Comparative Assessment of Domestic Water Supply Sources in Ishiagu, a Heavy

Metal Mining Community in Ebonyi State, Nigeria.

1
Nwaugo, V.O., 2Chima, G.N.; 3Elekwa, I. and 2Onwuchekwa, I.S.
1
Dept. of Microbilogy, Abia State University, Uturu
2
Dept. of Geography, Abia State University, Uturu
3
Dept. of Biochemistry, Abia State University, Uturu

ABSTRACT
A comparative assessment of domestic water supply sources in Ishiagu, a rural heavy metal mining community
was carried out using physicochemical and biological indices. The water supply sources were rain water, ground
water (Hand dug well and borehole) and surface water – Ivo River. Hand dug well (HDW) and surface water (Ivo
River) had pH values of 5.6 – 6.5 while borehole and rainwater hand a range of 6.1 – 7.4. TSS and TDS were
lowest in rainwater while highest values were observed in the surface and HDW water. Analysis showed that SO4,
NO3 and PO4 had lowest values in rainwater, followed by borehole water but values from HDW were similar to
surface water values. Among the heavy metals analyzed, Fe, Pb, Ca and Zn have significantly high values above
FEPA standard in surface water, and in HDW, with values from boreholes being marginally less than FEPA
standards. The heavy metal values were within the acceptable limits (WHO). In rain water the concentration of Cu
in the various water sources was very low(10.00-0.02). Total heterotrophic bateria had their highest counts in the
surface water (1.1 – 2.3 x 105 cfu/ml) and lowest (0.2 – 0.7 x 101 cfu/ml) in rainwater. Coliform bacteria.(CB),
heavy metal resistant bacteria (HMRB) and potentially pathogenic bacterial (PPB) had highest counts in the
surface water, followed by the HDW while rain water and borehole water had the lowest counts. This study
therefore concludes that only rainwater fall within the acceptable standard in the area while other sources require
proper treatment before human consumption. This also calls for government intervention to save the people from
water related diseases.

Keywords: Water quality, physicochemical properties, bacteria, heavy metals.

Corresponding author: Dr. V.O. Nwaugo, 08063494654, E-Mail: vonwaugo@yahoo.com.

INTRODUCTION
Water is the second most important life sustainer after oxygen (Aluyi et al., 2006). It is the
medium in which all biochemical reactions of the body take place and constitutes about 65-70% of the
body weight. It is used for various domestic, recreational and industrial purposes (Chima et al., 2008,
Nduka, et al., 2008). The importance of water can therefore not be over emphasized.
Water is said to occupy about two thirds of the entire earth surface. In addition, a considerable
proportion of the earth crust and atmosphere are also made up of water in various forms (Chima, et al.,
2008, Oladeji et al., 2004). Inspite of its abundance, the availability of water in potable form is an
enormous problem in many communities, even in the developed nations. Many deaths have been
attributed to the consumption of inpure water, especially in children (Oladeji et al., 2004, Aluyi et al., 2006
ab Nwaugo et al., 2007, WHO 1996, 2000).
The type and source of water determine its quality and composition. Atmospheric water (mainly
rain water and snow in the temperate climate) quality is influenced by water soluble gaseous and
particulate matter in the air and microbial propergules. Ground water on the other hand, is influenced by
the type of rock materials it encounters on its way, in addition to biological entities present and industrial
activities in the area concerned (Nwaugo et al., 2007a, Aluyi et al, 2006a).Surface water is the most
abused of all water sources as it is easily assessed by man and animals. In some cases, flowing water
bodies even serve as sinks for the disposal of several industrial and domestic wastes (Pelczar et al.,
2003, Narayanan, 2007 Aluyi, 2006b) Every water source is therefore unique in its own way and can be
influenced by several factors.
Generally, many studies have been carried out on domestic water quality but most of these
studies centre on either ground water or surface water separately. Little attention is even paid to rain

1
water due mainly to the erroneous or presumed “high quality” as rain water is viewed as condensate of
vaporized water. This study therefore aligned with Olabaniyi and Efe (2000) in assessing rainwater quality
in comparison to the other sources (surface and ground). This study was aimed at assessing water quality
in heavy metal (lead and zinc) mining rural community of Ishiagu as a study area.
Materials and methods
Study area
Ishiagu is a rural community in Ivo L.G.A of Ebonyi State, Nigeria where farming is the main stay
of the people. Crops grown include rice, yam, cassava and oil palm. Heavy metal (Pb and Zn) mining is
the major industrial activity in the area. Barium was only recently discovered in one of the settlement in
the same Ishiagu.
The main surface water supply in Ishiagu is the Ivo River, with a few seasonal streams criss
crossing the area. A few privately owned boreholes are available with the other ground water source
being hand dug wells (HDW). Lying in the typical Guinea Savannah region of the tropical climate zone of
Nigeria, Ishiagu has her own fair share of rainfall spread mainly in the rainy season months of April to
September while the dry season has mainly sunshine of October to February.
SAMPLE COLLECTION
Water column as used by the people was collected from different sources for twelve months.
These sources include rain water, (only when it rained) borehole water (3 boreholes pooled together as
one), hand dug well (3 wells pooled into one) and Ivo River from two sources – up stream (outside
Ishiagu) and within Ishiagu area. In all cases, sterile containers were used to collect the water samples.
Clean-catch rainwater samples in sterile containers 2m above ground level were obtained from
three different places and pooled together. Sampling was done twice a moth, except rain water which was
not available in some months (December – January). Results obtained were placed only as averages i.e.
lowest – highest without reference to the month.
SAMPLE ANALYSES
Physicochemical properties
The temperature and pH of water samples were measured in situ-using the multipurpose tester
(Jenway HANNA 1910 tester). The total dissolved solids (TDS) and total suspended solids (TSS), were
determined according to APHA (1998). The Winkler’s titrametric method was used in dissolved oxygen
(DO) and Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) determination. The procedure as stated in UNEP (2004)
analytical manual was used for sulphate (SO4), Phosphate (PO4), and Nitrate (NO3).
The trace and heavy metal concentrations were determined according to the APHA (1998)
method using Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer (AAS). The metals determined include Mg, Ca, Fe,
Pb, Zn, and Cu.
Microbiological analysis
The assessment of the various water samples for microbiological quality was done using the
culture method using spread plate inoculation technique after ten-fold serial dilution according to
Chesssbrough (2003). Four bacterial groups were determined using different culture media. These
include total heterotrophic bacteria (THB) using Tryptone Soy Agar, Coliform bacteria (CB) using
McConkey Agar, and phosphate solubilizing bacteria (PSB) using phosphate medium (US Patent, 2003).
The heavy metal resistant bacteria (HMRB) were estimated using Mineral Salt Agar into which Pb and Zn
were incorporated at 5ug/ml each. The bioloads were obtained as colony forming units per ml (cfu/ml).

Enzyme activities analysis

Enzyme activity assessment was adopted to assess the activities of both culturable and
unculturbale microorganisms since some organisms are unculturable using laboratory culture media . The
enzyme whose activity was assessed was dehydrogenase. The dehydrogenase activity was determined
as described by Alef (1995). 5ml of the water sample were mixed with 10ml of 0.25% equeous triphenyl
tetrazolum chloride (TTC) and incubated in sealed tubes at 30oC for 6 hours. The absorbance of the
methanol extract of the Triphenyl-formazon (TPF) formed was measured at 485nM using methanol as
blank. The result was expressed as TPF mg g-1 water 6h-1.
Statistical analysis

2
The results obtained in this study were subjected to standard statistical analysis to ascertain their
significance. The methods used include ANOVA and standard deviation.
Results
Physicochemical properties
Temperature values obtained ranged from 24.3 – 31.4oC. The highest was in surface water and
lowest in ground water (Borehole). pH had its lowest value in Hand Dug well (HDW) 5.6 – 6.5, followed by
surface water (5.7-63) while borehole and rainwater had a range of 6.1 – 7.4 (Table 1) Statistical analysis
showed significant variation between rainwater and borehole water on one hand and HDW and surface
water on the other (P = 0.05).
In TSS, values were significantly low in rainwater (3.7 – 16.7mg/l), followed by 6.4 – 37.7 mg/l in
Borehole water while surface water had the highest – 13.1 – 67.3 mg/l. This same trend was observed in
TDS. Statistical analysis showed significant variations in the sample analyzed (P = 0.05). While DO was
highest in rainwater (6.3 – 7.7), and lowest in borehole water (2.0 – 2.6), BOD was highest in surface
water and lowest in borehole water (Table 1).
SO4 had its highest value in surface water just like NO 3 and PO4, while the lowest in each of these
parameters was in the rainwater (Table 1). The differences observed in PO 4, NO3, and SO4 were
statistically significant (P = 0.05).
Metal analysis
The concentration of Cu which ranged from 0.01 – 0.03 was within the FEPA acceptable limits.
All other metals, Fe, Pb, Zn, Mg and Ca had their lowest limit in rainwater especially Cu which was not
observed. In each case, highest values were observed in surface water which had marginal variation with
the HDW water samples (Tables 2). The borehole water values of Pb, Zn, and Ca were significantly (P =
0.05) above FEPA standard, though they were the second lowest values after rainwater values.
Microbiological analysis
THB had the highest counts in each water sample analyzed. However lowest THB count was
seen in borehole water (0.2-0.21 x 101 cfu/ml), followed by rain water sample (0.4 – 1.3 x 102 cfu/ml).
Potentially pathogenic bacterial (PPB) counts were the least in each group. Rainwater had the least PPB
counts followed by borehole water while the mining zone of Ivo River water sample had the highest
counts (Table 3). Rainwater had the least HMRB counts (Table 3).
Dehydrogenase activity
The dehydrogenase enzyme had its highest activity in the surface water sample (21.3-27.4) and
the lowest in the borehole water sample (1.1-1.6) Values for rainwater were close to the borehole water.
This shows a trend according to the THB counts in Table 2.
DISCUSSIONS AND CONCLUSION
Results obtained in this study indicated varied physicochemical properties in the various domestic
water supply sources in the study area – Ishiagu. The values for temperature and pH observed fall within
the limits observed by Orewole et al., (2007) in Ile Ife, Aluyi et al., (2006ab) in Benin City and Yusuf
(2007) in Lagos. The low pH values observed in the borehole water, HDW and surfaces water showed
the effects of mine effluent in the area. Ishiagu is a heavy metal mining area and the mine effluent is
acidic (Nwaugo et al., 2007b, 2008). The discharged mine effluent percolate into the soil, down to the
ground water level. The near neutral pH observed in rain water show that the air does not contain acidic
oxides. The slightly acidic pH observed (6.3 – 6.8) could have resulted from the smoke from th
equipment used in quarrying activities since Agwu, a very close community is known for such activity. The
dusty air at Agwu could easily be blown to Ishiagu since they are close (Obiekezie et al., 2006).
The TSS and TSS values observed in this study fell within those observed by Olabaniyi and Efe
(2007) and Nwaugo et al., (2009). The high levels of TSS and TDS in Ivo River indicate the high level of
contamination. This could have caused the high turbidity of the river observed in course of the study. The
air did not contain much particulate matter nor much soluble solids to make the rainwater turbid, hence

3
 Table 1: Physicochemical parameters of the various water supply sources in ishiagu
Ground water Ivo river
Parameters Rain water Borehole Hand dug Ishiagu mining Upstream
well zone
Temp oC 26.4-28.6 24.3-26.7 27.1-30.2 29.2-31.4 26.0-27.3
pH 6.7-7.3 6.1-7.4 5.6-6.5 5.7-6.3 6.10-6.8
T.SS 3.7-16.7 6.4-37.7 9.3-49.4 13.1-67.3 10.1-12.3
T.DS 10.5-26.7 24.7-35.9 34.9-458.6 45.3-673.4 15.2-26.3
DO 6.3-7.7 2.0-2.6 3.1-3.9 4.7-5.9 4.7-6.1
BOD 3.8-4.3 0.6-0.8 1.2-1.9 6.1-7.8 3.0-4.7
SO4 16.7-20.6 10.7-14.3 15.2-19.8 27.3-81.0 12.7-13.62
PO4 4.2-9.7 4.1-4.2 4.1-5.7 8.4-15.6 12.4-13.3
NO3 0.1-0.5 1.2-2.5 4.1-6.3 6.40-12.6 2.1-4.3
Figures are shown from lowest to highest values.

Table 2: Concentrations of metallic elements in the ishiagu water supply sources (mg/ml)
Ground water Ivo River )
Metal Rain water Borehole Hand dug well Ishiagu Upstream
mining zone
Ca 1.66-4.30 27.10-73.42 31.41-86.72 37.44-98.70 2.32-8.56
Fe 0.00-0.01 0.04-0.08 0.08-0.20 0.010-0.32 0.02-0.04
Pb 0.04-0.07 0.03-0.06 0.04-0.08 0.13-0.19 0.04-0.09
Zn - 0.02-0.04 0.04-0.08 0.11-0.16 0.08-0.11
Cu - 0.001-0.001 0.01-0.02 0.01-0.03 0.01-0.01
Mg 0.00-,09 0.65-2.31 1.45-14.3 10.1-55.3 0.5-0.90

Figures are shown from lowest to highest values.

Table 3: Microbial counts and dehydrogenase activities in the ishiagu water supply sources
(cfu/ml)
Ground water Ivo river
Paramet Rain water Borehole Hand dug well Ishiagu Upstream
ers mining zone
THB 1.7-2.6x102 0.2-0.7x101 0.4-1.3x101 1.1-2.3x105 0.4-1.1x102
1 1 1 2
CB 0.1-0.3x10 0.2-0.4x10 0.4-0.6x10 2.1-3.3x10 0.1-0.3x102
1 1 1 2
HMRB 0.1-0.2x10 0.2-1.1x10 0.2-0.8x10 1.1-2.1x10 0.1-0.2x102
1 1 1 2
PPB 0.1-0.3x10 0.2-0.6x10 0.2-1.1x10 1.3-1.6x10 0.2-0.9x101
Dehydro 2.4-3.4 1.1-1.0 1.5-1.9 21.1-26.4 3.7-6.9
TPF mg
g 16h1
Figures are shown from lowest to highest values.
THB= Total Heterotrophic bacteria
CB = Coliform bacteria
HMRB = Heavy metal resistant bacteria
PPB = Potentially pathogenic bacteria
Dehyd= Dehydrogenase enzyme activity

4
less TDS and TSS. This trend changed in the DO and BOD with rain water having high DO and less BOD
while HDW and surface water of Ivo River in the mining zone had less DO and much BOD. This could be
attributed to much dissolved and soluble matter in the HDW and surface water which needed to be
oxidized with available oxygen. This situation makes the rainwater better than other sources. However,
the passage of ground water (borehole) in the ground did not make room for much dissolved oxygen as
inside the ground is anaerobic. The low BOD in ground water (borehole and HDW) indicated less organic
matter which equally needed less oxygen for oxidation. This observation agrees with Oladeji et al., (2004)
and Prescott et al., (2003) which stated that less organic matter required less BOD for oxidative
processes.
Observations in the PO4, SO4, and NO3 showed highest values in Ivo River (mining zone),
followed by the HDW water with the rainwater being the least in such contents. This also is in
consonance with Olabaniyi and Efe (2007) Aluyi et al 2006a ) and Nwaugo et al., (2007a). Much
substances containing NO3, PO4 and SO4 dissolved in the surface Ivo River water in the mining zone
which was not the case with rain water and ground water. These compounds were not often carried into
the air but they form important components of surface water pollutants as stated by Prescott et al., (2003).
Most of the heavy metals mined in the area occurred as sulphates, nitrate or even phosphates which
could be found in the effluent water to increase the constituents in ground water as observed in this study.
Results obtained in the metal analysis showed that Cu was not present in the water samples from
the area. The other metals analyzed showed highest values in the Ivo River (surface water in the mining
zone) while rainwater had the least values. Ivo River has been used as sink for the Pb and Zn mine
effluents in Ishiagu. The effluent is known to contain the mined metals in high concentrations hence the
Ivo River which received it also had high concentrations too (Obiekezie et al, 2006).
Similarly, the effluent percolated into the ground contaminating the ground water. This situation
reflected in the concentrations of the metals in the ground water (HDW and borehole water). Not much of
these metals are vaporized, hence could not be found in the rainwater.
Several researchers have stated that acidic pH favoured solubilization of metals (Nwaugo et al.,
2007b, Li et al., 2005, Lee et al., 2004). This situation is typical of mine effluents as reported by Nwaugo
et al., (2007b, 2009). This therefore explains the high metallic content of ground water and surface water
with acidic pH and less of these metals in rainwater. The high metallic contents of the water samples was
more pronounced in the cases of Pb and Zn, which are the metals mined in area (Nwaugo et al.,2007b,
2008).
Further observations in this study showed that microbial groups estimated had their highest
counts in the surface Ivo River water in the mining zone but lowest in the rainwater. The values observed
in the borehole and HDW water were quite similar. THB had the highest counts in each type of water
sample. Nwaugo et al., (2006ab, 2007, 2008) and Onyeagba et al., (2008) reported a similar high
occurrence of THB in their different studies. The THB is a very complex group in which all other bacterial
groups could be found. The other bacterial groups studied could have representatives in the THB. The
high prevalence of THB was therefore not surprising. Similarly, the surface water of Ivo River which had
the highest concentrations of NO3, PO4 and S04 could favour the survival and proliferation of
microorganisms. These substances are microbial nutrients. The high content of these nutrients could
therefore encourage microbial growth in the Ivo River water at the mining area.
The CB were the least in prevalence. Most coliforms are not resistant to heavy metals (Prescott
et al., 2003). This could therefore explain the low counts of these CB in Ivo River, and ground water.
Again, most CB are not capable of surviving long in the air since they are not spore-formers. The HMRB
and PSB could survive more in such water bodies excluding the rain water. The surface and ground water
contain high metallic concentrations hence only organisms that are familiar with such situations could
survive in them. This agrees with the values obtained in this study.
The growth of some bacterial species in Blood Agar suggested danger for consumers of such
water. Blood Agar is used in culturing pathogenic and potentially pathogenic bacteria, especially the
fastidious ones. The growth of such bacteria as observed in this study show that consumption of the
water, especially drinking, could be of serious health implication for the people. The culture on Blood Agar
showed hemolytic zones of various diameters. This clearly indicated pathogenicity and the likelihood of
causing diseases when they gain access into man since the blood heamolysed was human blood.

5
 The dehydrogenase activity observed in this study could be said to be of much importance. Karin
(2006) and Prescott et al., (2003) reported that only 3-5% of microorganisms grow on laboratory media.
The use of dehydrogenase in this study was therefore to assess the activities of both culturable and
unculturable bacteria in the water samples. The ground water could contain some sulphur oxidizing, iron-
reducing and iron oxidizing bacteria (Karin, 2006).which could not grow on the media used. Again,
dehydrogenase is known to be produced by living intact cells, hence its assessment in quality studies has
been advocated (Lee et al., 2004, Li et al., 2000, Nwaugo et al., 2008). observations in this study show
that the dehydrogenase activities followed the pattern of the THB. The highest THB was seen in the
surface Ivo River at the mining zone which also had the highest dehydrogenase activity and the lowest
activity was seen in rain water which also had the lowest THB count. This observation showed the
enzyme as being good indicator of microbial prevalence and agrees with other studies of Lee et al.,
(2004) and Nwaugo et al., (2007ab, 2008).
Results obtained in this study therefore confirmed that the water supply sources in Ishiagu are
contaminated. This is more in the cases of surface and ground water. The situation calls for serious
government interventions to save the people from further problems. This intervention will be to provide the
people with portable water through pipe bone water from outside the area and very deep boreholes
beyond the level of the percolated effluent water.

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