BIOMEDICAL INSTRUMENTATION

I. ELECTROCARDIOGRAM (BIPOLAR) ……………...2

II. ELECTROCARDIOGRAM (UNIPOLAR)…………….6
III. ELECTROMYOGRAM…………………………………8
IV. ELECTROENCEPHOLOGRAM…………………..…11
V. RESPIRATION RATE MEASUREMENT………...…15
VI. DIGITAL PHYSIOGRAPH……………………………17
VII. PULSE RATE MEASUREMENT…………………..…18
VIII. PHONOCARDIOGRAM…………………………….…21
IX. DIGITAL ECG……………………………………….…23
X. NOTCH FILTER…………………………………….…26
XI. BAND PASS FILTER………………………………..…29
XII. INSTRUMENTATION AMPLIFIER…………………31
 2

ELECTROCARDIOGRAM (BIPOLAR)
AIM: To monitor heart functioning and to measure heart rate from ECG.

APPARATUS:
Student Physiograph
3-pin junction box
Lubricating jelly
Bio-potential coupler
Electrodes

THEORY:
The ECG is a graphic recording or display of the time-variant voltages
produced by the Myocardium during the cardiac cycle. The bio potentials generated by
the muscles of the heart result in the Electrocardigram, ECG.

Fig.(1) shows a typical ECG as it appears when recorded from the surface of
the body. Alphabetic designations have been given to each of the prominent features.
These can be identified with events related to the action potential propagation pattern.
The horizontalsegment of this waveform preceding the P wave is designed as the baseline
or the isopotential line. The P wave represents depolarization of the atrial musculature.
The QRS complex is the combined result of the repolarization of the atria and the
 3

depolarization of the ventricles, which occur almost simultaneously. The T wave is the
wave of ventricular repolarization, whereas the U wave, if present, is generally believed
to be the result of after potentials on the ventricular muscle. The P-Q interval represents
the time during which the excitation wave is delayed in the fibers near the AV node.

In the normal electrode placement four electrodes (RA, LA, RL & LL) are used
to record the ECG; the electrode on the right leg is only for ground reference. Because
the input of the ECG recorder has only two terminals, a selection must be made among
the available active electrodes.

The three limbs lead selection made by Einthoven are:

Lead I : Left Arm (LA) and Right Arm (RA)

Lead II : Left Leg (LL) and Right Arm (RA)
Lead III : Left Leg (LL) and Left Arm (LA)

These three leads are called Bipolar because for each lead the ECG is recorded from two
electrodes and the third electrode is not connected . In each of these lead potentials, the
QRS of a normal heart is such that the R wave ia positive.

In working with ECGs from these three basic limb leads, Einthoven postulated that at
any given instant of the cardiac cycle, the frontal plane representation of the electrical
axis of the heart is a two- dimensional vector. Further the ECG measured from any one of
the three basic limb leads is a time-variant single dimensional component of that vector.
Einthoven also made the assumption that the heart (the origin of the vector) is near the
center of an equilateral triangle, the apexes of which are the right and left shoulder and
the crotch. By assuming that the ECG potentials at the shoulders are essentially the same
as the wrists and that the potentials at the crotch differ from those at either ankle, he let
the points of this triangle represent the electrode positions for three limb leads. This
triangle is known as Einthoven triangle and is shown in
Fig(2).
 4

Fig2. Einthoven Triangle

 5

PROCEDURE:

The 3-pin junction box is connected to the bio potential coupler.

The base line is adjusted the baseline Knob.
Set the speed to 25mm/sec and set the sensitivity at 1mV.
Apply the jelly to the electrodes and connect according to the connections shown in fig(3)
for Lead I, Lead II and Lead III.

PRECAUTIONS:

Apply the lubricating jelly before connecting the electrodes.

Speed Knob must be changed only when unit is in switched condition.
The subject should not move and he should not be in touch with the ground while taking
ECG

CALCULATIONS:

Peak to peak amplitude of Lead I = ______mm (form the graph)

Peak to peak amplitude of Lead II = _______mm (-do-)
Peak to peak amplitude of Lead III = _______mm (-do-)

From Lead II

Distance between the two successive peaks = _________mm

= __________mm/sec

Heart rate in beats per minute = (chart speed/distance between peaks)*60

= ______________bpm

RESULT:
 6

ELECTROCARDIOGRAM (UNIPOLAR)
AIM: To monitor heart functioning and to measure heart rate from ECG.

APPARATUS:
Student Physiograph
3-pin junction box
Lubricating jelly
Bio-potential coupler
Electrodes

THEORY:
The signals obtained from more than one pair of electrodes placed on the
body are referred to as unipolar leads, because they consist of the potential appearing on
one electrode taken with respect to an equivalent reference electrode, which is the
average of the signals seen at two or more electrodes. The three limb electrodes are
connected through equal valued resistors to a common node. The voltage at this node is
the average of the voltages at each electrode. The values of the resistors should be at least
5MΩ so that the loading of any particular lead will be minimal. The signals between LA
and the central point is known as VF. Note that for each of these leads, one of the
resistances R shunts the circuit between the central terminal and the limb electrode. This
tends to reduce the amplitude of the signal observed, and these leads can be modified to
augmented leads removing the connection between the limbs being measured and the
central terminal. This does not affect the direction of the lead vector but results in a 50%
increase in amplitude of the signal.
 7

PROCEDURE:

1. The 3-pin junction box is connected to the bio potential coupler.

2. The base line is adjusted by adjusting the baseline knob.
3. Set the speed to 25mm/sec and set the sensitivity at 1mV.
4. Apply the jelly to the electrodes and connect according to the connections shown
in the figure for aVR , aVL and aVF.

PRECAUTIONS:

1. Apply the lubricating jelly before connecting the electrodes.

2. Speed knob must be changed only when unit is in switched condition.
3. The subject should not move while taking ECG.

RESULT:
 8

ELECTROMYOGRAM
AIM: To monitor muscle activity using bio potential coupler.

APPARATUS:
Student physiograph
3-Pin junction box
Lubricating jelly
Metal electrodes

THEORY:
The bioelectric potentials associated with muscle activity constitute the
Electromyogram, EMG. These potentials may be measured at the surface of the body
near a muscle of interest or directly from the muscle by penetrating the skin with needle
electrodes. Since most EMG measurements are intended to obtain an indication of the
amount of activity of a given muscle or group of muscles rather than of an individual
muscle fiber, the pattern is usually a summation of the individual action potentials from
the fibers constituting the muscle or muscles being measured.

The action potential of a given muscle ( or nerve fiber ) has a fixed

magnitude, regardless of the intensity of the stimulus that generates the response. Thus, in
a muscle, the intensity with which the muscle acts does not increase the net height of the
action potential pulse but does increase the rate with which each muscle fiber fires and
the number of fibers that are activated at any given time. Because these action potentials
occur in both positive and negative polarities at a given pair of electrodes, they
sometimes add and sometimes cancel. Thus, the EMG waveform appears very much like
a random-noise waveform, with the energy of the signal a function of the amount of
muscle activity and electode placement. Typical EMG waveforms are shown in fig.(1)
9
 10

MODEL GRAPH:

PROCEDURE:

1. 3-Pin junction box is connected to the bio-potential coupler.

2. Adjust the baseline and G3 is connected to the Right Leg, G1 and G2 are
connected at different positions on the arm.
3. Set the speed to 25mm/sec, and mode knob to EMG. Switch on the 50 Hz filter.
4. EMG waveform is obtained by opening and closing the hand.

PRECAUTIONS:

1. Apply the lubricating jelly before connecting the electrodes.

2. Speed knob must be changed only when unit is in switched condition.

RESULT
 11

ELECTROENCEPHALOGRAM
AIM: To record the neutral activity of the brain.

APPARATUS:
Student Physiograph
EEG electrodes
Electrode paste
Surgical tape

THEORY:
The recorded representation of bioelectric potentials generated by the
neuronal activity of the brain is called the Electroencephalogram, EEG. The EEG has a
very complex pattern, which is much more difficult to recognize than the ECG. The
waveform varies greatly with the location of the measuring electrodes on the surface of
the scalp. EEG potentials, measured at the surface of the scalp, actually represent the
combined effect of potentials from a fairly wide region of the cerebral cortex and from
various points beneath.

Experiments have shown that the frequency of the EEG seems to

be affected by the mental activity of a person. The wide variation among individuals and
the lack of repeatability in a given person from one occasion to another make the
establishment of specific relationships difficult. There are, however, certain characteristic
EEG waveforms that can be related to epileptic seizures and sleep. The waveforms
associated with the different stages of sleep are shown in fig(1). An alert, wide-awake
person usually displays an unsynchronized high-frequency EEG. A drowsy person,
particularly one whose eyes are closed, often produces a large amount of rhythmic
activity in the range 8 to 13 Hz. As the person begins to fall asleep, the amplitude and
frequency of the waveform decrease; and in light seep, a large-amplitude low frequency
waveform emerges. Deeper sleep generally results in even slower and higher-amplitude
waves. At certain times however a person, still sound asleep, breaks into an
unsynchronized high frequency EEG pattern for a time and then turns to the low-
frequency sleep pattern. The period of high frequency EEG that occurs during sleep is
called paradoxical sleep, because the EEG is more like that of an awake, alert person than
of one who is asleep. Another name is rapid eye movement (REM) sleep, because
associated with the high-frequency EEG is a large amount of rapid eye movement
beneath the closed eyelids. This phenomenon is often associated with dreaming, although
it has not been shown conclusively that dreaming is related to REM sleep.

Wave Types:
The electrical activity that can be recorded from the scalp varies both in
frequency and amplitude. Under certain circumstances -- for example, in certain normal
mental states (different levels of consciousness) and pathological conditions, such as
epilepsy – definite patterns are seen in the EEG signals (fig 2). Under normal conditions
there is generally an inverse relationship between amplitude and frequency; if the
frequency increases, the amplitude usually decreases. This is because an increased
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cerebral activity leads to a more desynchronized activity of the nerve cells, rather than a
synchronized discharge of large group of cells.

The normal wave types are labeled with the Greek letters. For historical reasons,
the sequence of letters does not correspond to the frequency ranges of the waves: alpha
waves are discovered first, and waves with both higher and lower frequencies were
discovered later.

Alpha waves have frequencies between 8 and 13 Hz and a mean amplitude of 50

micro volts. They appear over the occipital lobes in the awake, mentally relaxed state
with the eyes closed. When the eyes are opened, the alpha activity disappears and waves
of a higher frequency and lower amplitude appear. If the patient falls asleep, the alpha
activity disappears entirely. The wave characteristics- their time dependence, noise
content and frequency spectrum-display large individual differences; in about 10 percent
of all normal subjects no typical alpha activity can be recorded.

Beta waves have higher frequencies, 13-30Hz. They appear over the parietal and
front lobes. The frequency range of the theta waves is 4-8 Hz. They appear in adults
during light sleep and in children.

Delta waves contain all the EEG activity below 4 Hz. They appear in adults during
deep sleep, in premature babies and in infants.

An example of a pathological waveform, spikes and waves is shown in fig.2. This

waveform occurs during attacks of epilepsy. There are many other waveforms: they vary
widely in appearance, and sometimes appear as transients, with a duration of 80-200ms,
in otherwise normal recordings.
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PROCEDURE:

1. Base line is adjusted by keeping the paper speed at 2.5mm/sec..

2. Electrodes are connected such that forehead electrode is grounded and the rest
two electrodes are placed on either side of the forehead.
3. Now change the speed to 25mm/sec. EEG waveform is obtained by moving
eyelids left and right.
4. Repeat the experiment by connecting one electrode on forehead (ground) and the
rest two are connected to oxipental points with eyes open and shut.

PRECAUTIONS:

1. Base line should be adjusted correctly.

2. Electrodes should be connected tightly.
3. Patient should not be in touch with ground.
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MODEL GRAPH:

RESULT:
 15

RESPIRATION RATE MEASUREMENT USING

THERMISTOR

AIM: To observe the respiration pattern on physiograph and to calculate the respiration
rate using thermistor.

APPARATUS:
Student Physiograph
Respiration coupler
Respiration Sensor(Thermistor)

THEORY:
Since air is warned during its passage through the lungs and respiratory tract,
there is a detectable difference of temperature between inspired and expired air. This
difference of temperature can be best sensed by using a thermistor placed in front of the
nostrils by means of a suitable holding device. In case the difference of temperature of
outside air and that of the expired air is small, the thermistor can even be initially heated
to an appropriate temperature and the variation of its resistance in synchronism with the
respiration rate, as a result of the cooling effect of the air stream, can be detected. This
can be achieved with thermistor dissipations of about 5 to 25 MW. Excessive thermistor
heating may cause discomfort to the subject.

Respiratory activity can also be detected by measuring changes in the

impedance across the thorax. The signals are quite satisfactory, provided the patient does
not make a great deal of movement with his thorax.

PROCEDURE:

1. Base line is adjusted by keeping the paper speed at 2.5mm/sec.

2. Keep the transducer inside the nose and inhale, exhale the air usually by changing
the speed to 25mm/sec.
3. Observe the graph and calculate the respiration rate.
 16

MODEL GRAPH:

CALCULATIONS:

From the graph:

Distance between the two successive peaks, D = __________mm
Chart speed, S = ________mm/sec

Respiration rate = (S/D)*60

= __________breaths per minute.

RESULT
 17

DIGITAL PHYSIOGRAPH
 18

PULSE RATE MEASUREMENT

AIM: To observe the pulse waveform on the physiograph and to calculate the pulse rate
using photo electric transducer.

APPARATUS:
1.Digital physiograph
2. Pulse Amplifier
3. Pulse Sensor
4. LP Filter
5. RS 232 cables

THEORY:
The pulse can be felt by placing the finger tip over the radial artery in the wrist
or some other location where an artery seems just below the skin. The methods used for
the detection of volume (pulse) changes due to blood flow are:
Electrical impedance changes
Strain gauge or microphone (mechanical)
Optical changes (changes in density)

The method what we are using in lab to measure pulsatile blood volume
changes is photoelectric method. Two methods are common: Reflecance method and
Transmittance method.

In the Transmittance method a light emitting diode (LED) and photoresistor are
mounted in an enclosure that fits over the tip of the patient’s finger. Light is transmitted
through the finger tip of the subject’s finger and the resistance of the photo resistor is
determined by the amount of light reaching it. With each contraction of the heart, blood is
forced to the extremities and the amount of blood in the finger increases. It alters the
optical density with the result that the light transmission through the finger reduces and
the resistance of the photoresistor increases accordingly. The photoresistor is connected
as part of a voltage divider circuit and produces a voltage that varies with the amount of
blood in the finger. This voltage that closely follows the pressure pulse and its waveshape
can be displayed on an oscilloscope or recorded on a strip-chart recorder.

The arrangement used in the reflectance method of photoelectric

plethysmography is shown in fig 6.15 (b). the photoresistor, in this case, is placed
adjacent to the exciter lamp. Part of the light rays emitted by the LED is reflected and
scattered from the skin and the tissues and falls on the photoresistor. The quantity of light
reflected is determined by the blood saturation of the capillaries and, therefore, the
voltage drop across the photresisor, connected as a voltage divider, will vary in
proportion to the volume changes of the blood vessels.
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EXPERIMENTAL SETUP:

PROCEDURE:

1. Switch on the physiograph by connecting the power cord to the machine

and mains supply and connecting fuse of 500ma to the fuse holder.
2. Put the supply switch at ON position to make the physiograph ON.
3. Take the pulse sensor and insert one of patient’s finger into the sensor.
4. Connect the sensor to the pulse amplifier module.
5. Output of this amplifier is passes through a LPF which gives amplified
and filtered output.
6. Within few seconds the digital display will show a constant figure which
is nothing but the pulse rate in beats/min.
7. The gain of the output pulses can be adjusted by varying the
potentiometer knob presented on the pulse amplifier.
 20

MODEL GRAPH:

RESULT:
 21

PHONOCARDIOGRAM
AIM : TO Record the Heart Sounds.

APPARATUS:
PhonoSensor ,
PCG Amplifier,
LP Filter,
Physiograph,
RS 232 Cables.

THEORY:

The phonocardiogram is an instrument used for recording the sounds connected

with the pumping action of the heart. These sounds provide an indication of the heart rate
and its rhythmicity. They also give useful information regarding effectiveness of blood
pumping and valve action.
Heart sounds are diagnostically useful. Sounds produced by healthy hearts are
remarkably identical and abnormal sounds always correlate to specific physical
abnormalities. From the beginning till today, the principal instrument used for the clinical
detection of heart sounds is the acoustical stethoscopes. An improvement over the
acoustal stethoscope, which usually has low fidelity, is the electronic stethoscope
consisting of a microphone, an amplifier and a head set. Electronic stethoscopes can
detect heart sounds which are too low in intensity or too high in frequency to be heard in
a purely acoustal instrument. The phonocardiographs provide a recording of the
waveforms of the heart sounds. These waveforms are diagnostically more important and
revealing than the sounds themselves.

Two types of microphones are commonly in use for recording phonocardiogram.

They are the contact microphone and the air coupled microphone. They are further
categorized into crystal type or dynamic type based on their principle of operation.
The crystal microphone contains a wafer of piezo-electric material, which
generates potentials when subjected to mechanical stresses due to heart sounds. They are
smaller in size and more sensitive than the dynamic microphone.
The dynamic type microphone consists of a moving coil having a fixed magnetic
core inside it. The coil moves with the heart sounds and produces a voltage because of its
interaction with the magnetic flux.

EXPERIMENTAL SETUP:
 22

PROCEDURE:

1. Switch on the physiograph by connecting the power cord to the machine

and mains supply and connecting fuse of 500ma to the fuse holder.
2. Put the supply switch at ON position to make the physiograph ON.
3. Take the phone sensor and place just below the chest with the help of
supporting belt.
4. The other end of the phono sensor is connected to the PCG amplifier.
5. Output of this amplifier is passes through a LPF which gives amplified
and filtered output.
6. Within few seconds the digital display will show a constant figure of
heart sounds

MODEL GRAPH

RESULT
 23

DIGITAL ECG
AIM: To monitor heart functioning and to measure heart rate from ECG.

APPARATUS:
Ring Electrode ,
ECG Amplifier,
LP Filter,
Physiograph,
RS 232 Cables.

THEORY:
The ECG is a graphic recording or display of the time-variant voltages
produced by the Myocardium during the cardiac cycle. The bio potentials generated by
the muscles of the heart result in the Electrocardiogram, ECG.

Fig.3.6 shows a typical ECG as it appears when recorded from the surface of the body.
Alphabetic designations have been given to each of the prominent features. These can be
identified with events related to the action potential propagation pattern. The horizontal
segment of this waveform preceding the P wave is designed as the baseline or the
isopotential line. The P wave represents depolarization of the atrial musculature. The
QRS complex is the combined result of the repolarization of the atria and the
depolarization of the ventricles, which occur almost simultaneously. The T wave is the
wave of ventricular repolarization, whereas the U wave, if present, is generally believed
to be the result of after potentials on the ventricular muscle. The P-Q interval represents
the time during which the excitation wave is delayed in the fibers near the AV node.
 24

In the normal electrode placement four electrodes (RA, LA, RL & LL) are used
to record the ECG; the electrode on the right leg is only for ground reference. Because
the input of the ECG recorder has only two terminals, a selection must be made among
the available active electrodes.

The three limbs lead selections made by Einthoven are:

Lead I : Left Arm (LA) and Right Arm (RA)
Lead II : Left Leg (LL) and Right Arm (RA)
Lead III : Left Leg (LL) and Left Arm (LA)

These three leads are called Bipolar because for each lead the ECG is recorded
from two electrodes and the third electrode is not connected . In each of these lead
potentials, the QRS of a normal heart is such that the R wave is positive.

In working with ECGs from these three basic limb leads, Einthoven postulated that at
any given instant of the cardiac cycle, the frontal plane representation of the electrical
axis of the heart is a two- dimensional vector. Further the ECG measured from any one of
the three basic limb leads is a time-variant single dimensional component of that vector.
Einthoven also made the assumption that the heart (the origin of the vector) is near the
center of an equilateral triangle, the apexes of which are the right and left shoulder and
the crotch. By assuming that the ECG potentials at the shoulders are essentially the same
as the wrists and that the potentials at the crotch differ from those at either ankle, he let
the points of this triangle represent the electrode positions for three limb leads. This
triangle is known as Einthoven triangle and is shown in Fig (2).

Figure 2 :
 25

EXPERIMENTAL SETUP:

MODEL GRAPHS:

PROCEDURE:
1. Switch on the physiograph by connecting the power cord to the machine
And mains supply and connecting fuse of 500ma to the fuse holder.
2. Put the supply switch at ON position to make the physiograph ON.
3. Connect the rings of the electrode to patient’s right arm, left arm and left
leg and other end of electrode to the ECG Amplifier.
4. Output of this amplifier passes through a LPF which gives amplified
and filtered output.
5. Within few seconds the digital display will show a constant figure which
is nothing but the heart rate in beats/min.

RESULT:
 26

NOTCH FILTER

AIM: To construct and plot the frequency response of notch filter and to measure the
notch frequency.

APPARATUS :
1. Resistors 33KΩ - 2
15KΩ - 1
10KΩ - 1
2. Capacitors 0.1µF - 2
0.2µF - 1

THEORY:
The narrow band reject filter, often called the notch filter, is commonly used
for the rejection of a single frequency such as the 50 Hz power line frequency hum. The
most commonly used notch filter is constructed of twin-T network One T-network is
made up of two resistors and a capacitor, while the other uses two capacitors and a
resistor. The notch frequency is the frequency at which maximum attenuation occurs. It is
given by

fN = 1/(2πRC)

The passive twin – T network has a relatively low figure of merit Q. The Q
of the network can be increased significantly if it is used with a voltage follower. The
most common use of notch filter is in communications and biomedical instruments for
eliminating undesired frequencies. To design an active notch filter for a specific notch
frequency, fN , choose the value of C less than 1 micro farad and then calculate the
required value of R from the above equation.
 27

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

DESIGN:

fN = 50 Hz

Let C = 0.1uf
R = 1
2ΠfNC

V 1
1 5 V d c

R 1 R 2
U 1

7
3 5
3 3 k 3 3 k + O S 2

V+
6
O U T
V 3 C 1 C 2 2 1
- 4 O S 1 V
1 V a c
0 V d c u A 7 4 V1 -
0 . 1 u 0 . 1 u

R 3 C 3
1 5 k 0 . 2 u

V 2
- 1 5 V d c

PROCEDURE:

1. Connect the circuit on bread board with bias voltages derived from power supply.
2. Apply the sinusoidal input voltages of about 1V peak to peak.
3. Sweep the frequency from dc to 1KHz.
4. Plot the graph between frequency and gain to obtain frequency response and
notch frequency where the gain is minimum.
5. Compare the designed frequency with the measured notch frequency.
 28

MODEL GRAPH:

RESULT:
 29

BAND PASS FILTER

AIM: To design a band pass filter and to plot its frequency response.

APPARATUS:

Capacitors 0.01µF - 1
0.047uF - 1
Resistors 10KΩ - 4
22KΩ (POT) - 1
1.5KΩ - 1
IC µA 741 - 2
Cathode Ray Oscilloscope
Function Generator

THEORY:
A wide band pass filter can be formed by cascading a high pass filter and a low
pass filter. If the high pass filter and the low pass filter are of first order then the band
pass filter will have a roll off rate of -20dB/decade. The gain of a bandpass filter is
maximum at the center frequency and falls off on either side of the center frequency. The
bandwidth of a bandpass filter is defined as the difference between the two corner
frequencies. This filter is part of QRS detector circuit for detecting QRS complex in ECG
wavefrom.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

FL = 200 Hz = 1 (Let C= 0.047uF) , R = 1

2ΠRC 2ΠFLC

FH = 10 KHz = 1 (Let C= 0.01uF) , R = 1

2ΠRC 2ΠFHC

Pass band Gain, AF = 2(LPF) = 1+ RF/R1

Pass band Gain, AF = 2(HPF) = 1+ RF/R1

Over all Pass band gain = 4

 30

V 1
- 1 5 V d c

0
R 2 R 3 R 5 R 4

1 0 k 1 0 k 1 0 k 1 0 k

0 0
u A 7 4 1 u A 7 4 1

4
2 1 2 1
- O S 1 - O S 1

V-

V-
R 7
6 6
C 2 O U T O U T
3 5 1 . 5 k 3 5
+ O S 2 + O S 2 V
7 7
0 . 0 4 7 u U 1 V + U 2 V +
V 3
1 0 m V a c R 1
0 V d c 1 6 . 9 k
C 1
0 . 0 1 u
0 0
0

V 2
1 5 V d c

MODEL GRAPH

PROCEDURE:

1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.

2. Sinusoidal input voltage of 1V peak to peak is given to the circuit using the
function generator.
3. By varying the frequency output voltage is noted.
4. Graph is plotted between frequency and gain and cutoff frequencies are noted
from the graph.

RESULT:
 31

INSTRUMENTATION AMPLIFIER
AIM: To design an instrumentation amplifier of gain 1000 and plot its frequency
response.

APPARATUS:
1. Operational Amplifier µA 741 - 3 No’s
2. Resistors 1 KΩ - 6 No’s
5 KΩ - 2 No’s
10 Ω - 1No
3. Capacitors 0.01 µF - 2 No’s

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
 32

THEORY:
The low-level signal outputs of electrical transducers needs to be amplified
before further processing, and this is carried out with instrumentation amplifiers.
Electronic amplifiers, which are normally referenced to ground through their power
supplies, create an interference problem when used to measure small bioelectric
potentials. When an instrumentation amplifier is used to measure bioelectric signals that
occur as a potential difference between two electrodes, the bioelectric signals are applied
between the inverting and non inverting inputs of the amplifier. The signal is therefore
amplified by the larger differential gain of the amplifier. For the interference signal,
however, both inputs appear as though they were connected together to a common input
source.

Thus, the common-mode interference signal is amplified only by the much smaller
common-mode gain. The ratio of the differential gain to the common-mode gain is called
the common-mode rejection ratio (CMRR) of the amplifier, which can be as high as
10,00,000:1.

PROCEDURE:

1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram.

2. Give a voltage supply of a few mV/v to one input terminal of the instrumentation
amplifier and ground the other end. Note the output voltage obtained.
3. Calculate the gain of the amplifier.
4. Now interchange the input conditions and note the voltage obtained.
5. Calculate the gain of the amplifier.
6. Connect both the input terminals to DC and note the output voltage.
7. Repeat the same with sinusoidal signals and also obtain the frequency response.

MODEL GRAPH:

RESULT: