulation noise is produced. If two signals with frequencies f1 & f2 are
passed through a nonlinear device or medium IMP’s would be generated. These
frequencies may be produced from the harmonics of the signals or the main
signals themselves. The product results due to beating of two signals in
nonlinear environment,
Second Order Products 2f1 , 2f2 , f1± f2
Third Order Products 2f1 ± f2 ; 2f2±f1
Fourth Order Products 2f1 ± 2f2 ; 3f1±f2
In multichannel radios the IMP’s produced resembles white noise.
The Intermodulation noise may result due to :
• Improper level settings driving a device to saturation.
• Improper alignment allowing a device to function in nonlinear
region.
• Nonlinear envelope delay.
S
4.7 Signal to Noise Ratio   .
N
The S/N ratio is expressed in decibels. It is the amount by which a
signal level exeeds the noise level in the system. Expressed in dB it can
be written as:
S
  = ( Signallevel ) dB − ( Noiselevel ) Db
 N  dB
 Eb 
4.8   :
 N0 
For digital signal transmission instead of S/N, Eb/N0 is considered. As
the signal energy is contained in bit duration the Eb/N0 is defined as the
received signal energy per bit per hertz of thermal noise.
64
 Eb  C C
  = = − 10 log(bitrate)
 N 0  KTR N 0
 Eb 

N   can be also written as:
 0
 Eb  S  1 

N  =  
 0  N 0R
Where R = Bit rate, C=Received carrier power.
1
Data rate R = .
Tb
Expressed in dB:
 Eb 
  = C dBW − 10 log( bitrate ) − ( − 228.6dBW ) − 10 log Te
N
 0
Where Te = effective noise temperature of the receiving system.
The value of Eb/N0 varies depending upon the modulation scheme, type
of detector used, the coding done on the transmitted signal, and on the BER
requirement.
 Eb  S
•  N   depends only upon N 0 and R and is unaffected by any system
 0
design choices, such as modulation and coding.
4.9 Table 4.1:

Uplink and Downlink values of Eb/N0 required for PE = 10-6
(Eb/N0) U dB (Eb/N0) D dB
50.0 10.54
30.0 10.59
20.0 11.06
15.0 12.47
14.0 13.14
13.55 13.55
12.0 15.98
11.0 20.52
10.6 29.17
10.56 33.92
65
4.10 Noise Figure:
Noise Figure (NF) is a measure of the noise produced by a practical
network compared to an ideal noiseless network.
S  S 
  G  
 N in  N out
(S N )
NF =
(S N )
in
out
If Sout /Sin = G; Gain of the system, then

N out
NF = .
KTBG
(NF)dB = 10log NF
NF expressed in ratio is called Noise Factor.
4.11 Noise Temperature:

The noise temperature of two port device e.g. a receiver is the thermal
noise that device adds to the system. If the device is connected to a noise
free source then its effective input noise temperature is given as:
P
Te = ne
GKdf
Where G = Gain of the system.
df = specified band of frequency
Pne = Available noise power of the device.
The noise temperature (Te) and NF are related as below:
T
NF = 1 + e :
T0
Where T0 = equivalent room temperature or 290 K:
Te = T0 ( NF − 1)
 T 
( NF ) dB = 10 log1 − e 
 290 
4.12 Thermal Noise aspects of Low-Noise Systems:

Downlink signals of the order of –154 to –188 dBW are commonly
encountered in space communication. The aim is to achieve sufficiently high
66
S/N or Eb/N0 (in case of digital communication) at the demodulator output.
This can be usually done by :
a) Increasing System gain, normally antenna gain and LNA gain.
b) Reducing system noise.
The total effective noise temperature Tsys of a receiving system is
conventionally referred to the input of the receiver. It is given as:
TSYS = Tant + Trec

Where Tant = Effective noise temperature of antenna subsystem.
Trec = Effective input noise temperature of receiving system.
The ohmic loss components from the antenna feed to the receiver input
also generate noise. Other loss producing elements are transmission lines,
directional couplers, circulators, isolators, waveguide & switches.
The loss factor of these components are inverse of gain ie;
The respective noise temperatures would be
1
La =
ga
Te
The equivalent noise figure or noise factor n f = La +
T0
Te = T ( La − 1)
NFdB = 10 log10 n f
And the noise figure on dB
At room temperature (290 K) : the noise factor equals the loss of the
system ie; n f = La
C
4.13
N0
Transmission line
Antenna
LNA Rx
Reference point of measurement Fig: 4.13 C/N0 Estimation
C/N0 is a very important element in communication link. By knowing

C/N0 one can estimate about the quality of demodulated signal or it can be
estimated whether a signal can demodulated properly or not. C/N0 is
carrier to noise density,
where N0 = noise density in 1Hz & C is the received signal power.
67
It can be deduced that:
N 0 = KT = 228.6dBW + 10 log TSYS
C dBW = Prec + Gant − linelosses( Ll )
K= -228.6 dBW is the theoretical value of noise level in dBW for a perfect
receiver (noise factor of 1) at absolute zero in 1 Hz bandwidth.
C/N0 of a link can be also expressed as :
C  G 
= ( EIRP ) dB − ( Freespaceloss ) dB − ( otherlosses ) dB +  
N0  TdB / k − K 
Where K is the Boltzmann’s constant.
The “other losses” may include:
• Polarization loss.
• Antenna pointing loss.
• Antenna pattern off-contour loss.
• Gaseous absorption loss.
• Excess attenuation due to rainfall if any.
C
4.14 Calculation of :
N0
C
The calculation of final at the receiver input is essential for
N0
estimation of proper functioning of over all link. This must include, as a
C  C  C  C  C
minimum, for uplink   , for downlink   , for
N0  N 0 U N0  N0 D N0
 C 
intermodulation (in case of multi carrier operation)   . The basic
N
 0  IM
equation is given as:
1
 C 
  = 1 1 1
 N0  SYS (C / N ) + (C / N ) + (C / N )
U D IM
 C 
  should meet the minimum requirement for the receiving system to
 N 0  SYS
work. Normally it should be greater than 10 dB. In order to bring down the
 C 
IM products to an acceptable level so as not to degrade   , due to
 N 0  SYS
poor C/IM ratio, the total uplink power must be “backed off” or reduced. A
C/IM ratio of 20 dB or above is an acceptable value.
68
4.15 S/N of a Typical FM System:
C/N is a vital parameter in any modulation scheme. For
demodulation certain minimum C/N value has to be met to produce
acceptable S/N value in demodulated signal. S/N in general can be given as:
S C
= + I + P +W
N N
Where: I = Modulation improvement.
P = Improvement due to pre-emphasis / de-emphasis
techniques.
W = Noise weighting factor.
4.15.1 FM/FM Configuration:

S
  in FM/FM system is given as below.
N
S C  ∆FTT  B 
 = + 20log   + 10 log IF  + P + W
N N  f ch   Bch 
Where BIF = IF Bandwidth
∆FTT = Rms test tone deviation.
fch = highest base band frequency.
Bch = voice channel BW (3.1 KHz)
P = top VP channel emphasis improvement factor.
W = psophometric weighting improvement
Factor (2.5 dB).
Once the voice channel S/N has been calculated, the noise in the
voice channel may be calculated by relation:
 90 − ( S / N ) 
 
Noise = log-1  10  pWpO
For a video channel:
 S  C  ∆f   BIF 
  = + 20log3   + 10 log  + W + CF
 Nv  N  fm   2 Bv 
 S 
Where   = p-p luminance signal-noise ratio.
N
 v
∆f = p-p composite deviation of the video.
f m = Highest base band frequency.
Bv = Video noise BW (for NTSC it is 4.2 MHz)
69
B IF = IF noise BW.
W = weighting factor.
CF = rms to p-p luminance signal conversion factor (6dB)
4.16 G/T:
G/T is called the figure of merit of a receiving system. It gives
“feel” of receiving systems ability to receive low-level signals effectively.
It is a very important element of link budget analysis.
G
= GdB − 10 log TSYS
T
TSYS = Tant + Trec
Where G= Antenna gain in dB.
Tsys= Total Receiving System noise temperature.
Tant = Antenna noise temperature.
Trec = Receiver noise temperature.
The system noise basically consists of:
a) Cosmic background noise.
b) Galatic noise.
c) Noise temperature due to precipitation in the path.
d) Solar noise (either in main lobe or side lobes).
e) Presence of earth (typically) 290K in side lobes.
f) Contribution from nearby objects like buildings, radomes, etc.
g) Temperature of blockage items in antenna subsystems such as booms,
feeds, absorbers etc.
Basically there are two main noise contributors: sky noise and noise
from ohmic losses. Sky noise is the main noise source entering through
antenna’s main and side lobes. It is largely due to extraterrestrial sources
and thermal radiation from atmosphere and earth. Cosmic noise is
extraterrestrial radiation coming from all directions. The Sun is another
extremely strong source of noise capable of complete communication
breakdown. The atmosphere affects external noise in two ways. It
attenuates noise passing through it, and generates noise because of energy
of its constituents. Ground radiation is thermal in nature. Tsky arise with
frequency, elevation angle and water vapor concentration.
(l a − 1) + TSKY
Tant =
la
70
Where LA = Sum of all losses due to waveguide, filters, directional
couplers etc, up to reference plane. The numeric value of LA denoted as la is
expressed as:
−1  L A 
l a = log10  
 10 
4.17 G/T Example:
A satellite downlink operates at 21.5 GHz. To calculate the G/T
of a terminal operating with the satellite, the reference plane is taken at
the input to the LNA. The antenna has a 3ft aperture displaying 44 dB gross
gains. There is 2ft of waveguide with 0.2 dB/ft of loss. There is a feed loss
of 0.1dB, a band pass filter has 0.4 dB insertion loss, and a radome has a loss
of 1.0 dB. The LNA has a noise figure of 5.0 dB and a gain of 30 dB. The
LNA connects directly to a down converter/IF amplifier combination with a
single side band noise figure of 13 dB.
Net gain of the antenna to the reference plane:
Gnet = (44-1.0-0.1-0.4-0.4) dB = 42.1 dB.
The sky noise for 100 elevation (from graph) for 21.5 GHz is 145K.
The sum of all losses to reference plane (including radome loss) will be:
La = (1.0 + 0.1 + 0.4 + 0.4) = 1.9 dB
The numeric value of La denoted as la = log-1 (1.9/10) = 1.55
Tant = (la – 1) 290 + Tsky  / la
= (1.55 – 1) 290 + 145  / 1.55 = 196.45K
To calculate Trec, first convert all noise figures to its equivalent noise
temperatures using formula
T
( NF ) dB = 10 log(1 − e )
290
Equivalent noise temperatures of 5 dB noise figure & down-converter
/IF stage noise figure of 13dB are 627K & 5496K respectively.
Hence
Trec = 627 + (5496/1000) = 632.5K.
Tsys = Tant + Trec = (196.45 + 632.5) dB = 828.95K.
G/T = GdB – 10logTsys = 42.1 dB –10log (828.95)
= 12.91 dB/K
G/T for X band 32-34 dB/K

S band 19-22 dB/K
VHF-13 to -15 dB/K
71
4.18 Intelsat Standard Ground Stations:
• Standard A
Frequency band: 6/4 GHz.
G/T≥ 35.0 + 20log(f/4) dB/K; Where f is the receive frequency
in GHz.
Extension of 6/4 GHz band:
Previous: 3,700-4,200 GHz downlink.
5,925-6,425 GHz uplink.
Extended: 3,625-4,2000 GHz downlink.
5,850-6,425 GHz uplink.
• Standard B
G/T≥ 31.5 + 20log(f/4) dB/K; Where f is the receive frequency in
GHz.
• Standard C
Frequency band: 14/12 GHz and 14/11 GHz.
G/T≥ 37.0 + 20log(f/11.2) dB/K; Where f is the receive
frequency in GHz, for clear sky.
For degraded weather condition:
G/T≥ 37.0 + 20log(f/11.2) +X dB dB/K; Where f is the receive
frequency in GHz.
• Standard D
Standard D station has two versions D-1 & D-2
G/T≥ 22.0 + 20log(f/4) dB/K; for D-1
G/T≥ 31.7 + 20log(f/4) dB/K; for D-2
Where f is the receive frequency in GHz.
• Standard E
Frequency band: 14/12 GHz and 14/11 GHz. Standard E station
has three versions: E-1, E-2, E-3.
For clear sky condition:
G/T≥ 25.0 (but<29.0) + 20log(f/11) dB/K; for E-1
G/T≥ 29.0 (but<34.0) + 20log(f/11) dB/K; for E-2
G/T≥ 34.0 + 20log(f/11) dB/K; for E-1; for E-3
For degraded sky condition:
G/T≥ 25.0 + 20log(f/11) + X dB/K; for E-1
G/T≥ 29.0 + 20log(f/11) + X dB/K; for E-2
72
G/T≥ 34.0 + 20log(f/11) + X dB/K; for E-3;
• Standard F; Frequency band: 6/4 GHz
Standard F station has three versions: F-1, F-2, F-3.
G/T≥ 22.7 + 20log(f/4) dB/K; for F-1
G/T≥ 7.0 + 20log(f/4) dB/K; for F-2
G/T≥ 29.0 + 20log(f/4) dB/K; for F-3
4.19 Signal Fading:
A transmitted signal not only experiences free space loss due to
distance, but if the path gets longer signal fading also takes place. It depends
upon on intervening media conditions like terrain roughness, climate,
reflectivity, rainfall and path distance for frequencies above 10 GHz. Some
times signal fading could be 30 dB or more at these frequencies.
Multi path fading: This is most commonly encountered fading. It stems out
from the interference between a direct wave and a reflected wave. The
reflected wave could be from the ground, or from atmospheric sheet or layer.
This type of fading is observed during windless, and foggy nights, when
temperature inversion near the ground occurs. Reflections also take place
from a body of water, salt beds, or flat desert between transmitting and
receiving antennas.
Signal fading is mainly due to:
a) Intrusion of the earth’s surface or atmosphere layers into propagation
path (earth bulge or diffraction fading).
b) Antenna decoupling due to variation of the refractive index gradient.
c) Partial reflection from elevated layers between terminal antenna
elevations.
d) Due to “Duct” formation containing only one of the antenna terminals.
e) Precipitation along the signal propagation path.
“Multipath fading increases with frequency, but much faster with path
length, following a relation f.d3.5 where f is carrier frequency and d is the
distance.”
4.20 Diversity Reception:
Diversity reception reduces fade margin requirement, it tends
to reduce depth of fades. Assume a random fading (Rayleigh distribution)
with a 35dB fade margin requirement without diversity. Using frequency
diversity with 2% frequency separation, only a 23.5dB fade margin would be
required to maintain same propagation reliability.
73
Diversity reception is used in many radio systems. A special
form of diversity is used on satellite communication link operating above
10GHz. Diversity reception:
• Reduces depth of fades on combined output.
• If one diversity path is lost other path remains in operation.
• Depending upon the combiner used the S/N ratio of the combined
output improves over S/N ratio of any single signal path.
Diversity reception technique is based on the fact that radio signal
arriving through two separate paths may not suffer same amount of signal
degradation. The separation may be in:
• Frequency.
• Space (including angle of arrival and polarization).
• Time (a time delay of two identical signals on parallel paths).
• Path (signals received at two geographically different paths).
Receiver
at f1
Combined output
Base band
Combiner
Receiver
at f2
Fig 4.20a Frequency Diversity
Receiver
at f
Base band Vertical Separation > 100λ

Combiner
Combined output
Receiver
at f
Fig 4.20b Space Diversity

The frequently used diversity in radio link is the frequency and space.
The frequency diversity is based on the fact that fading is different for
different frequencies. A 2-5% frequency separation is good enough for this
74
purpose. This scheme requires two transmitters and two receivers. For
space diversity signal is received at two different locations (several wave
lengths apart) at the same frequency. No additional assignment is required.
Sufficient output is always available from one of the locations. Two antennas
at different heights may also provide space diversity, to a certain degree.
The antenna separation required for space diversity is given as:
S=
( 3λR )
L
Where S = Antenna separation (m).
R = Effective earth radius (m).
λ = Wave length (m).
L = Path length (m).
The aim of space diversity is that the reflected wave travels half wavelength
more than the normal path.
4.21 Types of Diversity combiners:
• Selection combiner.
• Equal gain combiner.
• Maximal ratio combiner.
The selection combiner uses one receiver at a time. The highest S/N
channel is connected to the output. The output S/N ratio is equal to the input
S/N ratio from the receiver selected at that time.
The equal gain combiner adds the diversity receiver outputs, and the output
S/N ratio of the combiner is:
S0 S + S2
= 1 ; Where N = Receiver noise.
N0 2N
The Maximal ratio combiner uses relative gain change between the
output signals in use. Let us assume the stronger signal has unity output and
the weaker signal has an output proportional to gain G. It can be shown that G
S1
= , the signal gain is adjusted to be proportional to the ratio of the input
S2
signals. In that case:
2 2 2
 S0  S  S 
  =  1  +  2 
 N0  N N
The basic assumption involved for the latter two combiners are:
• All receivers have equal gain.
• Signals add linearly; noise adds on rms basis.
• Noise is random.
• All receivers have equal noise output N.
75
• The output (from the combiner) signal-to-noise ratio S0/N0 is constant.
Performance wise Maximal ratio combiner tops the list while Equal gain
combiner & Selection combiner occupy 2nd & 3rd positions respectively. Maximal
ratio combiner gives an improvement of 1.5 to 3dB improvement over selection
combiner.
The Diversity combining has two categories:
• Pre-detection.
• Post-detection.
Pre-detection combining takes place at IF level i.e. at RF level.
IF
Mixer
AMP
Input Signal-1
normal
70 MHz
LO to FM Det
Phase Det IF Hybrid

Balanced mod Combiner
LO
Input Signal-2
IF
Diversity Mixer
AMP
Fig 4.21a Pre-detection Combiner
Combined base
Band output
FM Base band Amp
Discri Amp
Input Signal-1
normal Noise & pilot Pilot alarm
Detector
filter Relay
Noise Pilot
amp filter
Fig 4.21b Post-detection Combiner
Amp
Identical
Input Signal-2 Receiver Pilot alarm
Diversity Relay
76
In the second type, combining takes place at base band level after
detection. Combining at IF level is tricky because a strict phase control is
very much essential.
4.22 FM threshold:
Saturation
FM Capture Effect
(S/N) dB
FM Improvement Threshold
Noise
(C/N) in dB
Any detector requiresFig:

a minimum
4.22 FM value
Thresold
of C/N to produce an acceptable
signal of a particular S/N; below this minimum value of C/N the quality of
output would degrade drastically. This minimum value of C/N is called
threshold. The threshold corresponds to a sudden rise in effective output
noise power. In FM radios at lower C/N “snaps” or “clicks” are heard due to
the noise spikes produced in the demodulator. Further decrease in C/N
“clicks” merge into a sort of crackling or sputtering sound and the desired
signal is undetectable. Above the threshold value with increase in C/N, there
would be significant improvement in S/N at the output of the detector. At
C/N of 12 dB or above the S/N improvement is very significant. This FM
phenomenon is also called as FM capture effect.
FM threshold is given as:
FM threshold in dBW = KTB
FM threshold Improvement dBW = KTB +10 dB
= -204 dBW + NFdB +10log(BW) +10dB
4.23 FM threshold Extension:
Two widely used techniques for threshold extension are:
a) Frequency-compressive feedback loop &
b) Phase locked loop
77
4.24 Noise in Analog Modulated Systems:
4.24.1 Signal to noise ratios:
4.24.2 Base band Systems: Coherent system.
Message signal m Low Pass

∑
(t) Filter
Yd (t)
Bandwidth W
Signal
Noise
Noise
-B` -W 0 +W B f
Fig-24a Base band Signal at the input of filter

Signal
Noise
-W 0 +W f
Fig-24b
Assuming the Base
signal band to
power Signal
be at
PTthe
andoutput
the of filter
noise added to the double-
1
sided power spectral density N 0 over the signal bandwidth B that exceeds
2
the signal bandwidth W, as shown in Fig-a. The signal to noise ratio at the
output of BPF is:
P
SNR = T
N 0W
The filter enhances the SNR by a factor of B/W.
4.24.3 Signal to noise ratios: DSB Systems:
The coherent DSB demodulator is preceded by a pre detection IF filter
of minimum BW of 2W. A post detection low pass filter removes the double
frequency and all unwanted frequencies produced during
Pre detection Low Pass

Xr (t)= xc (t)+n (t)
IF filter Filter
Yd (t)
2cos(ωct+θ)
Fig 4.24.3 DSB Demodulator

78
multiplication of the received and locally generated signals. The ratio of post
and pre detection SNR or detection gain is given as:
( SNR ) post det ection

=2
( SNR ) Pr e det ection
This is because coherent demodulator suppresses the Quadrature component
of noise. It is apparent that there is 3 dB improvement in SNR after
demodulation. But this advantage is off set as pre detection filter bandwidth
must be 2W to pass a DSB signal, there by doubling the noise content. So here
effective SNR improvement does not take place after DSB signal
demodulation.
4.24.4 Signal to noise ratio: SSB System:
In case of SSB signal as carrier is suppressed coherent demodulation is
only possible and:
=1
The SSB system lacks the 3-dB detection gain of DSB system. However, the
pre detection noise power of the SSB system is 3 dB less than that of the
DSB system.
Hence coherent demodulation of both DSB and SSB result in performance of
base band.
4.24.5 Signal to noise ratios AM system:

The required transmission bandwidth of AM is 2W. The detection gain is
given as:
( SNR ) post det ection 2m 2
=
( SNR ) Pr e det ection 1 + m 2
Where m = percentage of modulation, m=1 for 100% modulation.

Efficiency (η) of AM transmission is defined as the ratio of side band power
to total power in transmitted signal.
m2
η=
1+ m2
79
Hence = 2η
If the efficiency of AM were 100%, then AM would have the same post
detection S/N ratio as the ideal DSB or SSB systems. But the efficiency of
AM is typically much less than 100% therefore the post detection S/N ratio is
correspondingly lower.
For low ( SNR) input to envelop detector, the analysis becomes complex. The
principle component of demodulated output contains the
Rayleigh-distributed noise envelope and it is not proportional to the signal.
This has significantly much degrading effect than the additive noise.
At low ( SNR) input a threshold effect sets in and for slight decrease in input
SNR to the demodulator the output SNR falls drastically. For high ( SNR) input
the envelope detection is as good as coherent detection.
As for coherent demodulation a demodulation carrier generated within
receiver multiplies the modulated carrier. This demodulation carrier must be
phase coherent with the received modulated carrier. Thus the demodulation
carrier must be derived from the received carrier.
4.3 Noise in Angle Modulation Systems:

Angle modulated systems are non-linear modulation systems. There are
great differences between linear and non-linear modulation systems when
noise effects are considered. There are significant differences between FM
and PM systems. FM offers great improvement over both linear and PM
system in noisy environments.
Pre detection Post detection

Discriminator
Filter Filter
Xr (t) Yd (t)
Fig 4.3 Angle Demodulation system
The pre detection filter bandwidth BT is determined by Carson’s rule. In other

words BT = 2( β + 1) f m where β = modulation index for sinusoidal signal, and fm is
the frequency of the modulating signal. For arbitrary signal m (t), a general
expression for bandwidth results where the deviation ratio D is defined as:
f
D= d
W
Where fd = peak frequency deviation
80
W = bandwidth of m (t).
A general expression for bandwidth B = 2( D + 1)W
The output of pre detection filter consists of two components:
a) Signal alone and
b) Signal and noise.
For small ( SNR) input the only term containing the signal is multiplied by the
noise. Thus a threshold effect is observed. If the ( SNR) input > than the
Rayleigh-distributed noise envelope of the FM demodulator then the effect of
noise is reduced if the transmitted signal amplitude is increased. Thus the
output noise is affected by the transmitted signal strength even for above-
threshold operations.
FM System:
( So / No )
= 3β 2
( Ci / N i )
For high (Ci/Ni) ratio using frequency discriminator.
• 3 dB improvement expected for a PLL demodulator.
• Around 2-2.5 dB improvement is expected for a FMFB demodulator is
used.
For large β: ( S o / N o ) = 3( β / f m ) ( C i / N i )
3
4.4 Pre emphasis & De-emphasis:

The white noise at the input of receiver produces a hyperbolic noise
spectrum at the demodulator output. The demodulator output S/N decreases
with increase in base band frequency. For desired constant S/N at the
demodulator output the base band signal components need to be boosted. At
the receiver end these boosted signal components should be de-emphasized
or reduced to reproduce the original signal and to avoid signal distortion.
A high pass filter pre emphasizes these high frequency components at the
transmission end, and at the receiving side a low pass filter de-emphasizes
these enhanced signal components to restore the signal in its original form.
4.4.1 Pre Emphasis:
C H (jω)
R
ω1 ω2 logω
Fig a Pre emphasis filter Fig b Frequency Response
Fig: 4.4.1 Pre emphasis

81
1 1
ω1 = : ω2 = : τ = rC = 75µ sec s Signal between f1 and f2 are pre
rC RC
emphasized at transmitter end so that higher deviation for high frequency
components can be achieved.
4.4.2 De-Emphasis:
H (jω)
r
R ω1 ω2 logω
-6dB/octave
Fig a De emphasis filter Fig b Frequency Response
Fig: 4.4.2a De emphasis
The receiver receives the transmitted pre emphasized signal. To restore the
received signal to original condition the frequency components between f1 and
f2 are de-emphasized.
Data
Data FM
HPF TX FM Rx LPF
Mod
The improvements dueFig

to4.4.2b
pre/dePreemphasis
emphasis &isDe
asemphasis
below: schemes
FM system:
• For τ =75 µsecs, fm = 15 KHz, the typical improvement in S/N is around
13 dB.
• For τ =75 µsecs, fm = 21 KHz, the typical improvement in S/N is around
16 dB.
AM system:
• For τ =75 µsecs, fm = 15 & 21 KHz, the typical improvement in S/N is
around 6 & 8 dB respectively.
• For τ =75 µsecs, fm = 5 KHz, the typical improvement in S/N is
around 3 dB.
4.5 Threshold Extension:
82
The Frequency-Compressive feedback loop (FMFB) and the phase-
locked loop (PLL) have widespread application in threshold extension in high-
noise environments.
4.5.1 FMFB:
FM Signal
BPF Discriminator
Demodulated
Output
VCO
Fig 4.5.1 Frequency-compressive feed back demodulator

For larger value of KDKV the phase deviation can be made small, thereby
reducing significantly the bandwidth of signal at the discriminator input. It is
even possible to compress the bandwidth of a wide band FM signal to that of a
narrowband FM signal at the input of the discriminator. The bandwidth B p of
the BPF is smaller than the transmission bandwidth BT due to bandwidth
compression. Thus the rate of spikes due to noise is reduced and threshold
extended. Above threshold the post detection SNR for FMFB system is same
as that of an ordinary discriminator. The threshold extension in FMFB is less
than obtained using a PLL.
4.5.2 Phase Locked Loop (PLL):
Phase Detector
FM Signal
∑ Loop
Filter
FM Demodulated
Output
VCO
Fig 4.5.2 PLL demodulator
A PLL can be also used as FM or PM demodulator. The phase detector

(PD) compares the phases of the incoming signal and the locally generated
signal. A voltage proportional to the phase difference is produced which after
filtering is fed to the VCO as control voltage. A VCO is essentially a frequency
modulator, the frequency deviation of the output dθ/dt is proportional to the
input signal. The phase error signal drives the PLL into lock. As the VCO input
signal is proportional to the frequency deviation of the PLL input, the integral
83
of this signal is proportional to the phase deviation of the PLL input. The noise
accompanying the signal has in-phase and out of phase noise components. The
PLL correlates with the in-phase component of noise while effect of the out
of phase noise gets cancelled, thereby extending the threshold by maximum
by 3dB.
The parameters of importance in a Phase Locked Loop are:
i. Order of the PLL
ii. Loop Bandwidth
iii. Damping Factor
iv. Natural Frequency
v. Lock-in, Pull-in and Hold-in
vi. Sweep Rate
4.6 PLL as a demodulator:
PM Demodulated
Output
PD
∑ Loop
Filter
FM Demodulated
Output
AM/FM/PM VCO
modulated
Signal input 900
QA LPF
D
AM Demodulated
Output
Fig 4.6 A PLL as AM/FM/PM Demodulator
84
APPENDIX-C
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
100
101
102
103
5.0 Modulation:
5.1 Why Modulation!!!
Modulation is the process of encoding information from a message source in a
manner suitable for transmission. It generally involves translating a base band
signal (called the source) to a band pass signal at frequencies that are very
high when compared to the base band frequency. The band pass signal is called
the modulated signal and the base band message signal is called the modulating
signal. Modulation may be done by varying the amplitude, phase, or frequency
of a high frequency carrier in accordance with the amplitude of the message
signal
Need For Modulation:
Modulation is extremely necessary in communication system due to the
following reason:
• Practical antenna length:
In order to transmit a wave fully, the length of the transmitting
antenna should be equal to the wavelength of the wave.
Velocity 3 x10 8
Wavelengthλ = = meters
Frequency FrequencyinHz
The practical antenna length to transmit audio frequencies become so
big in size that it becomes impossible to be constructed practically. For this
reason, it is impracticable to radiate audio signal directly into space.
Therefore a very high frequency signal is chosen over which the low frequency
signal or message is superimposed (modulated) and then transmitted. At this
carrier frequency an antenna can be easily constructed.
• Channelization of different signals:
Different signals at different sub carriers can modulate a single
carrier and are transmitted.
5.2 Types of Modulation:
There are mainly two types of modulation they are
• Analog modulation.
• Digital Modulation
5.3 Types of Analog Modulation:
• Amplitude Modulation
• Frequency Modulation
• Phase Modulation
5.4 Types of Digital Modulation: Digital Modulation is variant of analog
modulation but the modulating signal is digital in nature. The different types
are:
104
• Amplitude Shift Keying.
• Frequency Shift Keying.
• Phase Shift Keying.
• Differential Phase Shift Keying.
• M-ary Phase Shift Keying.
• M-ary Frequency Shift Keying.
• Minimum Shift Keying.
• Spread Spectrum Modulation.
5.5 Amplitude Modulation:
In amplitude modulation, only the instantaneous amplitude of the
carrier wave is varied in accordance with the intensity of the signal. However,
the frequency of the carrier remains constant.
es e
ec t
Signal A.M
Carrier
Wave
Fig 5.5 Principle Of Amplitude Modulation
5.6 Features of Amplitude Modulation:

• The instantaneous amplitude of the carrier wave changes according to
the intensity of the modulating signal.
• Two side bands about the carrier at the signal frequency are produced.
• AM is susceptible to channel noise.
Carrier Power
Upper side band Power

Lower side band Power
PAM = P-fcm+ Pf; fc +fm Frequency
Fig 5.6 AM modulated spectrum

Where PAM = power in AM signal,
Pc = power in carrier.
Pf = power in side bands.
105
η = (Am / A0)2/1 + (Am / A0)2  for Am = A0 i.e., (for square wave modulating
signal) 100% modulation, η = 50%, in that case side band power equals carrier
power.
For 100% modulation (sine wave modulating signal) i.e., p-p amplitude of 2 Am,
Pf = Am2/2.
Modulation index βAM = Am / A0
ηAM = (m) 2/2+(m) 2 = 1/3 = 33.3% for m=1.
5.7 Double Side band AM:

It is suppressed carrier transmission.
ηDSB = 100% as there is no carrier transmission hence all power remains in the
side bands. But the suppressed carrier transmission and reception both are
complex and expensive.
5.8 Single Side band AM:
Both side bands of DSB signal carry same information. Hence one is
redundant, as full information can transmitted by using only one side band.
DSB-AM bandwidth = 2(SSB-AM) bandwidth.
Here also ηSSB = 100%.
5.9 Vestigial Side band (VSB) AM:
Stringent sharp cut-off filters are required for generation of SSB signals,
which is quite difficult to realize in practice. In Vestigial Side band AM
instead of cutting off one side band completely a part of other side band is
also transmitted. So a more realistic filtering is used for generating as well as
reception of a VSB signal.
ηVSB = 100%.
5.10 Amplitude Modulation:
Demodulator
(Si/Ni) (So/No)
If the input and output signal to noise ratios of the demodulator be

(Si/Ni) & (S0/N0) respectively then for small signal AM system, the S/N ratio
improvement after demodulation is given as:
(S0/N0)/(Si/Ni) = 2/3
For large carrier AM system the performance of diode detector is as good as
that of a synchronous detector.
106
5.11 Frequency Modulation:
In FM the instantaneous frequency of carrier wave is changed
in accordance with the intensity of the signal. The carrier frequency
increases or decreases with the increase or decrease of the amplitude of
the modulating signal. A sinusoid is said to be frequency modulated if
instantaneous frequency is a linear function of the information signal.
es B F
e
C
A t c t
E G
D
Carrier
Signal
e
m
t Frequency Modulation
Fig 5.11 FM wave
Thus, FM waveform is given as:

[
SFM= A cos ω 0 t + θ 0 + k PM ∫ (t )dt ]
Where ω0 & kPM are positive constants and θ0 is an arbitrary phase angle.
A FM system can produce infinite side bands depending on the modulation
index β.
∆ω
Modulation index β =
fm
Where ∆ω = peak frequency deviation and f m = modulating frequency.
Many frequencies are generated which are not present in the signal.
Because of this fact the FM waveform may have much larger BW than the
signal.
The FM spectrum is analyzed using Bessel functions where all the
frequency components can be analyzed. At many values of β the carrier
component (coefficient J0 of Bessel function) becomes zero and the whole
power is distributed over the side bands. If β ≤ 1radian it is called narrow
band FM (NBFM), where the bandwidth is restricted while for β ≥ 1radian
wide band FM (WBFM) is generated with larger bandwidth. The NBFM
modulated spectrum is like that of AM system with two side bands. While
107
for WBFM the BW depends upon the value of β. Normally the number of
significant side bands n = β + 1 .
Frequency modulation has better noise immunity that compared to
amplitude modulation. Since signals are represented as frequency variations
rather than amplitude variations, FM signals are less susceptible to
atmospheric and impulse noise, which tend to cause rapid fluctuations in the
amplitude of the received signal. Also message amplitude variations do not
carry information in FM, so burst noise does not affect FM system
performance as much as AM systems, provided that the FM received signal
is above the FM threshold. In a FM system, it is possible to tradeoff
bandwidth occupancy for improved noise performance. Unlike AM, in a FM
system, the modulation index, and hence bandwidth occupancy, can be varied
to get greater signal-to-noise performance. It can be shown that, under
certain conditions, the FM signal-to-noise ratio improves 6dB for each
doubling of bandwidth occupancy. This ability of a FM system to trade
bandwidth for SNR is perhaps the most important reason for its superiority
over AM.
However, AM signals are able to occupy less bandwidth as compared to FM
signals, since the transmission system is linear. In modern AM systems,
susceptibility to fading has been dramatically improved through the use of
in-band pilot tones, which are transmitted along with the standard AM
signals. The modern AM receiver is able to monitor the pilot tone and rapidly
adjust the receiver gain to compensate for the amplitude fluctuations.
5.12 Phase Modulation:

The instantaneous phase of the carrier wave is varied linearly in
accordance with the intensity of the signal it is called phase modulation. A
sinusoid is said to be phase modulated if instantaneous angle is a linear
function of the information signal.
Thus, PM wave form is given as:
SPM= A cos[ω 0 t + θ 0 + k PM f (t )]
In PM like FM the numbers of side bands depend upon the phase
Phase
modulation index. The small phase deviation
Frequency m(t) restricts the BW resulting in
m(t) Modulator
narrowModulator
band PM (NBPM). In PM signal the carrier frequency PM remains
FM
constant. Hence normally a satellite down link signal is phase modulated so
(a) (c)
that error free Doppler frequency extraction is possible.
Phase d
m(t) ∫ Modulator m(t)
Frequency
Modulator
FM dt PM
(b)
(d)
Fig (a) & (b) Generators of FM 108 Fig © & (d) Generators of PM
Fig 5.12 Generation of FM and PM signals

5-13 Demodulation of narrow band FM and PM signals:
m(t) Amplifier m(t) ∫
900 Σ 900 Σ
SNBPM(t)
SNBFM(t)
Carrier Carrier
Fig 5.13a Narrow band PM modulation

Fig 5.13b Narrow band FM modulation
SNBPM BPF LPF

m(t)
− Sin(ω 0 t + θ 0 )
Fig 5.13c NBPM Demodulation
SNBFM BPF LPF d

dt
m(t)
− Sin(ω 0 t + θ 0 )
Fig 5.13d NBFM
109Demodulation
PM Demodulated
Output
PD
Loop
Filter
FM Demodulated
Output
AM/FM/PM VCO
modulated
Signal input 900
Fig 5.13e A PLL as AM/FM/PM Demodulator
QA LPF
D
AM Demodulated Output
5.14 Local carrier generation methods:
Narrow band
SDSB(t) Amplifier
Filter
Local carrier
Fig 5.14a Local carrier generation for signals with pilot carrier
Balanced
Mod Local
carrier
LPF
Cos (2πfct)
VCO LPF Product
900
Sin (2πfct)
SDSB(t)
LPF
110
Balanced
Mod Fig 5.14b Costa’s Loop
Narrow band
() 4
Filter LPF
QPSK
Signal
VCO
÷4 Generated Reference Carrier
Fig 5.14c Reference Carrier generation Loop for QPSK Receiver
5.15 Digital Modulation:

Modern mobile communication systems use digital modulation
techniques. The advancements in VLSI and DSP technology have made digital
modulation more cost effective than analog transmission systems. Digital
modulation offers many advantages over analog modulation.
Some advantages include
• Greater noise immunity.
• Robustness to channel impairments.
• Easier multiplexing of various forms of information (e.g., voice, data
and video).
• Improved spectral efficiency, because digital signals are more
robust against channel impairments.
111
• Greater security.
• Has a digital error-control code, which detect and/or correct
transmission errors.
It supports complex signal conditioning and processing techniques such
as source coding, encryption, and equalization to improve the performance of
the overall communication link. New multipurpose programmable digital signal
processors have made it possible to implement digital modulators and
demodulators completely in software. Instead of having a particular modem
design permanently frozen as hardware, embedded software implementations
now allow alterations and improvements without having to redesign or replace
the modem.
Digital signals such as PCM, DM, ADM etc, must some times be
transmitted over a channel requiring carrier modulation. It would be
impractical to attempt direct transmission of a time multiplexed PCM signal to
a satellite. This is because of the impractical size of antenna required to
transmit such signal. The fundamental methods existing for carrier modulation
are: amplitude, phase, and frequency.
Source ADC # Encoder Modulator

To channel
# ADC absent if source is digital
Carrier
Fig 5.15a A Digital Transmitter
Demodulator Detector Decoder DAC * User

From channel
* DAC absent if user needs digital output
Ref carrier
(coh system) Fig 5.15b A Digital Receiver
The demodulation could be coherent or non-coherent. If a local

reference in phase with the transmitted carrier is available for demodulation,
it is called Coherent demodulation; otherwise it is called Non-coherent.
Likewise, if a periodic reference signal is available at the receiver that is in
synchronism with the transmitted sequence of digital signal (clock), the
system is referred as Synchronous otherwise Asynchronous.
112
5.16 Types of Digital Modulation:
A desirable digital modulation scheme should provides low bit error
rates at low received signal-to-noise ratios, performs well in multi-path and
fading conditions, occupies a minimum of bandwidth, and is simple and cost
effective to implement.
Depending on the demands of the particular application, trade-offs are made
while selecting a digital modulation scheme. Some schemes are better in
terms of the bit error rate performance, while others are better in terms
of bandwidth efficiency. The performance of a modulation scheme is also
measured in terms of its power efficiency and bandwidth efficiency.
In communication systems power and available transmission bandwidth
are the two precious items. Most systems can be either bandwidth or power
limited. In bandwidth-limited systems, spectrally efficient modulation
techniques can be used to save bandwidth at the expense of power; in
power-limited systems, power efficient modulation techniques can be used to
save power at the expense of bandwidth. In both power-and-bandwidth
limited systems, error-correcting codes can be used to save power or to
improve error performance at the expense of bandwidth. Recently, trellis-
coded modulation (TCM) have been used to improve the error performance
of bandwidth-limited channels without increase in bandwidth.
• Power efficiency is the ability of a modulation technique to preserve
the fidelity of the digital message at low power levels
• Bandwidth efficiency is the ability of a modulation scheme to
accommodate data within a limited bandwidth. In general, increasing the
data rate implies decreasing the pulse width of a digital symbol, which
increases the bandwidth of the signal. Bandwidth efficiency reflects
how efficiently the allocated bandwidth is utilized and is defined as the
ratio of the data rate throughput per Hertz in a given bandwidth.
If R is the data rate in bits per second, and B is the bandwidth
occupied by the modulated RF signal, then bandwidth efficiency ηB is
expressed as:
R
η B = bps / Hz
B
A greater value of ηB will transmit more data in a given spectrum allocation.

The upper limit on ηB is limited by channel capacity.
In a digital communication system, there is often a trade off between
bandwidth efficiency and power efficiency. Adding error control coding to a
113
message increase the bandwidth occupancy (and this, in turn, reduces the
bandwidth efficiency), but at the same time reduces the required received
power for a particular bit error rate, and hence trades bandwidth efficiency
for power efficiency. On the other hand, higher-level modulation schemes
(M-ary keying) decrease bandwidth occupancy but increase the required
power, and hence trade power efficiency for bandwidth efficiency.
Digital modulation techniques may be classified as coherent and non-
coherent based on the kind of receiver used. ASK, FSK and PSK- amplitude,
frequency and phase shift keying respectively are the three basic forms of
digital modulation corresponding to AM, FM, and PM, for analog modulation.
A special form of coherent binary FSK is Minimum Shift Keying (MSK).
5.17 Amplitude Shift Keying:

The binary ASK waveform carrier is present (on) or absent (off),
depending upon whether signal is 1 or a 0.
1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0
Thus an idealized ASK signal can be represented as
f(t) = { A Sin ωct;

0
0<t<T
; elsewhere
The signal energy E is given by

E = ∫0 A2 Sin2 ωct dt = A2T/2
5.18 Frequency Shift Keying:
A FSK signal is given as:
s1 (t ) = A cos ω c t
s 2 (t ) = A cos( ω c + ∆ω ) t
For 0 ≤ t ≤ T
A FSK signal can be viewed as frequency of a carrier wave switched to
two values f1 & f2 depending upon the binary code’s 0 or 1 status.
5.19 FSK signal waveform:
f1 f2 f1 f2
114
An idealized FSK waveform can also be considered as composed of two
ASK waveforms of different carrier frequencies. This is shown in the figure
below.
FSK Signal
ASK Signal
ASK Signal
The average energy per bit is given by:
E = ∫ A2 Sin2 mω0t dt = A2T/2
5.20 Phase Shift Keying:

In phase shift keying the carrier phase of a signal is switched between
two or more values in response to the PCM code. For binary PCM, an 180º
phase shift is convenient because it simplifies the modulator design and hence
is often used. This particular choice is commonly known as phase reversal
keying (PRK).
1800 phase transition
The PSK waveform as shown in the above figure can be represented as:
f1 (t) = A Sin ωct; f2 (t) = -A Sin ωct
115
5.21 Comparison of Binary Digital Modulation Schemes:
ASK:
• The transmitters for ASK systems are very easy to build and have an
advantage in that there is no power transmitted when there is no data
being sent (if OOK is used).
• Receivers for non-coherent ASK systems are easy to build.
• The difference in performance between coherent and non-coherent
detection is slight compared to the increase in complexity required so
that coherent detection of OOK is generally not used.
• A disadvantage of ASK is that the decision threshold in the receiver
must be adjusted with changes in received signal levels. These
adjustments are normally made with an automatic gain control.
FSK:
• Systems, in contrast to ASK operates symmetrically about a zero
decision threshold level regardless of carrier signal strength.
• Receiver complexity depends primarily upon whether a coherent or non-
coherent modulation method is used.
• Non-coherent FSK is relatively easy to implement and is a popular
choice for low-to-medium data-transmission rates such as Teletype.
• FSK transmissions intended for non-coherent demodulation require
more bandwidth for a given bit rate than either ASK or PSK.
Bandwidths of FSK transmission intended for coherent demodulation
can be made as small as desired by controlling ∆f, but with S/N penalty.
• Bandwidths of FSK transmissions intended for coherent demodulation
are typically equal to or slightly greater than those required for ASK or
PSK.
PSK:
• Superior to both ASK and FSK systems in that they require less
transmitted power for a given error probability. However, synchronous
detection is required and carrier recovery systems are more difficult
(and therefore more expensive) to build.
• DPSK systems are often a good compromise that sacrifices some error
performance but permits a more economical receiver.
The measure of system performance for digital data communication is
the probability of error PE. Synchronous detection in a white Gaussian noise
background requires a correlation or a matched filter detection to have
minimum PE (maximum Eb/N0) for a fixed S/N. Demodulation of digital signals
116
can be performed coherently or non-coherently. A coherent demodulator
requires generation of a phase coherent reference signal in the receiver. The
non-coherent system is inferior to the coherent one but it is mainly used due
to the simplicity of receiving system, and where ever the resulting PE
requirement is not stringent.
Demodulation:
An ASK system information is in amplitude ot the signal’s presence or absence.
Therefore the demodulation scheme is similar to the AM system. The
bandwidth of the BPF should be 1/T to pass the signal without distortion.
Received Signal Threshold

BPF Envelope Detector
Plus Noise Voltage
Decision
Fig 5.21a Non-coherent ASK Receiver

ωc
Received Signal Threshold

Plus Noise
∑ Voltage
Decision
ωc+∆ω
Fig 5.21.b Non-coherent FSK Receiver
For FSK signal the transmitted signals are:

s1 (t ) = A cos( ω c t + θ ) for 0 ≤ t ≤ T
s 2 (t ) = A cos[ ( ω c + ∆ω ) t + θ ] for 0 ≤ t ≤ T
Where ∆ω is sufficiently large such that s1 (t )ands 2 (t ) occupy different
spectral region. A FSK receiver is two ASK receivers in parellel. A FSK
receiver is basically a FM receiver where a BPF and an envelope detector
forms a discrimnator.
117
5.22 Differential Phase Shift Keying (DPSK).
Message ±A Cos
±1
Equivalent Level
gate shift
A Cos
One bit
Delay
Fig 5.22a A DPSK Modulator
Received Signal
Threshold
Voltage
Decision
One bit Fig 5.22b Demodulation of DPSK

Delay
A possible implementation of a differentially coherent demodulator for

DPSK is shown above. The received signal + noise is correlated bit by bit with
one bit delayed version of signal + noise. The output of the correlator is
compared with a threshold set at zero, a decission being made in favor of a 1
or a 0, depending on whether the correlator output is positive or negative. The
above receiver is a sub-optimum receiver.
5.23 Optimum Receiver:
Cos ωct Data

Decision
Received Signal
Logic
Plus Noise
Sin ωct
118
Fig 5.23 Coherent Demodulation of DPSK signal

The optimum receiver is a Coherent DPSK receiver. It provides about
2dB improvement in PE over sub-optimum receiver. For large S/N ratio this
degradation is less than 1 dB. But only significant disadvantage is that errors
tend to occur in group of two because the DPSK receiver makes decision on
basis of signal received in two sucessive bit intervals during correlation in the
encoding process. As a portion of the received noisy signal is used for
correlation in receiver, the determination of overall PE becomes some what
complcated.
A truly non-coherent PSK system does not exist, since it would be
imposible to convey information in phase of a carrier of completely random
phase. For PSK system the transmitted signals are once again 1 or 0.
S1 (t ) = A cos( 2πf c t ) for1
S 2 (t ) = A cos( 2πf c t + π ) for 0
Where fcis large compared to 1/Tb. Assuming 0 or 1 ocurring with equal
probability.
The average probability of error PE is given as:
1  E b (1 − ρ ) 
PE = erfc ,
2 2 N 
 0 
Where ρ= Correlation coefficient of signals S2(t) & S1(t).
As S2(t) & S1(t) are antipodal, it means S2(t)=-S1(t):
In that case ρ= -1 in expression of PE reduces to
1  Eb 
PE = erfc 
2 N 
 0 
In case of orthogonal signals: ρ= 0
1  Eb 
PE = erfc 
2 2 N 
 0 
ρ= -1 gives the minimum value of PE possible as S2(t) & S1(t) vary.
119
The choice of type of digital data system depends upon cost and
complexity of system. In signal fading or intervening high randomly varying
noise media, coherent scheme is preferable. But where ever it is not possible
to generate a coherent reference, non-coherent system is used.
5.24 TABLE 5.1:

Typical Prrobability of error For a PE of 10-4
Modulation Required SNR
Non-coherent ASK 12.5 dB
Coherent ASK 11.5 dB
Non-coherent FSK 12.5 dB
Coherent FSK 11.5 dB
DPSK 9 dB
Coherent PRK 8.5 dB
(QPSK)
5.25 M-ary Data Communication:

In binary digital communication systems one of the two possible signals
can be transmitted during each signalling interval. In M-ary system, one of M
possible signals may be transmitted during each Ts second sigalling interval
(symbol). Binary data transmission is special case of M-ary data transmission,
where M=2. The rate at which M-ary symbols are transmitted is called baud
rate in bauds. For M=2, one state represents 0 while the other represents a 1.
In M=4 systems such as QPSK, each level or state represents two information
bits or coded symbols. For 8-ary FSK or PSK systems, 3bits are transmitted
for each transition or change of state. Of cource for M-ary systems some
form of coding or combining is required prior to modulation and decoding after
demodulationto recover the original bit stream.
5.26 Qadrature Multiplexing:

Two different messages can be sent through the same channel by means of
quadrature multiplexing. In quadrature multiplex system, the messages m1(t)
and m2(t) are used to double sideband modulate two carrier signals, which are
in phase quadrature.
The optimum Eb/No performance achievable with BPSK led to a search for
mechanisms to improve the bandwidth efficiency of PSK schemes without any
loss of performance. It was found that since Cos2πfct and Sin2πfct (where fc
120
is the carrier frequency) are coherently orthogonal signals, two binary bit
streams modulating the two carrier signals in quadrature can be demodulated
separately. In analog communication, this idea has been used for a long time to
multiplex two signals on the same carrier, so as to occupy the same bandwidth,
e.g., the two-chrominance signals in color sub carrier. Such a modulation
scheme, increasing the bandwidth efficiency of binary PSK by two, is known as
QPSK
m1(t)
Oscillator ∑
QPSK
Serial to
Binary data 900 Output
Parallel
m (t) Converter
m2 (t)
Fig 5.26 a QPSK Transmitter
The modulated spectrum of QPSK is typical Sin2X/X2 nature. The main lobe of
QPSK spectrum contains 90% of the signal energy. Still, the small power
outside the main lobe is a source of trouble when QPSK is to be used for
multi-channel communication on adjacent carriers. The wide spectrum of
QPSK is due to the character of the base band signal. This signal consists of
abrupt changes and abrupt changes give rise to spectral components of high
frequencies. In short, the base band spectral range is very large and
multiplication by a carrier translates the spectral pattern without changing its
form. This problem is overcome by passing the base band signal through a pre-
modulation LPF to suppress the side lobes as far as possible. But such filtering
will causes intersymbol interference.
∫ T0 dt
Cos (2πfct)
Parallel to
Serial
Oscillator Converter
Data
QPSK 900
Output
Signal
Sin (2πfct)
121 ∫ T0 dt
Fig 5.26 b QPSK Receiver
In the receiving system signals have to be generated in receiver to track the
phase of the QPSK signal. This can be done using four phase Costas loop or by
quadrupler loop circuit. A commonly used circuit for reference carrier
generation is ahown below.
Narrow band
() 4
Filter LPF
QPSK
Signal
VCO
÷4 Reference Carrier
Fig 26 c Ref Carrier generation Loop for QPSK

Receiver
The reference carrier generator for a PSK signal requires a squaring circuit
and a ÷2 network instead of the quadrupler and the ÷4 circuit in above
diagram for QPSK reception. Comparing average symbol-to-noise-spectral-
density ratio, QPSK is approximately 3dB worse than PSK. But twice the data
is transmitted in QPSK system compared to PSK. Hence for a given Eb/N0 the
probability of error is same for QPSK & PSK systems.
5.27 OQPSK or Staggered QPSK system:

Since the possibility of instantaneous phase transitions of 1800 is eliminated in
OQPSK the band limited signal has a much smaller envelope fluctuation than
QPSK. Consequently, absence of fast phase transitions of 1800 means that the
undesired high frequency components originally removed by the band limiting
filter will not be regenerated.
In QPSK system the quadrature data streams can switch sign
simultateously, due to that the data-bearing phase of the modulated signal can
change by 1800. This sharp phase change can have an undesirable effect in
122
terms of envelope deviation when the modulated signal is filtered. To avoid
this, the quadrature–channel data signals of QPSK system can be offset by
half the signalling interval relative to each other.The resulting modulation
scheme is referred to as offset QPSK or OQPSK system. With this
staggering the phase change due to modulation of the transmitted carrier is
900. For an ideal system the error probability of OQPSK is identical to that of
QPSK. But one limitaion of OQPSK system is that the data streams must have
same symbol intervals, whereas for QPSK they need not.
OQPSK also known as staggered QPSK (SQPSK) has relatively low
spectral side lobes after undergoing non-linear amplification. The difference
in time alignment in the base band components doesn't change power spectral
density of modulated signal and hence in linear channels both QPSK and
OQPSK spectra have the same shape. However the two modulated signals
respond differently when they undergo band limiting and then non-linear
amplification. Because of the coincident alignment of the two base band
components in QPSK modulation, an instantaneous phase transition of 180° can
take place; hence the band limited QPSK signal exhibits 100% envelope
fluctuation. Since the possibility of instantaneous phase transitions of 180° is
eliminated in OQPSK the band limited signal has a much smaller envelope
fluctuation than QPSK. Consequently, absence of fast phase transitions 1800
means that non-linear amplifiers will not regenerate undesired high frequency
components originally removed by the band limiting filter.
Spectral advantage of OQPSK stems mainly from the fact that OQPSK
avoids the late phase transitions of 180° associated with the QPSK format.
This suggests that further suppression of spectral spreading in band limited
non-linear applications can be obtained if the OQPSK signal can be modified to
avoid step phase transitions altogether. Hence, "Minimum Shift Keying" or
MSK is considered as an effective alternative.
To minimize the effects of adjacent channel interference, it is
desirable that power radiated into the adjacent channel be 60-80 dB below
that in the desired channel. Hence narrow main lobe and fast roll-off of side-
lobes are desirable. Majority of communication systems use class-C power
amplifiers. To prevent re-growth of spectral side-lobes due to nonlinear
amplification it is essential that the input signal should have constant
envelope.
In Continuous Phase Modulation (CPM) class of frequency modulation
techniques the carrier phase varies continuously, which produce constant
amplitude envelope and excellent spectral characteristics. MSK signals have
123
all the attributes for mobile radio except for a compact power density
spectrum. This is achieved by filtering the modulating signal by a low pass
filter. A GMSK uses a pre-modulation filter with a sharper pre-modulation low
pass filter (Gaussian bell shaped filter) which produces much more sharper
main lobe compared to normal MSK signal. A GMSK spectrum is difficult to
realize practically.
5.28 MSK:
In MSK the base band waveform, that multiplies the quadrature
carrier, is much "smoother" than the abrupt rectangular waveform of QPSK.
While the spectrum of MSK has a main center lobe which is 1.5 times as wide
as the main lobe making filtering much easier. The waveform of MSK exhibits
phase continuity, that is, there are no abrupt phase changes as in QPSK. As a
result the intersymbol interference caused by non-linear amplifiers is avoided.
The staggering which is optional in QPSK is essential in MSK Minimum Shift
Keying which is also called continuous-Phase Frequency-Shift Keying (CPFSK)
with modulation index 0.5 or Fast Frequency-Shift Keying (FFSK), is one of
the most effective digital modulation techniques for digital transmission via
satellite or mobile channels.
The difference in the rates of fall off of these spectra can be explained on
the basis of the smoothness of the pulse shape p (t). The smoother the pulse
shape, the faster is the drop of spectral tail to zero. Thus, MSK, having a
smoother pulse, has lower side lobes than QPSK and OQPSK. It turns out that
in MSK 99% of the signal power is contained in a bandwidth of about 1.2f b
while in QPSK the corresponding BW is about 8fb. This indicates that in
relatively wide-band satellite links (where, for e.g., filtering is not used after
the non-linearities), MSK may be spectrally more efficient than QPSK or
OQPSK. However, the MSK spectrum has a wider main lobe than QPSK or
OQPSk. In MSK the bandwidth required to accommodate this lobe is 1.5fb
while it is only 1fb in QPSK. Since the MSK spectrum has a wider main lobe,
this suggests that in narrow-band satellite links, MSK may not be a preferred
method.
5.29 TABLE 5.2:
Comparison of different Digital modulation systems:
Modulation- Signalling Waveform Bandwidth Probability Of Error Frequency Spectrum
on Scheme
ASK S1 (t) = A Cosω0t Double of base Pe = erfc [√Eb/N0] where Power spectral
S0 (t) = 0 band signal Eb: Energy per bit density is centered
N0/2: Noise Spectral Density at center frequency
FSK S1 (t) = A Cosω1t Depends on Pe = 1/2 erfc [√Eb/2N0] for Two line spectrum
124
S2 (t) = A Cosω2t seperation of both coherent detection. occur for two
Where ω1 and ω2 the frequencies Pe = 1/2 erfc [-Eb/2N0] different
are two different For non coherent detection. frequencies.
frequencies.
BPSK S1 (t) = A Cosω0t BW=1.25 times the Pe = 1/2 erfc √[Eb/No] Spectrum: Sin2X/X2
S2 (t)=Acos (ω0t+π) bit rate (practical). without spectral line
Theoretically BW = at carrier frequency
bit rate.
QPSK S1 (t)=ai (t) Cos2πfct BW = 0.5 times For each Spectrum: Sin2X/X2
+ aq (t) Sin2πfct bitrate Pe = 1/2 erfc √[Eb/No] and no discrete
(theoretical) spectral line at
BW = 0.6 times bit carrier frequency
rate (practical)
MSK S1 (t)=ai (t) Cos2πfct Cos Bandwidth is 1.5 Pe = 1/2 [erfc (√γb)- Spectrum Sin6X/X6
(πt/2T)+ aq (t) Sin2πfct times more than 1/4 erfc2 (√γb)]
Sin (πt/2T) that of QPSK
5.30 QPSK & MSK Waveforms:
QPSK and OQPSK
MSK
Power
In dB
MSK has some excellent special properties

fT that make it an attractive
alternative when other channel constraints require bandwidth efficiencies
below 1bits/s/HZ. For example,
Fig 5.30 the
QPSKcontinuous phase nature of MSK makes
& MSK Spectrum
it highly desirable for high power transmitters driving highly reactive loads.
Since intersymbol switching occurs when the instantaneous amplitude of p
(t) is zero, the finite rise and fall times and data asymmetry inevitably
present in practical situations have a minimal effect on the MSK
performance. In addition, MSK has simple demodulation and synchronization
circuits.
125
5.31 Implementation Techniques of MSK Modulator:
The most straightforward way of implementing a MSK modulator is to
apply the data stream to a voltage controlled oscillator. The output of the
VCO is then a frequency modulated MSK signal.
Data In
Fig 5.31 a MSK Modulator
MSK Signal
VCO
The main disadvantage of the above modulator is the instability of the

VCO. This modulator is thus not suitable for coherent demodulation. A
second disadvantage is that it is difficult to maintain center frequency at
allowable value under restriction of maintenance of linearity and sensitivity
for the required FM modulation.
Modulation and demodulation can be accomplished in 2 equivalent
fashions viz. Serial and parallel. The serial technique is advantageous for
high data rate implementations. In parallel modulation, the serial data
stream is thought of as being 'demultiplexed' into its even and odd bits to
produce two bit streams, ai (t) and aq (t) staggered half symbol and then
used to biphase the input signals. A serial modulator structure for serial
MSK is as in the figures below.
Band Pass
X(t)
Conversion
Filter MSK
Outpu
ACos (2πf1t) Fig 5.31 b A MSK Modulator
Band Pass Z(t) X(t) YD(t)

Matched Low Pass Filter
Filter
MSK signal
Acos (2πf1t+θ) Fig 5.31 b A MSK Demodulator
It is seen to consist of a biphase shift keyed modulator with carrier

1
frequency T Hz, and a band pass conversion filter. The serial demodulator
4
126
structure for MSK is essentially the reverse of the serial MSK modulator. It
consists of a band pass conversion filter followed by a coherent demodulator
and low pass filter which elliminates double frequency components at the
mixer output. The major difference between the serial modulator and
demodulator is the matched filter, which has a transfer function proportional
to the square root of the power spectrum of the MSK signal.
Serial MSK modulation and demodulation have the advantage that all
operations are performed serially, and therefore offer significant
implementation tradeoffs at high data rates. The precise synchronization and
balancing required for the quadrature signals of the parallel structures are no
longer present. The critical system components are the biphase modulator,
the bandpass conversion and matched filters, and the coherent demodulator.
Even data
Oscillator
1 Carrier
F0 = T Oscillator
Serial to 4
parallel
Data converter Σ
900 900
Odd data
Fig 5.32c Block Diagram of Quadrature MSK Modulator
5.32 Spectral efficiency:

In any communication system, the two primary communication resources
are the transmitted power and channel bandwidth. A general system design
objective would be to use these two resources as efficiently as possible. In
many communication channels, one of the resources may be more precious than
the other and hence most channels can be classified primarily as power-
limited or band-limited. (The voice grade telephone circuit, with approximately
3KHz bandwidth, is a typical band-limited channel, whereas space
communication links are typically power-limited). In power-limited channels,
coding schemes would be generally used to save power at the expense of
bandwidth, whereas in band-limited channels "spectrally efficient modulation"
techniques would be used to save bandwidth.
127
The primary objective of spectrally efficient modulation is to maximize the
bandwidth efficiency, defined as the ratio of data rate to channel bandwidth
(in units of bits/s/Hz). A secondary objective of such modulation schemes may
be to achieve this bandwidth efficiency at a prescribed average bit error rate
with minimum expenditure of signal power. Some channels may have other
restrictions and limitations, which may force other constraints on the
modulation techniques. For example, communication systems using certain
types of non-linear channels call for an additional feature, namely a constant
envelope, which makes the modulation impervious to such impairments. This is
needed because a memoryless non-linearity produces extraneous sidebands
when passing a signal with amplitude fluctuations. Such sidebands introduce
out-of-band interference with other communication systems.
5.33 Spectral Features of Digital Modulation Systems:

ASK:
• Transmitters are easy to design. No power is transmitted when there is
no data being sent.
FSK:
• Symmetrical about a zero division threshold.
Requires more bandwidth for a given bit rate than either PSK/ASK
For same Eb/No, FSK has 3dB advantage over ASK on a peak power
Requirement (but average power requirement is same).
Frequencies are so selected that inter channel interference is less.
BPSK:
• DSB-SC Modulation
Superior to ASK and FSK by 3dB in average power requirement for a
given probability of error.
QPSK:
• Bit error probability in BPSK and QPSK is equal but not symbol error
probability
MSK:
• Constant envelope.
• Narrow bandwidth and sharp cut-off of LPF.
• Compact spectrum.
• Coherent detection capability. Out of band radiation is a serious
constraint.
128
5.34 TABLE 5.3:
Eb
forPE = 10 −6
N0
M Non-coherent Coherent
2 14.2 dB 13.6 dB
4 11.3 dB 10.8 dB
8 9.7 dB 9.3 dB
16 8.7 dB 8.2 dB
If one considers the required BW to be that required to pass the main

lobe of the signal spectrum (null to null), then the BW efficiency of various M-
ary schemes be as:
5.35 TABLE 5.4

Bandwidth efficiency on a main lobe spectrum of M-ary systems.
M-ary scheme BW Efficiency (bits/s/Hz)
PSK, QASK 0.5log2M
FSK log 2 M
M +1
5.36 TABLE 5.5

Bandwidth efficiency on a main lobe spectrum of M-ary systems.
M PSK, QASK or QAM FSK
2 0.5 0.33
4 1.0 0.4
8 1.5 0.33
16 2.0 0.24
32 2.5 0.15
Note: BW efficiency of M-ary PSK goes up with increasing M, while for
FSK it goes down.
129
Efficiency (η) of M-ary signaling:
η of M-ary signaling is given by

R log 2 M
W
=
WTs
=
1
WTb
( b s ) / Hz
Where W=BW in Hz, Tb=bit duration, R= bit rate.
The smaller the WTb product the more efficient the digital communication
system. GSM system uses GMSK modulation where
WTb =0.3 Hz/(b/s), where W= 3dB bandwidth.
130
APPENDIX-D
131
132
133
134
135
136
137
138
139
6.0 RF Radiation Hazards-A Review
6.1 Introduction:
The transmission of intelligence or radiation of a signal is by
Electromagnetic (EM) waves. These EM waves are also referred as “radio
waves” and the frequencies at which they are transmitted are called “radio
frequencies”. The EM waves propagated in free space have electric and
magnetic fields perpendicular to each other and to the direction of
propagation. They are called transverse electromagnetic (TEM) waves. The
radiation could be a desired one or an undesired interference. The example of
desired radiation could be a radio/TV/distress signal/point to point
telecommunication signal/or a satellite communication. An undesired radiation
could be an interfering signal to a wanted communication or could be a leakage
signal originating from an electronic instrument in laboratories or a high power
transmitter. The undesired/unwanted signals can disturb the wanted
communication channel. A radiation whether wanted or unwanted above certain
specified power level and at certain frequencies can affect the health of
human beings. Some times during development of simple low power circuits in
laboratories can also produce unwanted radiation of unexpected high
magnitude which goes undetected. It may seriously affect the health of a
working person. These days the use of mobile phones has gone up very much.
Efforts are on to find out the effects of RF signals emanating from mobiles
on human health but till now no concrete evidence of radiation from mobile
phones have been established. The absorption of RF energy affects a human
being directly by the way of heating the limbs. Shock and burns result from
contact with conductive objects. Its athermal effect is affecting the tissues
without heating. Some people wearing heart pacemakers, insulin pumps, passive
metallic plates may also get affected by radiation.
6.2 RF Radiation:
The RF radiation around us in day-to-day life affects our life very
much. A required amount of controlled radiation exposure is used, as medicine
while an undesired uncontrolled radiation is injurious or could be even fatal for
human being. As the harming radiation energy cannot be measured or
quantified in numbers it remains a dark area. The safety limits have not been
quantified in many areas. The safety management deals with well being of
140
people. Humans respond to many stimuli as part of the normal process of living
but a biological effect due to unwanted radiation may lead to a health hazard.
As it is not possible to find out the effects due to unwanted radiation
experiment on human beings, the effects of RF radiation have been studied
and documented on small animals like rats, rabbits, bacteria, yeast cell etc.
But the extrapolation of these results straight away to human beings is not
possible in many cases because of the physical sizes, producing different
resonant frequencies, different thermal properties due to different thermo-
regulatory systems. Then it also difficult to extend research to very wide
radio frequency spectrum of 10kHz to say 300GHz, to low or high levels of
field, employing different modulation techniques etc. The situation
complicates further when certain effects take place only in certain frequency
bands, power levels, and modulation scheme. This suggests a host of
combination of situations. Moreover there is seldom equipment that can
produce many simulation signatures for test purposes.
6.3 Sources of radiation:

The radio transmission has become the integral part of our day-to-day
life. Stimulated by the needs of the world wars, radio transmission has
become an established technology, which is taken for granted, and which,
among other things, provides for the broadcasting to our homes of
entertainment, news and information of every kinds. The uses of TV, radio,
mobile & cordless phones, domestic satellite dishs bringing quasi-optical
nature of microwaves are very common sight today.
The terrestrial and satellite broadcasting and communications, and the
enormous number of mobile phones now in use, homes, work, and recreational
places are irradiated by vast number of electromagnetic signals. Many of
these radiations are at low level while those emanating from transmitters or
some other equipment are high. Some radiations are unintentional, resulting
from the leakage from devices or equipments, due to inadequate shielding or
improper metal cases. Apart from any effects of leakage on people, it also
causes interference to other equipments. Transmitting unwanted noise like
signal can be used to obstruct or jam signals from enemy country causes the
intentional interference. This technique was widely used during cold war era.
The transmitted signal could be radar continuous wave signal or a
modulated wave like radio, TV broadcasts, mobile phones etc. The modulating
signal could be a voice, a sine wave, a pulse, a noise or a mixture of different
signals.
141
The chief sources of RF radiation are:
• Broadcasting.
• Communications.
• Radar Systems.
• Machines.
6.3.1 Broadcasting:
Broadcast transmitters in medium-wave/short-wave/Television and
microwave relay stations normally use quite high power. They radiate RF power
from a few kilowatts to a few megawatts. Medium frequency (MF)
transmitters are usually used for national broadcasting while the high
frequency (HF) bands equipments are used for long distance or overseas
services. BBC, Voice of America or German overseas services cover
throughout world. They use very high RF power in megawatt range. These
transmitters would be normally large in size. If proper dummy loads or
effective RF shielding are not employed then they could be a big source of RF
leakage. For HF broadcasting the antenna system are supported by a lot of
masts and towers. As more than one frequency is normally used additional
antenna systems are required. The unused antenna systems can become “live”
due to parasitic energisation from the working antenna. They become a good
source of unwanted radiators. Large antenna sites make job of ensuring the
radiation safety issues much more difficult.
6.3.2 Communications:
There are infinite variety of communication equipments ranging from
mobile phones, MF/HF/VHF/UHF/Microwave ground communication systems,
air to ship / satellite communications in VHF/UHF/Microwave bands. They use
variety of antenna systems at different power levels. To optimize
communication some times a single scheme uses diversity techniques where
more than one set of antenna systems are used for different polarizing
signals. Various elements of RF communication systems affect the health of a
common man directly or indirectly. Some of them are listed below:
a) Air traffic control (ATC) communication.
ATC communication is normally in VHF And UHF bands. They transmit in
range of about 50 watts. Several transmitters are operated simultaneously to
secure wide coverage. They are quite organized networks keeping the health
of workers around. But the radar used in ATC sites may illuminate parts the
142
towers, and radiation could be uncontrolled. This could be injurious to
inhabitants near by.
b) Microwave transmitting towers.
Microwave transmission is very common for civilian or military
communication. These communications could be either land based line of sight
or tropospheric in nature. For tropospheric communication the transmitted
signal from one station is deflected from the tropospheric layers and received
at other desired station. It is often used to communicate between oilrigs and
base stations on ground. Typical RF power could be any where between 5W to
a few KW in 4-6 GHz band. The microwave communication towers for civilian
telecommunication networks also operate in 4-6 GHz band in a few KW range
of RF power. The antennas are relatively near to ground therefore safety
clearance is an important factor. The tropospheric communication uses fixed
or mobile antenna. The safety aspects in both the cases would be different.
For portable antenna due their changing positions sometimes they may come
very near to human population. In that case the safety aspects become very
important.
c) Satellite Communication Systems.
Presently most of the satellites operate in C, X, Ku, Ka bands of
frequencies. The satellites are in LEO (Low Earth Orbit). MEO (Medium
Earth Orbit), HEO (High Earth Orbit) or Geostationary Orbits, depending
upon the service requirements. The ground stations are used to transmit
signals to the satellite and to receive signals from them. The normal antenna
used is parabolic dishes of varying diameters. For Geostationary satellites the
ground station antenna are fixed in the direction of the satellite at particular
azimuth and elevation. But for orbiting satellites the ground station antenna
must track the movement of satellite in space from low to high elevation
angles. The normal RF power transmitted from a ground station could range
from tens of watts to a few kilowatts. The scanning ground station antenna
while uplinking to a satellite may have bad effect on the human beings in near
by houses. The effect would be more if the undesired side lobes of the
antenna are more. For “receive only” terminals this problem is minimal as the
signal strength received from a satellite on ground would have very
insignificant effect on human health.
6.3.3 Radar:
Radars are very widely used element in civil aviation, civil and defense
(“identification of friend or foe” IFF, military jamming radars), meteorology,
143
police departments. These radars could be fixed land based, ship borne, air
borne (aircrafts, satellites) or mobile land based (police). They could be
covered by RF transparent domes or without domes. The radar antennas are
scanning one with a typical rate of 6-15rpm. Surveillance radar is normally high
power and is placed in isolated places. They are less injurious to human health
compared to the space and land borne ones. The powers radiated by radars
differ depending upon their mode of operation. The typical mean power and
effective peak powers radiated by modern radars of planar array type are
around 4kW and 54kW respectively. All these could be potential health
hazards if the systems are not used properly or left unserviced for long
period of time.
6.3.4 RF Equipments or Machines:

In scientific development laboratories or at electronic systems
manufacturing industries electronic equipments are needed to develop a new
system, test the developed systems, or to calibrate an existing system. Many
food-processing industries use RF drying machines to process their products.
Other RF processing machines are used for welding, vulcanizing, heat-sealing,
plastic processing, brazing, soldering, forging etc. RF induction machines are
used for container sealing. Many of these machines if not properly RF shielded
may radiate appreciable power levels, which may harm a worker, near by. Some
of the induction machines for sealing oil containers are rated at 2-3kW at
around 30 MHz. Some of the RF applicators used in heavy industries generate
in range of 100kW. They are as good as a large radio transmitter. An engineer
or a scientist developing a new electronic circuit in laboratory uses a signal
generator or measuring instruments like Oscilloscope or a Spectrum analyzer.
These equipments generate a host of RF signals of various levels. If these
levels were not in safe level then they would be harmful. Apart from that,
often while aligning or tuning a circuit very high levels of unwanted oscillations
are produced. This unpredicted signal burst very near to a worker may harm
him/her without knowing him/her. The effect of which may be felt in short or
long course of time depending upon the damage caused.
Use of short wave therapy to human body is known since early
twentieth century. The RF energy (typical 27MHz) penetrates in human
tissues and induces heating in joints. Many physiotherapists employ pulsed RF
energy for treating the muscular systems. One use of microwave energy is to
induce localized hyperthermia to destroy malignant tumors. Here the basic
safety concerns are:
144
• Exposure of the patient.
• Exposure attending physiotherapists.
• Exposure of other people near the patient.
The patient should not be exposed to stray unwanted radiation during
treatment. In absence of any radiation measuring instrument it may not be
possible to ascertain as to how much dose has been received by him. It may
cause serious damage to the patient. A reasonable information about the
equipments used is essential to avoid health hazards.
6.4 Effects of RF radiation:
The known effects of RF radiation on human beings documented are:
6.4.1 Thermal effects.
The most demonstrable effect of RF radiation above 100kHz on human body is
the thermal effect. High percentage of human body is made of water and
water molecules. On RF exposure the tissues having significant water contents
get influenced by impinging electromagnetic field and heat is generated (just
like what happens in microwave oven). This heating effect is different at
different power levels and frequency bands. The amount of heat produced
also depends upon the amount of heat absorbed and the thermo-regulatory
system of an individual. On excessive exposure the thermo-regulatory system
gives way and give rise to hyperthermia or heat exhaustion. If the cell
temperature reaches around 430C irreversible damage takes place. A rise in
2.20C is often taken as the limit of endurance for clinical trials. The quantity
of absorption of energy in tissues is expressed in watts per unit mass (Wkg-1)
of tissues; this is called as Specific Absorption Rate (SAR). At low frequency
(tens of kilohertz) energy absorption is low. It is reported that absorption is
maximum at human resonance, which is typically 30-80 MHz depending upon
height for adults, above this it reduces monotonously. Practical SAR
measurement for human is not possible, only estimation by computer
simulation on dummy models has been possible. The RF energy through human
tissues may be absorbed, reflected or pass, depending upon body structure
and tissue interface. As per Gandhi and Riazi, the depth of penetration of
energy depends upon its frequency. With higher frequency the penetration of
energy decreases. At microwave frequencies deposition of energy is confined
to surface layers of skin. For diathermy treatments the energy frequency is
controlled for heating at desired depth in body. A radiation at microwave
frequencies may damage the skin of a human being. This risk increases with
increase in RF frequency. So the radiation exposure should be quite small for
microwave frequencies signals compared to that at lower frequency signals.
145
Some persons may have high local SAR (hot spot) in their body. These hot
spots are produced due to complex mixture of tissues. They may produce non-
uniform localized distribution of heating in the body damaging the local cells.
The absorption of a radiation is maximum at resonance frequency of a human
body. The resonance frequency of a human being has been found to be related
with height of an erect person. As per an empirical relation arrived at, the
resonance occurs at when height corresponds to approximately 0.36 to 0.4
wavelengths (λ). For a standard man of height 1.75m;
1.75
λ= = 4.37 meters .
0.4
300
Re sonantfrequency = MHz = 69 MHz .
4.37
Small children appear to resonate at higher frequencies and tall adults at
lower frequencies. Similarly it has been observed that if a person is
effectively earthed due to bare feet or conductive shoe, the resonance
occurs at approximately half the above frequency.
6.4.2 TABLE: 6.1

Effective resonant frequency in polarized field; h=0.4λ
Height of a person (m) Resonance (MHz)
0.5 240
0.75 160
1.0 120
1.25 96
1.5 80
1.75 69
Gandhi[13] suggests that human being absorb energy 4.2 times greater than
what is expected considering physical cross-section of the body.
The most susceptible organs from heat transfer point of view are the
eyes and male testes. These organs do not have means of dissipating heat due
to that reversible or some times irreversible damages to may take place.
The production of cataracts due to the thermal effects on animals has
been well documented. The frequencies likely to cause cataract in human
beings have been found to lie between 1-10 GHz. Here too the depth of RF
radiation penetration in the eye tissues depends of upon its frequency. Some
reported work claim that microwave pulsed radiation at low levels could affect
susceptible part of eye. They suggest that at millimetric wavelengths the
146
power absorption of human eyes could be of the order of 15-25mW for an
incident power of 100Wm-2 after 30-60 minutes of exposure. Many reported
works suggest that eye exposure to RF radiation be treated with caution
especially with high power pulsed radiation. Exposure limits and level should
be controlled. Unnecessary exposure to eye, for example by holding the head
close to open RF power amplifier or any electronic circuit, during alignment is
avoided. The same precaution should be taken while removing a waveguide
flange without switching off the source.
Experiments with anaesthetized rats and mice have shown that
exposure of SAR of 8-10 Wkg-1, and 30 Wkg-1 depletes male germ cells
respectively. Conscious rats and mice exposed to 9 Wkg-1 and 20 Wkg-1
respectively. As anaesthetized animals could not regulate their testicular
temperature hence the radiation effect was more. Some times temporary
decrease in fertility have been also reported. But detailed studies on human
beings are not available on organized basis hence it is not possible to conclude
for sure whether radiation hazard affects productivity of a person.
Many experiments results are available to find the effect of RF
radiation on human auditory system. Human auditory system responds to
frequencies as low as 200 MHz to 3GHz. The reported volunteers when
exposed to RF radiation heard buzzing, hissing, and clicking sounds depending
upon the modulation characteristics. But persons responded in different way
to the same problems. Many times contradictory responses were received
from different people. Detailed survey on various persons engaged in various
fields of occupation revealed no conclusive evidence of auditory defects
produced by radiation hazards.
The currents induced in human body especially in limbs (limb current)
have been observed as of some concern from a radiation frequency up to
100MHz. It has been established that currents in legs of an adult in RF field
produce large SAR wherever conductive cross-sectional area (like ankle) is
small. The current density produced will be quite large in those narrow areas.
Gandhi et al, have shown by measurements that the induced currents are
highest when a person is erect and barefoot. The leg currents are
proportional to frequency and to the square of height of a person. They found
that the currents peaked around 40MHz, the resonant frequency of a
standard man. The current when wearing shoes is about 0.8 times the bare
foot current. Due to reduction in impedance to ground with frequency the
current increases with frequency.
147
RF shock or even burn may be experienced if a person touches a passive
conductive object in the electric field. These objects could be fences, scrap
metal, any equipment stored in open, etc. Burn may take place if the current
density (mA/cm-2) is quite high due to small contact area. Chatterjee et al,
studied this effect on several males and females in frequency range of 10kHz
to 3MHz. They experimented on threshold currents for perception and pain.
As burn results from the current density and contact area. If the contact
area is large then currents even more than the safe limit may not harm a
person. Touch burns have been reported at 60mA current with a contact area
of 0.2cm-2.
6.4.3 TABLE: 6.2
Range of threshold currents (ICNIRP*)
Threshold current (mA)
Frequency 50/60 Hz 1kHz 100kHz
Touch Perception 0.2-0.4 0.4-0.8 25-40
Pain on finger contacts 0.9-1.8 1.6-3.3 33-55
Painful Shock 8-16 12-24 112-224
Severe shock/ 12-23 21-41 160-320
Breathing difficulty
* ICNIRP-International Commission for Non-ionizing Radiation
Protection.
Pulsed RF transmission is very common. Radar is an example. It is

considered that pulsed radiation may affect nervous systems. A large SAR is
produced during the pulse period.
6.4.4 Non-thermal effects:

Till now no damaging non-thermal effects of RF radiation have been
reported. Still with exceedingly wide use of RF energy in day-to-day life it is
imperative that all aspects be examined thoroughly. Some people feel that the
exposure to RF radiation may lead to growth of tumors in human body.
Divergent results were reported from different laboratories leading no
concrete conclusion. On this issue a leading authority on non-ionizing radiation
of UK the National Radiological Protection Board (NRPB) could not find good
evidence that electromagnetic radiations with frequencies less than about 100
kHz were carcinogenic. This clears electrical and electronics home appliances.
If a person wearing heart pacemaker is exposed to a radiation it is possible
that the radiation may affect the working of pacemaker. Similarly many
148
passive devices like metal plates, rods and other fixings fitted in a person may
resonate with radiated energy and harm him. With higher frequencies some
laboratories have suggested that they may act like tumor promoters at
certain power and frequency levels. The increasing wide spread use of cell
phones all over the world has brought back the fear of possibility of radiation
borne carcinogenic development in users.
Arguments and counter arguments were put forward on the issue,
leading to a stale met. A study funded by the European union was constituted
“to show conclusively that EM radiation emitted by mobile phones and power
lines could affect human cells at energy levels generally considered harmless.”
The four-year REFLEX project involving 12 groups of seven European
countries carried out supposedly identical experiments. The results were
compared. The conclusion as per project leader Franz Adlkofer of Verum
Foundation in Munich, Germany was: “Electromagnetic radiation of low and
high frequencies is able to generate a genotoxic effect on certain but not all
types of cells and is also able to change the function of certain genes,
activating them and deactivating them.” But many scientists including Michael
Repacholi of WHO do not agree with results and feel that the experiments
conducted by various groups were not completely standardized hence the
results are not conclusive. More study is required to come to a conclusion.
Ground breaking research to understand the effects of mm waves on
skin is being carried out at Cranfield University at Oxford shire, UK. Dr. Clive
Alabaster of Radar Systems Group at the university leads the study team.
Sponsored by Anritsu the program has arrived at some preliminary results.
Using the safety benchmark set by the NRPB of 10 mW/cm2, Dr. Alabaster
calculated the temperature rise of skin exposed to this level of mm wave
radiation for 30 seconds. He found that this exposure could heat up the skin
surface by 0.20C. This heating would be hardly noticed by a human body. He
wants to reconfirm the result and seeks to extend the study to variety of skin
samples.
6.5 RF Safety standards:

In controlling human exposure to RF radiation the safety standards
deals to whether the potential hazard relates to:
• Leakage or unwanted radiation from RF source.
• Intended or wanted radiation from a transmitter, antenna, machine or
applicator.
The governing bodies for these standards in different countries are:
149
• The American National Standard Association (ANSI).
• International Commission on Non-ionising Radiation Protection
(ICNIRP). Is has link with WHO, International Radiation Protection
Association (IRPA). It is non-governmental and non-political
organization.
• The UK National Radiology Protection Board (NRPB). NRPB is statutory
adviser to the Health and Safety Commission on ionization and non-
ionization radiation for United Kingdom.
• The USA Federal Communications Commission (FCC). It is responsible
for assessing RF emissions and provides technical information from time
to time via Internet.
• The Commission of the European Communities (EC). It maintains draft
for various requirements for on ionization and non- ionization radiation
and also machine safety directives.
6.5.1 Leakage Standard:

Leakage Standards are set for maximum expected safe radiation level
at a defined distance from a radiating source in specified condition of use. For
specific gadgets like microwave ovens the safe radiation levels are specified
at safe working distance. National safety standard is specified for leakage
from radio or TV broadcast transmitters. Some times in-house local standards
are also applied in isolated cases for different gadgets. Leakage limits are
often defined and carried out by legal provisions of a country. This is
monitored closely at the time of testing of a gadget.
6.5.2 Exposure Standards:
It is limit for human exposure to RF radiation. Beyond this limit RF
exposure could be dangerous to human beings. Basically the leakage and
exposure mean same thing. The leakage is specified at a distance between
from a radiation source.
A leakage is a criterion for pass-fail standard for an instrument, while
in an intentional radiation (like a transmitting station) there is no requirement
for reduction in radiation level as the power level is required for normal
functioning of the system. But these levels may injurious to a worker or people
near by. Hence there is a continuing requirement for active safety
management. Many times these power levels get enhanced due to reflection
from metal objects or from a resonant antenna.
Some standardization bodies recommend different limits for
“occupational” and “public” use. People engaged in RF system development work
150
are termed as “occupational” while people not engaged in RF system
development or not knowledgeable on the subject have been characterized as
“public”. The radiation limits prescribed for public is normally less than the
1
occupational category. Typically the power density limits for “public” is of
5
that of “occupational”.
For estimating the radiation doses the product of power density and
1
exposure time is taken into consideration. Since 1960, th of an hour (6
10
minutes) averaging has been established. Considering an example, a continuous
limit for power density of 50Wm-2; in watt-hour or joule units can be
calculated as:
50Wm-2 x 0.1h = 5Whm-2
Or 50Wm-2 x 360 secs = 18000Jm-2; (since 1W=1Js-1)
For peak power radiations used in radars or pulsed equipments, adverse
effects on human body have not been reported due to its very short period of
occurrence.
Different RF radiation safety documents have tabulated in different
ways. ICNIRP has tabulate under headings of “occupational” and “public”. The
uses “controlled” and “uncontrolled” areas while the NRPB use the
classification as “adults only” and “children present”.
The following safety limits in TABLES A-B for “occupational” and
“public” have been reproduced from NRPB, IEEE, & ICNIR standard
documents.
6.5.3 TABLE: 6.3

“Occupational” limits
• Power Flux Density:
NRPB-Adult ANSI/IEEE- Controlled ICNIRP-Occupational
Frequency Wm-2 Frequency Wm-2 Frequency Wm-2
10-60 MHz 10 100-300 MHz 10 10-400 MHz 10
60-137 MHz 2700 f2 300 MHz-3 GHz f/30 400-2000 MHz f/40
137MHz to 50 3-15 GHz 100 2-300 GHz 50
1.1 GHz
1.1GHz to 41f2 15-300 GHz 100 f= MHz
1.5 GHz
1,5 GHz to 100
300 GHz
f= GHz f= MHz
151
• Electric Field Strength:
Frequency Vm-1 Frequency Vm-1 Frequency Vm-1
600KHz-10 MHz 600/f1 0.1-3 MHz 614 0.065-1 MHz 610
10-60 MHz 60 3-30 MHz 1842/f 1-10 MHz 610/f
60 MHz to 1000f2 30-100 MHz 61.4 10-400 MHz 61
137 MHz
137MHz to 137 100-300 MHz 61.4 f= MHz
1.1 GHz
1,1 GHz to 1251 f2
1.55 GHz
f1= MHz; f2= GHz; f= MHz
• Magnetic Field Strength:

Frequency Am -1
Frequency Am-1 Frequency Am-1
535KHz-10.6 1.8/f21 0.1-3 MHz 16.3/f 0.065-1 MHz 1.6/f
MHz
10.6 -60 MHz 0.16 3-30 MHz 16.3/f 1-10 MHz 1.6/f
60 MHz to 2.7f2 30-100 MHz 16.3/f 10-400 MHz 0.16
137 MHz
137MHz to 0.36 100-300 MHz .1630 400-2000 MHz 0.008 f
1.1 GHz
1,1 GHz to .33f2 2-300 GHz 0.36
1.55 GHz f= MHz
1.55GHz to 0.52 f= MHz

300GHz
f1= MHz; f2= GHz;
152
6.5.4 TABLE: 6.4
“Public”limits
• Power Flux Density:
NRPB-Child present ANSI/IEEE- Controlled ICNIRP-Public
Frequency Wm-2 Frequency Wm-2 Frequency Wm-2
12-200 MHz 6.6 100-300 MHz 2 10-400 MHz 2
200-400 MHz 165 f2 300 MHz-3 GHz f/150 400-2000 MHz f/200
400MHz to 26 3-15 GHz f/150 2-300 GHz 10
800 MHz
800MHz to 41f2 15-300 GHz 100 f= MHz
1.55 GHz
1,5 GHz to 100
300 GHz
f= GHz f= MHz
• Electric Field Strength:

Frequency Vm-1 Frequency Vm-1 Frequency Vm-1
600KHz-12 MHz 600/f1 0.1-3 MHz 614 0.15-1 MHz 87
12-200 MHz 50 1.34-3 MHz 823.8/f 1-10 MHz 87
f
200 MHz to 250f2 3-30 MHz 823.8/f 10-400 MHz 28
400 MHz
400-2000MHz 1.375
f
2-300 GHz 61
400MHz to 100 30-100 MHz 27.4 f= MHz
800 MHz
800 MHz to 125 f2
1.55 GHz
1,55-300ghZ 194 100-300 MHz 27.4
f1= MHz; f2= GHz; f= MHz
153
• Magnetic Field Strength:
Frequency Am-1 Frequency Am-1 Frequency Am-1
535KHz-12 MHz 1.8/f21 0.1-34 MHz 16.3/f 0.15-1 MHz 0.73/f
12-200 MHz 0.13 1.34-30 MHz 16.3/f 1-10 MHz 0.73/f
200-400 MHz 0.66f2 30-100 MHz 158.3/f1.668 10-400 MHz 0.073
400-800 MHz 0.26 100-300 MHz 0.0729 400-2000 MHz 0.003 f
800MHz to 0.33f2 2-300 GHz 0.16
1.55GHz f= MHz
1.55GHz to 0.52 f= MHz

300GHz
f1= MHz; f2= GHz;
For Amateur Radio users NRPB and FCC both have issued guidelines. The FCC
guidelines for power thresholds have been shown in
TABLE-6.3C below.
6.5.5 TABLE:6.5
FCC power thresholds for Amateur Radio Stations:
Wave length band Power Limits
160,80,75, and 40m 500W
30m 425
20m 225
17m 125
15m 100
12m 75
10m 50
VHF all bands 50
70cm 70
33cm 150
23cm 200
13cm 250
SHF all bands 250
EHF all bands 250
Exceeding these power limits requires a station evaluation. The people around
an amateur radio station fall into category of “public”.
154
6.6 Radiation Safety Management:
The radiation safety management is a very important aspect in day-to-
day life for the occupational or public around a working or even a recreational
place. Some advanced countries have the management system in place. But
many countries are yet to evolve a norm. An international standard is absent
on this issue. This is mainly due to lack of consensus in views on the existing
standards. The objectives of the safety management should include:
• Identification of potential radiation hazards in occupational and public
domains.
• Methods to reduce them &easurements of the levels if possible.
• Controlling of the hazardous levels.
• Education or training of the technical and non-technical personnel about
the hazards.
• Development of the safety measures.
• Periodic calibration and checking of RF as well the radiation measuring
equipments.
• Use of anechoic chambers with proper RF absorbers while calibrating
high gain antenna.
• Use of RF shielded chambers while aligning a transmitter.
• Proper RF shielding is provided while developing an RF system in
laboratories.
• Proper EMI filtering is provided at required points during development
of RF systems to avoid unwanted leakage.
• Maintaining a record of various measurements made, safety precautions
initiated and their implementation, and action taken if any. Safety audit
should be maintained seriously.
• A record of all incidents occurred be maintained.
• Keeping of a copy of international safety document in laboratories or in
work place.
• A specific area is ear marked in laboratory for developing RF systems
and it should be indicated by the way of a notice. Pasted on wall.
• Companies developing RF equipments of their own design or
manufacturing a customer’s designed system be made aware of the
hazard safety levels and ways to keep the levels within limits. Similarly
the customers should be made aware of radiation characteristics and
safe use of the gadgets he/she is going to handle.
155
7.0 Abbreviations:
AM Amplitude Modulation.
Am-1 Magnetic Field Strength (ampere per meter).
ANSI American National Standards Institution.
BBC British Broadcasting Corporation.
CISPR International Special Committee for Electro technical
Standardization.
CW Continuous Wave (un modulated wave).
DC Direct Current.
FCC USA Federal Communication Committee.
FM Frequency Modulation.
EIRP Effective Isotropic Radiated Power.
EMC Electromagnetic Compatibility.
ICNIRP International Commission for Non-Ionising Radiation Protection.
IEEE Institution of Electrical and Electronic Engineers (USA).
ITU International Telecommunication Union.
Jm-2 Energy-Joule per square meter.
NRPB National Radiological Protection Board.
Pfd Power Flux Density (Wm-2).
P.r.f Pulse Repetition Rate (Hz).
RF Radio Frequency.
RFI Radio Frequency Interference.
Rms Root Mean Square value.
SAR Specific Absorption Rate (Wkg-1)
Vm-1 Electric Field Strength (volt per meter)
WHO World Health Organization.
Wm-2 Power Flux Density.
156
8.0 References :
1. Adair, E.R., Thermo physical Effects of Electromagnetic

Radiation; IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Magazine, March
1987.
2. Johnson, C.C and Guy, A, W., Non-ionizing Electromagnetic Wave Effects in
Biological Materials and Systems; Proc. IEEE, Vol.60, June 1972.
3. Gandhi, O.P. and Riazi, A., absorption of Millimeter Waves by Human Beings
and its Biological Implications; IEEE Trans. On Microwave Theory &
Technology, Vol. MTT No.2, February 1986.
4. Gandhi, O.P, State of Knowledge for Electromagnetic Absorbed Dose in
Man and Animals; Proc. IEEE, Vol, 68 No, 1 January 1980.
5. Gandhi, O.P, Advances in Dosimetry of RF radiation and their past and
projected impact on safety standards; IEEE Proc IMTC Sandiago USA,
April 1988.
6. Roger L. Freeman, Telecommunications Transmission Handbook Fourth
Edition, John Wiley & Sons, INC, 1998.
7. N. Couch II, Digital & Analog Communication Systems, Macmillan
Publishing Co, USA, 1990.
8. Peyton Z. Peebles, Jr. Communication Systems Principles.
Addison-Wesley Publishing Company 1976.
9. Ghavami, Michel, Kohno, Ultra Wideband Signals & Systems in
Communication Engineering.
10. Roland Kichen, RF and Microwave Radiation Safety Handbook, Newnes,
Oxford, 2001.
11. Roland Kichen, RF and Microwave Radiation Safety Handbook, Butterworth-
Heinemann Ltd, 1993,
12 .Flinpowsky & Muehldorf, Space Communication Systems.
13 R.E.Ziemer, W.H. Trante, Principles of Communications Systems,
Modulation, and Noise, 3rd Edition, Jaico Publishing House,1993
14. Walter Morgan & Gordan, Communications Satellite Handbook, John Willy
&Sons, 1989.
15. T.D.Gibson, The Mobile Communications Handbook, CRC Press LLC, 2nd
Edition, 1999.
XXX---XXX
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Elements of

Communication Link Design

A-1 Some Common Conversion Factors: 17

B-1 Point to multipoint service. 45

C-1 Angle Modulation with sinusoidal message signal. 84

D-1 Waveform of ASK, PSK, FSK modulations. 130

During estimation of a communication link for satellite lot of issues have

2.1 Power Spectral Density:

2.2 Spectral Capacity:

2,3 Spatial Capacity:

2.3 Transmission Area (m2) = π (Transmission distance) 2

2.4 TABLE 2.1

2.6 TABLE 2-3:

2.8 TABLE 2.5:

Systems Transmission Bandwidth Power Classificatio

2.10 Satellite Slant Range:

Slant range is given as:

h= Satellite height from Earth: C= centre of earth.

2.10.1 Range or Wireless Distance Measurement:

2.11 Power Flux Density:

2.12 Spectral Capacity:

3.1 EIRP: Effective Isotropic Radiated Power;

3.2 Free-Space Loss /Spreading or Path Loss:

C/N = EIRP + Gr + PL – K TSYS – B; all expressed in dB.

3.8 Link Budget for Digital satellites:

Using formula: 89.9 dB = 0.977x109: 95 dB = 3.16 x109

4.1 White noise:

4.2 Colored noise:

4.3 Noise bandwidth:

4.4 Matched filter:

4.5 Thermal noise threshold:

4.9 Table 4.1:

If Sout /Sin = G; Gain of the system, then

NF expressed in ratio is called Noise Factor.

4.11 Noise Temperature:

4.12 Thermal Noise aspects of Low-Noise Systems:

TSYS = Tant + Trec

Reference point of measurement Fig: 4.13 C/N0 Estimation

C/N0 is a very important element in communication link. By knowing

4.15.1 FM/FM Configuration:

G/T for X band 32-34 dB/K

Fig 4.20a Frequency Diversity

Base band Vertical Separation > 100λ

Fig 4.20b Space Diversity

Phase Det IF Hybrid

Fig 4.21b Post-detection Combiner

Any detector requiresFig:

Message signal m Low Pass

Fig-24a Base band Signal at the input of filter

Pre detection Low Pass

Fig 4.24.3 DSB Demodulator

( SNR ) post det ection

4.24.5 Signal to noise ratios AM system:

Where m = percentage of modulation, m=1 for 100% modulation.

4.3 Noise in Angle Modulation Systems:

Pre detection Post detection

Fig 4.3 Angle Demodulation system

The pre detection filter bandwidth BT is determined by Carson’s rule. In other

4.4 Pre emphasis & De-emphasis:

Fig a Pre emphasis filter Fig b Frequency Response

Fig: 4.4.1 Pre emphasis

Fig a De emphasis filter Fig b Frequency Response

Fig: 4.4.2a De emphasis

The improvements dueFig