Therapeutic Psychology and Indian Yoga

24
Therapeutic Psychology and Indian Yoga
MICHAEL MIOVIC
My friends, the whole world is a lunatic asylum. Some are mad after worldly love, some after
name, some after fame, some after money, some after salvation and going to heaven. In this
big lunatic asylum I am also mad, I am mad after God. If you are mad after money, I am mad
after God. You are mad; so am 1.1 think my madness is after all the best.
Sri Ramakrishna (Vivekananda, 1970, pp. 99-100)
This chapter reviews the history, aims, and treatment methods of Western psychotherapy, and
attempts to assimilate the clinical practise of psychotherapy into the worldview of Indian
psychology. After integrating psychotherapy and Indian psychology at the level of theory and
mythology, the author proceeds to describe the practical concerns of psychotherapy and suggests
ways in which the consciousness perspective of Indian psychology could expand the scope of
psychotherapy. Two types of psychotherapy (psychodynamic and cognitive-behavioural) are
described in greater detail for readers who may not be familiar with the actual methods and
content of clinical practise. Some of the potential dangers of psycho-spiritual practise are
discussed as well, including the controversial issue of hostile possession. Finally, existing Indian
contributions to psychotherapy are noted and important issues in acclimatizing psychotherapy
to Indian culture are highlighted.
Before describing the relationship between Indian psychology and psychotherapy, we must
first address some common stereotypes that surround both disciplines. Although the following
is a simplification, it serves as a useful starting point for this discussion: until recently, the
typical American would have been seen as normal to visit a psychotherapist and "crazy" to
have mystical experiences and a guru, while the typical Indian would have been seen as normal
to have mystical experiences and a guru, but "crazy" to visit a therapist. Thus, the attempt to
synthesize the spiritual insights of Indian psychology with the clinical concerns of Western
psychotherapy is really a proposal for culture change. This chapter is suggesting that it is
normal to have mystical/spiritual experiences, normal to have a guru or spiritual teacher, and
normal to visit a psychotherapist if needed.
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450 Handbook of Indian Psychology
We will not bother here with the Western cultural prejudices that have historically weighed
against viewing mystical and spiritual experiences as normative and healthy. The contents of
this and other textbooks (Scotton, Chinen, and Battista, 1996; Rao, 2002) speak amply against
those materialistic and feductionistic assumptions about psychology. However, let us say a
little more about the opposite prejudice, the anti-therapy sentiment to which some spiritual
seekers and communities are prone. Put simply, some are tempted to suppose that if people
would "just meditate" or "just do yoga", then all their emotional problems would vanish. There
are several reasons why this is not so.
First, most people find it difficult to pray, meditate, or do other forms of sadhana (spiritual
practise) when they are emotionally distressed, and their ability to concentrate is even more
impaired if they are affected by a psychiatric syndrome such as panic attacks, depression,
mania, or psychosis. It is usually futile to tell a recently bereaved spouse not to grieve because
his or her partner's soul is immortal, or to recommend "Atmic" inquiry to someone who is
planning suicide. Dispensing such advice is nearly always ineffective, and usually also offensive.
The central dictum of psychotherapy is that people do not need lectures; they need to be listened
to. The perennial teaching given to the therapist in training is "don't just do something, sit
there". This insight is consonant with the spirit of Indian psychology, the only question being
the depth and quality of the presence with which one can "just sit there". Today, the average
psychotherapist sits and listens from the mental and emotional being, while spiritually sensitive
therapists strive to go a little deeper. Here is an account of how a great sage, Sri Ramana
Maharshi, listened to a bereaved woman from the Atman (transcendent Self):
Echammal came to Sri Bhagavan in a distressed condition, having lost in quick succession
her husband and her two children. Climbing the hill she stood in silence before him, not
telling her grief. A whole hour she stood, no words spoken, and then she turned and went
down the hillside to the town, her steps light, the burden of her sorrow lifted. Such was her
deep devotion that for the rest of her life she never took her food without serving Sri Bhagavan
first, and her house was a veritable haven for his devotees.
(Sri Ramana, 1985, p. 55)
A world of wisdom is contained in these few lines - and a world toward which psychotherapy
is slowly evolving. Obviously, we cannot expect the humble psychotherapist to be ajivanmukta
(liberated being), nor does it fall within the professional role of a therapist to play guru.
Psychotherapists must respect the obligations and ethical boundaries of their professional role,
and they must also accept their intermediate status in the evolution of consciousness from
simpleton to sage. But within those parameters, there is no reason why psychotherapists should
not pursue their own spiritual path and unobtrusively share the fruits of that growing
consciousness with clients.
This brings us to the second reason why telling clients to pray, meditate or do puja does not
necessarily substitute for psychotherapy. One of the central postulates of Indian psychology is
the theory of reincarnation, in favour of which there is an increasing amount of case-based
evidence (Stevenson, 1975-1983, 2003). As the present textbook shows, different schools of
thought have dealt with the phenomenon variously. For example, the Vedantists aim to transcend
the cycle (moksa)\ the Buddhists see it as ephemeral or void (nirvana); and the Aurobindonians
seek to consummate it in a supramental evolution on earth. However, for the most part Indian
Therapeutic Psychology and Indian Yoga 451
psychology accepts that the cycle is happening, and if so then the process must have implications
for life and clinical practise, as even some Western therapists now acknowledge (Weiss, 1992;
Jue, in Scotton, et aL, 1996, pp. 377-87). The first and most important implication of
reincarnation is that spiritual evolution takes a very long time. A second corollary is that sadhana
(spiritual practise) cultivates some inner or inmost dimension of consciousness that reincarnates,
while psychotherapy seeks the smaller goal of healing emotional distress in the transient outer
personality that does not. The two disciplines are therefore not mutually exclusive, and there is
no more contradiction between sadhana and therapy than there is between sadhana and any
other activity of the outer life. However, psychotherapy is admittedly a new cultural fixture in
India, and will therefore take some time to become accepted. Also, economic conditions must
develop far enough to support the profession of psychotherapy in India, which is beginning to
be the case in India's growing middle class.
The third reason why sadhana does not obviate the need for psychotherapy is that yoga may
actually raise up subconscious psychological problems precisely so that they may be spiritually
transformed. This issue has not been much emphasized in the more transcendent paths of
Advaita Vedanta and Buddhism, but Sri Aurobindo has given it great emphasis in his Integral
Yoga Psychology (IYP), which aims to transform the outer personality and ego. Thus, individuals
engaged in transformative practise may find that a significant spiritual opening or development
is followed by a period of more life problems not less, and this can have emotional repercussions.
In fact, the emotional or psychiatric manifestations of this transformational stress may be strong
enough to warrant professional help, and seeking such may actually be the quickest way out of
the turmoil. For clients who have such a combination of spiritual openings and psychological
sequelae, it will be useful to work with a clinician who understands the process (Scotton, et al.9
1996; Cortright, 1997). In my own practise, I have seen patients with the most varied outer
problems, ranging from mild anxiety to psychosis and dementia, who yet have a significant
inner life that needs to be appreciated in order to understand the whole clinical picture.
In summary, psychotherapy can be accepted into the fold of psycho-spiritual practise because
clients may find it helpful during a period of emotional difficulty or transformational stress,
while providers may practise psychotherapy as a field for karma yoga. While it is true that one
can always share one's difficulties with God for free and in the end it is the divine who heals,
it is also true that there is a bit of the divine in the world and in people, even in psychotherapists,
so sometimes it is wise to accept the help the divine sends through these channels, too. Yoga
philosophy permits it, and common sense recommends it.
Psychotherapy: History and Myth

Before addressing the practical concerns of psychotherapy, we should briefly review the
history of the field. In the West, "history" is usually viewed in a restrictive sense, as referring to
a mechanical chain of events, people, and dates. However, in India the mythological dimensions
of history are given equal rights in the sustenance of culture, and particularly the oral traditions
of Indian culture grow from the fertile soil of mythological consciousness. Thus, psychotherapy
must find a basis in mythology if it is to set roots in the subcontinent. Fortunately for
psychotherapy, such myths exist, and so we will now tell the story of psychotherapy from a
mythological perspective. Readers who want a more conventional history are referred to standard
sources (Sadock and Sadock, 2000).
The word "therapy" derives from the ancient Greek therapeuein (to attend or treat), while
"psychology" derives from the root psyche (soul, spirit, breath of life). Thus, the deepest sense
of "psychotherapy" should be to attend to the soul and Spirit, and the field's inner purpose
ought therefore to align itself directly with the aims of Indian yoga. Historically, the early
precursors of psychotherapy in Boston, in fact, had such a spiritual intention, stimulated in part
by American transcendentalism and William James's pioneering work on the psychology of
spiritual experience, both of which were influenced by Indian yoga. However, this early
orientation came to an abrupt end when Sigmund Freud visited the Boston area in 1911 and
converted America to his atheistic school of psychoanalysis (Taylor, 1999, pp. 158-234).
Today, Freud's psychoanalytic theory has been substantially modified in clinical practise,
and few if any psychoanalysts still consider the infamous Oedipus complex to be the sole focus
of clinical attention (Mitchell and Black, 1995; Gabbard, in Sadock and Sadock, 2000,
pp. 563-607,2056-2080). Nevertheless, it is worth revisiting the Oedipus complex here because
it has generated much controversy in India yet is actually not contrary to Indian psychology.
First, regarding the content of Freud's little insight, if we cast the Oedipus complex into the
larger terms of Indian psychology, it sounds perfectly obvious. To wit: the evolving soul (caitya
purusa, or psychic being) taking birth into a human body attaches itself to a series of sheaths or
formations of consciousness, each of which, like all aspects of prakrti (phenomenal existence),
is conditioned by various samskaras (patterns of operation and impressions thereof). The
physical body has its limitations and laws of operation, as has the vital body (which includes
the affective drives and emotional nature), the mental body, and causal body. The aim of yoga
is to detach from the restrictions of consciousness natural to each of these aspects of prakrti,
find the pure purusa (witness consciousness) behind, and proceed thence to either final
transcendence or to uphold the evolutionary process of transformation. The oedipal samskara
studied by Panditji Freud is one of the many that arises in the outer, vital prakrti in the course
of normal ego development, and that ego-attachment like all others must, in the long process of
reincarnation, eventually be either transcended! or transformed. Voila! Freud has now been
officially absorbed into Indian psychology.
This being said, there is another aspect to the oedipal issue not studied by Freud but which
is of great interest to yoga psychology, and that is the ancient Greek myth from which Freud
drew his inspiration. Freud named the oedipal phenomenon after the classic Greek tragedy,
Oedipus Rex, in which Laius, King of Thebes, receives a prophecy from the Delphic oracle
that his son will grow up to kill him and usurp the throne. To prevent the prophecy from
coming true, Queen Jocasta orders that the baby Oedipus be taken out to the fields and executed.
Servants are sent to perform the deed, but at the last moment their hearts soften and instead
they abandon the child in the mountains. Some shepherds find him and take him to another
kingdom where a childless family, also royal, raises the boy. Years later, when Oedipus is a
grown man but still ignorant of his true identity, the prince returns to the kingdom and accidentally
kills his aging father in a fight after their carriages collide at the crossroads below the oracle of
Delphi. Through a further series of events we need not detail here, the prince eventually ascends
to the throne and takes his own mother as wife. In the end, he stabs out his eyes in anguish
when he finally learns that he has killed his father and married his own mother.
While Freudian theory has elaborately explored the sexual and aggressive themes of this
ancient Greek story, so far Western psychologists have entirely overlooked the role of Delphi
in the tale, which is critical to an Indian reading of the myth. The Delphic oracle was a temple
to the Sun God, Apollo, and was arguably the single most important place in the ancient Western
world. Famous for its mystic priestesses (pythia) who would go into trance and deliver messages
from the Gods, people high and low and from every corner of the Mediterranean basin made
pilgrimages to Delphi to seek guidance from the oracle. Physically, the location of the temple is
stunning; set against a backdrop of high cliffs, it looks down over millennial olive groves in the
valley below, and from this elevated terrace one can still see the ancient crossroad where
Oedipus is said to have killed his father. Spiritually, the subtle atmosphere of Delphi is perhaps
even more beautiful than the natural setting. Even today, two thousand years after the oracle
closed, the subtle atmosphere of Delphi shines with the resplendent presence of Lord Apollo,
and one can still receive the inner darsana (vision) of the great Sun God there. The whole
place is surcharged with his luminous, joyful aura, and inwardly one feels as if merged with
sunshine. All is light, supple, effortless, radiant; even the stones of Delphi seem buoyant, as if
they are about to float up from the ground.
From the perspective of Tantric yoga, according to which the Gods are real beings who
mediate between the finite Human mentality and the infinite consciousness of sacchidananda
(the ultimate Reality, existence-consciousness-bliss), Delphi is the secret key to understanding
the spiritual fount of Western psychology. The ancient Greeks considered Lord Apollo to be
the reigning deity of knowledge and medicine, his name was traditionally invoked in the first
breath of the hippocratic oath, and the great mantra inscribed over the entry to his temple at
Delphi was, "Know Thyself. These facts are of deep significance to Indian yoga, which tells
us that a single God or Goddess can take on multiple forms and manifest variously in different
times and cultures (Aurobindo, 1970, pp. 381-398, 1154). Thus, Apollo is in reality the same
great Godhead who has been worshipped in India as Surya, whose presence is so gracefully
evoked in stone at Konark, and whose illuminating knowledge has been hymned since time
immemorial in the Gayatri mantra in the name of Surya Savitri. The Oedipus myth is therefore,
in its deeper sense, a metaphor for the state of human beings who lead lives of spiritual ignorance,
ignorantly doing the acts of ignorance; it is an object lesson in what happens when human
beings reject the vision of the higher consciousness and insist on seeing things in the small,
human way. The antidote to this misery is, through yoga, to rise into the greater consciousness
of Lord Surya and know the higher self above. Apollo, not Freud, is the true origin of Western
psychotherapy, and His role in the Oedipus story has yet to be reclaimed.
That is the Western side of the story. But there are roots for psychotherapy in Indian
mythology, as well. The first, alluded to already, comes from Krsna's counsel to Arjuna in the
Bhagavad-Gita. Every exegesis of the Gita has pointed out that Kuruksetra is a metaphor for
the battles, small and large, that each of us face in our daily lives, and as such, Krsna's counsel
to act but surrender the fruits of action {karma phala tyaga) is a universally relevant spiritual
teaching. If we view the many facets of this metaphor from another angle, and consider that the
"field" of life includes emotions, family dynamics, and psychological issues also, then we see
that Krsna's cosmic counsel lays out the basis for psychotherapy as well. Rather than
withdrawing from the field of emotion and relationship, one may take courage and go through
the battle rather than transcending it. Thus, psychotherapy is a new addition to the existing
methods of karma yoga - indeed, we might almost call it an interpersonal asana (yoga poise)
for the vital being (which is governed by the svadistana through visuddha cakras in Tantric
yoga).
The second foundational myth for psychotherapy from the Indian tradition comes from the
story of Savitri and Satyavan. In the Mahabharata, this legend is recounted as a tale of conjugal
love conquering death (Lord Yama). In his epic poem Savitri, Sri Aurobindo uses this myth as
a framework for exploring all the planes of consciousness from matter up to the supramental
worlds. Along the way, the yogi (identifying with King Aswapathy in the narrative) meets
many forces, beings, and states of existence including various forms of ignorance, pain, evil,
and falsehood. At each step of the journey, the yogi allows whatever manifestation of
consciousness he meets to speak, to voice or express itself fully. He never tells any force or
being to be quiet or go away, no matter how inimical to life and the Divine it may be. Then,
once all the problems of existence have been fully exposed, in the second half of the poem the
Divine Mother descends via the figure of Savitri to reclaim from Death the life of her departed
husband Satyavan, who represents the world-soul. In this process, Savitri patiently carries on
a dialogue with Death, a conversation that leads slowly to the transformation of all types of
Darkness into Light, and the restitution of Satyavan's life (Aurobindo, 1993).
Here again is a sustaining myth for psychotherapy, a cosmic vision that gives shape and
meaning to the microcosm of therapy. Clients come in search of some part of themselves that
has died or been lost (= Satyavan in the myth), and the therapist is asked to voyage with them
into darkness to recover that life. A careful exploration of a range of issues will be made, and
the therapist will encourage the client to give voice to the many contrary impulses and sub-
personalities that reside within, even the most difficult and unwanted ones. In return, the therapist
will listen carefully and thus, slowly, a dialogue will emerge that leads eventually to
transformation of the dark into light. What yoga has to offer the psychotherapist in this endeavour
is consciousness-training so as to be able to perceive and understand the entire spectrum of
consciousness that emerges through the process of transformation.
Models of Therapy
Having reviewed the theoretical background relevant to synthesizing psychotherapy with
Indian psychology, we may now turn to the more practical aspects of the work. Psychotherapy
is still a young field, and like all young disciplines is burgeoning with various little schools of
thought each of which sees itself as truer than all the rest (much like Indian philosophy in some
of its formative periods). Over 400 schools of psychotherapy have been catalogued to date,
and the number would be even greater if one counted all the psychotherapeutic elements of
various complementary/alternative (CAM) approaches to healing. Given that state of affairs, I
currently organize my own understanding of the field as follows: psychotherapy can be grossly
divided into six methods of approach and four formats of application. The six main methods
for conceptualizing psychotherapy are listed below. The first three are mainstream and research
has established their effectiveness for defined clinical conditions (Howard, Krasner, and
Saunders, in Sadock and Sadock, 2000, pp. 2217-2225). The last three belong more to the
CAM spectrum of approaches, but are important to know about because they have been found
anecdotally to have significant emotional effects:
1. Psychoanalytic and psychodynamic approaches: focus on how important emotional
attachments and relationships from childhood are internalized and repeated in both
adaptive and mal-adaptive ways in later life; can include an interpersonal focus on current
relationship problems;
2. Cognitive-behavioural (CBT) approaches: examine how behaviour and emotion can be

conditioned, learned and modified through behavioural reinforcements and Socratic
analysis of automatic patterns of thinking; can also include an interpersonal element;
3. Suggestive or hypnotic approaches: use the power of suggestion to alter desired
behavioural outcomes and emotional reactions; through the technique of guided imagery
can affect both deeper psychological and psychosomatic conditions;
4. Body-oriented approaches: use various types of touch, massage, physical postures and
breath work to release emotional blocks and memories that are stored in muscle tension;
5. Creative-expressive approaches: use the creative arts (music, painting, poetry, sculpture,
others) to work with emotional material that standard "talk therapy" may not access or
express as well;
6. Subtle energetic approaches: use pranic energy and/or other non-local powers of
consciousness to effect both emotional and physical healing, including Reiki, Chi-gong,
acupuncture, homeopathy, flower essences, faith healing, o*A;ra-balancing, and so on.
The four major formats for conducting psychotherapy are individual, couples, family, and
group. Individual treatment is the most common format currently, so will be discussed in greatest
depth in this chapter, but individual psychotherapists understand that most emotional problems
involve an interpersonal element, if not stemming from early family dynamics then in current
interpersonal relationships. To address these interpersonal issues more directly, therapists may
refer clients to concurrent or sole treatment in a couples, family, or group format. The advantage
of these multiparty formats is that they allow therapists to observe and comment on overt and
subtle interpersonal material as it arises in the moment (verbalizations, body language, silences,
and emotional reactions). The disadvantage of multiparty formats, on the other hand, is the
relative loss of privacy to air especially sensitive or shameful material, and the administrative
challenge of getting multiple parties to commit to regular meetings.
Due to limited space, this chapter will focus on the first two methods of psychotherapy,
psychodynamic and cognitive-behavioural (CBT), because these constitute the core knowledge
of psychotherapy. The conceptual reach of psychodynamic therapy is especially broad, and
provides a useful framework for understanding how specific treatment goals pursued using
any of the other five methods fit into a client's central emotional conflicts, developmental
challenges, characteristic defences, coping style, and strengths. Regarding the four methods of
therapy not addressed further here, in brief, hypnosis is used today most commonly for smoking
cessation, weight loss, pain control, to reduce anxiety or avoidance of medical procedures, and
to treat a variety of phobias (Spiegel, Greenleaf, and Spiegel, in Sadock and Sadock, 2000,
pp. 2129-2146). However, in as much as story-telling has a suggestive power that one could
call verbal hypnosis, there is certainly a potential to use stories and analogies from Indian
mythology in a therapeutic fashion, as some clinicians have already noted (Shamasundar, 1993).
Also, note that there have been important Indian contributions to the scientific study of hypnosis
(Palan, 2006). Bodywork has its theoretical roots in the work of Wilhelm Reich, a psychoanalyst
who studied the relationships among muscular tension, character styles, and ego defence
mechanisms (Reich, 1973). Bodywork bears kinship with elements of hatha yoga and Ayurveda,
and a fruitful interchange between these disciplines could evolve in the future. Finally, creative
- expressive and subtle-energetic therapies sit on the border between clinical and non-clinical
work, because they can be used to heal emotional problems but also constitute independently
valid areas for individual and cultural development. The commonalities between subtle-energetic
healing and Indian yoga are so abundant and obvious that cross-talk between these disciplines
is already pandemic in popular culture and is beginning to be addressed by mental health
professionals as well (Basu, 2000).
Psychoanalysis and Psychodynamic Therapy

Psychoanalysis and psychoanalytically-informed psychotherapy, often called psycho-
dynamic therapy, derive from the pioneering work of Sigmund Freud. Without going into the
complex evolution of the various schools of psychoanalytic thought since Freud, in essence,
all of these approaches to therapy are founded on the central insight that emotional history, like
all history, repeats itself. That is, early childhood experiences with key attachment figures
(parents, siblings, extended family or other caretakers) are internalized, and then both consciously
and unconsciously influence behaviour, thought and feeling in later life (Gabbard, in Sadock
and Sadock, 2000, pp. 563-607, 2056-2080). While this chapter focuses on integrating
psychoanalytic approaches to therapy with Indian psychology, note that both in India and the
West psychoanalytic theory has had as much influence on literary and cultural discourse as on
clinical practise. For instance, Tagore's opinion of Freudian thought slowly evolved from one
of criticism and rejection to appreciation as he grew to understand its use in literary criticism
(Biswas, 2003), and contemporary psychoanalytic explorations of the rich cultural, religious,
and artistic traditions of India continue to be thought-provoking (Kurtz, 1992; Akhtar, 2005).
Clinically, the major difference between psychoanalysis and psychodynamic therapy is the
depth and duration of treatment. In psychoanalysis, the patient lies on a couch (usually with
the analyst out of view) and is asked to "free-associate", that is, to report every thought or
feeling that arises without censoring any. Sessions last 50 minutes and are conducted 2-5 times
per week for 3-5 years or more. In contrast, in psychodynamic therapy the client sits up in a
chair and therapy is conducted face to face, at a distance comfortable for social interaction.
Sessions last 30-50 minutes and are conducted anywhere from 1-3 times per week to once
every other week, for a few months to a few years, as need be. Whereas in "pure" psychoanalysis
the analyst attempts to be emotionally neutral in all interactions with the client, making detached
observations and interpretations about the client's stream of thoughts and feelings, in
psychodynamic treatment the therapist has latitude to take a more active and/or empathic stance.
For instance, he or she may confront evasions and distortions in what the client says, ask for
further clarification, encourage elaboration, empathically validate the client's feelings, or even
give advice, praise and affirmations (Gabbard, in Sadock and Sadock, 2000, pp. 2056-2080).
In current clinical practise, the issues considered treatable by psychoanalysis include
symptomatic neuroses (i.e., pseudo-neurological complaints), some anxiety disorders, some
sexual disorders, depression in highly perfectionistic people, and obsessive-compulsive,
avoidant, narcissistic, and histrionic personality disorders. Also, high functioning borderline
personality disorder can be treated with psychoanalysis (borderline personality disorder is
characterized by strong mood swings, intense fears of abandonment, and interpersonal turmoil).
The problems amenable to psychodynamic therapy include clinical depression, many anxiety
disorders, post-traumatic stress disorder (usually related to physical/sexual abuse), parenting
and family problems, many personality disorders (including borderline personality disorder),
and adjustment reactions to a variety of life stressors (medical illness, bereavement, divorce
and separation, problems at work, career transitions, educational difficulties, relationship

conflicts, etc.). Psychodynamic therapy can also help clients deal with some emotional
components of substance abuse, but is no substitute for the more behavioural methods of
alcoholics anonymous (AA) and substance abuse treatment programs. Because of the flexibility
and cost-effectiveness of psychodynamic therapy, it is far more widely practised than classical
psychoanalysis (Gabbard, in Sadock and Sadock, 2000, pp. 563-607, 2056-2080).
Transference
Functionally, psychoanalysis and psychodynamic therapy both pay great attention to the
phenomena of transference and counter-transference. Transference is defined as unconscious
or automatic reactions (thoughts, feelings, and behaviour patterns) that the client has towards
the therapist, based on emotional reactions the client had to important attachment figures in the
past. The term implies the client is "transferring" or projecting emotional patterns from the
past onto the therapist in the present, and this may be either positive or negative in nature.
Counter-transference, in turn, is defined as both conscious and unconscious reactions (thoughts,
feelings, and behaviours) that the therapist has towards the client. Freud originally conceived
of counter-transference as a negative phenomenon that interfered with the therapist's ability to
be neutral and "objective". Today, therapists recognize that some extreme forms of counter-
transference are absolutely negative and unacceptable (e.g., sleeping with a client), while others
range from important to observe but not to enact, to potentially useful to discuss with the
client. Also, while some counter-transference feelings stem entirely from the therapist's own
emotional history, most probably arise from the client's unconscious interacting with the
therapist's unconscious, and are therefore useful to study (Mitchell and Black, 1995; Gabbard,
in Sadock and Sadock, 2000, pp. 563-607, 2056-2080). Recently, empirical research has
validated the notion of counter-transference and demonstrated predictable patterns of therapist
counter-transference to specific personality pathology in clients (Betan, Heim, Conklin, and
Westen, 2005).
Indian psychology can expand the study of transference and counter-transference in several
ways. Practically, the whole challenge for a therapist is to remain inwardly still during sessions
so as to be able to observe and understand the transference/counter-transference process, which
is experienced as a flow of thoughts and feelings. This amounts to a yogic practise of samata
(equanimity or equal-mindedness), which can be challenging to maintain when strong emotions
and passions arise (such as rage, grief, shame, guilt, fear, disgust, or erotic feelings). Buddhist
psychologists working in the West have already written about how therapists can use mindfulness
practise (awareness of the moment with acceptance) during sessions to achieve what Freud
called "evenly hovering attention" (Germer, Siegel, and Fulton, 2005). Thus, the first way that
Indian psychology can help psychotherapists is by providing them with a fertile reservoir of
psycho-spiritual practise(s) to help them cultivate samata, and to differentiate among the varying
degrees of equal-mindedness they bring to the clinical encounter, for not all neutrality is the
same. Currently, the average therapist or psychoanalyst tries to achieve a relatively neutral
mental awareness, but one could proceed to detach from the outer mind and observe from the
inner mental sheath (manomaya purusa), or developing one's neutrality even further to find
the purusa (pure witness consciousness) behind that, and eventually even the jivatman and
atman above.
Such cultivation of a witnessing consciousness seems especially germane to the practise of

psychoanalysis, where the analyst is supposed to adopt a neutral stance, yet it could also be
useful as a background awareness from which to conduct psychodynamic therapy. But in either
case, this conscious movement away from prakrti towards an ever-closer approximation to the
sacchidananda would naturally increase psychotherapists' tolerance of negative affect and
help them avoid arguing, criticizing, controlling, or being subtly punitive or irritable with difficult
clients. At least one psychoanalyst has interpreted transference and neutrality with reference to
Sankara's school of Advaita Vedanta (Askeland, 2002); while another has interpreted the
idealizing transference that the spiritual seeker develops towards the guru as going beyond the
traditional analytic understanding of transference, and potentially healing in the degree to which
the guru is able to cultivate deeper levels of empathy for the student through meditative practises
(Kakar, 2003). However, note that for both clients and therapists who are engaged in a spiritual
sadhana, there is also a risk of using pseudo samata to avoid or bypass negative emotions in
psychotherapy, and therapists need to be vigilant for this possibility in themselves and in their
clients (Cortright, 1997).
A second way that Indian psychology can help psychotherapists better understand the
transference/counter-transference process is by providing a consciousness paradigm for
characterizing more subtle aspects of the client-therapist relationship. For instance, to the degree
that either therapists or clients have conscious perceptions of auras, chakras, and subtle energetic
processes during sessions, these can be incorporated into the work much as one would consider
any other thought or feeling that arises in the transference/counter-transference process. On
the other hand, both therapists and clients may have less clairvoyant perceptions of each other
that are yet subtly paranormal and important to treatment. A fascinating therapeutic lore
(including oral traditions passed along through case supervision) already exists around using
counter-transference to "read" the client's subconscious. Thus far Western therapists have
hesitated to deem some transference /counter-transference phenomenon as tantamount to
telepathy, but from the perspective of Indian psychology it is clear that they can be. Sometimes
both clients and therapists may have intuitive or precognitive reactions to each other that have
no identifiable basis in either verbal or non-verbal communication (Dossey, 1999). In such
instances, communication is transpiring through the inner mental and vital planes of
consciousness during the session but still behind the veil of frontal awareness; or such inner
impressions sink down into the subconscious and arise later in dreams; or again the contact
may happen in the inner mental or vital planes during sleep and later be recalled as such. For
further description of these planes of consciousness and parts of the inner being, and their
relationship to psychology, see Dalai (2001a, 2001b).
Finally, a third way that Indian psychology can expand psychotherapists' approach to
the transference/counter-transference process is with the elucidation of what Sri Aurobindo
calls the "psychic being" (caitya purusa, or evolving soul), which in yogic experience is
felt to stand behind the heart (anahata) cakra. As the delegate or representative of ihejivatman
put forward into the evolutionary play of prakrti, the psychic being has a unique capacity to
purify and refine emotional experience that the inner mind does not (Aurobindo, 1970,
pp. 1092-1117). This is of great practical importance to psychotherapy, where so much of the
content is emotional and so much of the therapist's effectiveness is determined by affective
and interpersonal skills. Research has shown that the emotional characteristics of the therapist
and the quality of the therapist-client alliance have as much impact on the success of treatment
(and perhaps more) than either level of therapist training or method of psychotherapy. And
clinically, psychotherapists have long known that successful treatment often depends upon the
therapist's capacity to extend what Rogers called "unconditional positive regard" to a client in
a professional rather than personal fashion; this relies strongly on qualities such as kindness,
compassion, empathy, and sincerity (authenticity). Again, Buddhist writers have already noted
that practicing mindfulness can help therapists cultivate these personal qualities, and have
made the link between mindfulness and the emerging field of positive psychology, which studies
the beneficial effects of positive emotions such as hope, courage, faith, compassion, happiness,
empathy, and forgiveness (Germer, et al.9 2005, pp. 55-90, 262-282). IYP concurs with these
findings and perspectives, and would simply add that all the virtues of the "heart", as well as
the impulse towards spiritual devotion (bhakti), originate ultimately from the psychic being
(Cortright, 1997). Thus, everything that clinicians do to cultivate their own psychic
consciousness, as well as to help clients do likewise, is salutary to psycho-spiritual development.
The present author has explained elsewhere how Sri Aurobindo's description of the psychic
(soul) movements of aspiration, surrender, and rejection can be used conceptually to expand
the Western model of ego development derived from psychoanalysis (Miovic, 2004). Space
does not permit elaboration here of these theoretical considerations, but their practical
implication is that clients who have such psychic movements, even if only occasionally, will
have unique strengths and also sensitivities that need to be considered in therapy. Such clients
will be more spiritually-oriented and intuitive than normal, and they will respond well to spiritual
encouragement. The following passage from an Indian psychiatrist working in India nicely
suggests how intuitive assessment of psychic development can be used to guide treatment:
Individuals who have the same diagnoses according to conventional ICD or DSM
classifications might have important differences when assessed along the consciousness
perspective necessitating different therapeutic approaches. Thus a person in whom the capacity
to contact the psychic being is more spontaneous needs a very sensitive handling if he is
depressed. Such a person responds to a low dose of medication and counseling in such a
situation need only be encouragement to look inwards - the rest follows automatically. In
contrast, a depressed subject with a dominant vital needs a different type of handling as he
has more chance for a swing towards a manic state. A depressed client with a strong intellectual
ego can pose a queer resistance to therapeutic intervention which needs to be worked through
at the level of the ego.
(Basu, in Cornelissen, 2001, p. 94)
The Subliminal vs The Subconscious

Another area in which Indian psychology can expand the scope of psychotherapy is in
understanding the "unconscious", or what Sri Aurobindo preferred to call the subconscious.
Some readers may know that in the 1930s, Sri Aurobindo opined that a disciple's pursuit of
psychoanalysis interfered with his sadhana. However, it must be understood that those comments
were directed against the classical psychoanalytic method of focusing treatment around oedipal
interpretations (Aurobindo, 1970, p. 1605-6). Psychodynamic theory and practise have evolved
greatly since then, such that now much more attention is given to developing conscious autonomy
and "ego strength" before delving into the subconscious. Also, more attention is paid to
understanding the emotional effects of insufficient parental empathy and nurturing (Kohut's
"self-psychology")* and to the negative psychological impacts of real events such as abuse,
neglect, other losses and traumas, and substance abuse in the home (Mitchell and Black, 1995;
Gabbard, in Sadock and Sadock, 2000, pp. 563-607, 2056-2080). Overall, this means that
psychoanalysis and psychodynamic therapy have evolved away from the fantasy-based
phenomenon of oedipal wishes towards a more reality-based model, precisely as Sri Aurobindo
recommended. Also, many psychodynamic therapists now use a spiritual worldview to frame
psychotherapy, and this emphasizes the importance of moral development, faith, and spiritual
beliefs and practises (Peteet, 2004; Josephson and Peteet, 2004; Richards and Bergin, 1997).
Clinically, one of the major ways psychotherapy approaches the subconscious is through
the interpretation of dreams, a subject that Indian psychology has also studied. Although Jung
correctly identified the existence of precognitive dreams, collective archetypes, and synchronicity
(Jung and Jaffe, 1961), he did not quite clarify the distinction between the subconscious and
the subliminal consciousness, which Sri Aurobindo lucidly describes (Aurobindo, 1970,
p. 1606). The subliminal consciousness consists of the inner mental, vital and physical sheaths
of consciousness (to which the respective cakras are gateways), while the.subconscious consists
of a more densely involved mode of prakrti that in yogic experience is felt to resurge from
below the feet. In dream-life, awareness often moves rapidly and fluidly among various layers
of the subliminal consciousness and the subconscious, and it takes a significant effort of sadhand
to gain mastery over this process. Thus, some dreams are inchoate physiologic noise, others
contain simple messages related to physical urges (such as to urinate), others reveal subconscious
complexes and archetypes, others contain a richly suggestive symbolic mixture of both
subconscious and subliminal elements, others are purely subliminal (such as "astral projection"
or lucid dreaming), and finally others rise out of the subliminal consciousness altogether. In
these latter moments, one may have spiritual experiences in overhead planes of consciousness,
or merge temporarily into sacchidananda. IYP has a rich conceptual framework for
differentiating these varieties of sleep-experience, some of which may be clinically relevant to
certain clients (Aurobindo, 1970, pp. 883, 924-5, 1014-17, 1023-25, 1476-1507, 1542-48).
In terms of characterizing the nature of the subconscious proper, IYP accepts the findings
of psychoanalysis, but would add that the subconscious is not only individual and collective
(as in the Jungian archetypes), but also universal and cosmic. Below, Sri Aurobindo describes
the subconscious as a universal mode or status of prakrti that affects both physical and
psychological functioning:
The subconscient is universal as well as individual like all the other main parts of the
Nature... .It contains the potentiality of all the primitive reactions to life which struggle out to
the surface from the dull and inert strands of Matter and form by a constant development a
slowly evolving and self-formulating consciousness; it contains them not as ideas, perceptions
or conscious reactions but as thefluidsubstance of these things. But also all that is consciously
experienced sinks down into the subconscient, not as precise though submerged memories
but as obscure yet obstinate impressions of experience, and these can come up any time as
dreams, as mechanical repetitions of past thought, feelings, action, etc., as 'complexes'
exploding into action and event, etc., etc. The subconscient is the main cause why all things
repeat themselves and nothing ever gets changed except in appearance. It is the cause why
people say character cannot be changed, the cause also of the constant return of things one
hoped to have gotridof for ever. All seeds are there and all Sanskaras [fixed patterns] of the
mind, vital, body - it is the main support of death and disease and the last fortress (seemingly
impregnable) of the Ignorance. All too that is suppressed without being wholly got rid of
sinks down there and remains as seed ready to surge up or sprout up at any moment.
(Aurobindo, 1970, pp. 354-355)
Meditation During Sessions

The final topic in this section is the question of how best to incorporate meditation into
psychodynamic therapy. Generally speaking, psychodynamic therapists do not engage in
concentration, meditation (eyes closed for 20 minutes or more) with clients during sessions,
although sometimes a client and therapist may agree to start each session with a moment of
silence, meditation, or prayer. However, some psychodynamic therapists use brief mindfulness
interventions (non-judgmental awareness of the moment) to help clients work with difficult
thoughts and feelings as they arise during sessions (Germer, etal, 2005). The main reason why
concentration meditation is not made a central part of psychodynamic therapy is because clients
have ample opportunity to learn and practise meditation outside of treatment, and working
with the transference/counter-transference process in treatment offers clients an invaluable
opportunity to further ego-transformative spiritual practise in a way that meditation alone does
not. One of the main goals of yoga is to de-condition the ego, and the process of dynamic
psychotherapy can help do that by bringing to light emotional and relational aspects of the ego
that arise only (or mainly) in interpersonal situations (Cortright, 1997). Interestingly, Rorschach
studies of experienced practitioners of Buddhist insight meditation revealed that these individuals
had the same degree of internal psychological conflict as normal subjects, but were markedly
less defensive about experiencing such intrapsychic conflicts (Brown and Engler, 1986). Thus,
dynamic psychotherapy can augment traditional meditation practise by bringing intrapsychic
conflicts out into a relational field where they can be worked through and resolved (Molino,
1998). This is why, as previously stated, psychotherapy can be conceptualized as an interpersonal
asana for the vital/emotional nature.
A second reason why psychodynamic therapists hesitate to meditate with clients is that the
activity itself can have transferential significance or serve a subconscious purpose. For example,
clients may experience the silence during meditation with a therapist as cold, rejecting, uncaring,
or punitive, and these feelings would need to be carefully explored before meditating together.
On the other hand, clients may also use meditation as a way to defend against or bypass negative
emotion, and therapists need to be cognizant of that possibility as well (Cortright, 1997). In
conclusion, there is a limited role for doing concentration meditation during psychoanalysis
and psychodynamic therapy, but it is quite useful for both therapists and clients to practise
mindfulness (non-judgmental awareness of the moment) during sessions in order to be more
attentive to and accepting of emotional experience. However, there is a central role for using
concentration meditation during cognitive-behavioural therapy (CBT), described next.
Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT)

Cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) is almost as prevalent as psychodynamic therapy in
the West, and is supported by a stronger research base. CBT is often the most efficient and
effective treatment for defined psychiatric syndromes, such as major depression, panic disorder,
generalized anxiety, obsessive-compulsive disorder, post-traumatic stress disorder, and others.
Rather than proceeding by an open-ended exploration of the client's developmental experiences
and family dynamics, CBT places much more emphasis on a "here and now" approach to
problem-solving. Thus, if a person has panic attacks in elevators or crowded buses
(claustrophobia), the cognitive-behavioural therapist will coach the client to face and master
these fears. This is done by analyzing and correcting distorted cognitions (thoughts) and slowly
modifying problematic behaviours (in this example, avoidance of closed spaces). In doing
so, emotion changes in response to changes in thought and action (Birk, in Nicholi, 1999,
pp. 497-524; Rush and Beck, in Sadock and Sadock, 2000, pp. 2167-2178).
For example, the therapist begins by helping the client to identify the negative cognition he
or she has with regards to the phobia, e.g., "I will suffocate and die", or "my chest is squeezing
so tight it must be a heart attack". Next, the therapist helps the client to substitute a more
neutral and rational thought for the negative one, such as "I have panic disorder. My doctor did
an EKG and I'm not having heart attacks". When the client is able to hold onto this thought in
the office while imagining being in an elevator or bus, the therapist then coaches the client to
face the feared situation in real life. This is done gradually and progressively, through graded
exposure to the anxiety-inducing situation, until the fear is finally mastered. Meditation and
other methods of inducing a relaxation response (breathing exercises, reciting mantras, prayer,
etc.) are often used during sessions to help clients calm down when they get anxious. Here the
psychotherapist has much latitude to act as a meditation teacher or coach, and frequently needs
to take on such a role.
In current practice, CBT is the method of choice for treating any identifiable phobia, such
as of airplanes, public speaking, socializing, dating, using public restrooms, sexual intercourse,
or heights; as well as for all varieties of compulsive behaviours (e.g., obsessive cleaning,
counting, re-arranging, checking, etc). CBT can be used to help clients with Post-Traumatic
Stress Disorder (PTSD) overcome intrusive, negative memories that get triggered by reminders
of the traumatic event. This can be done through imaginal exposure and desensitization, with
or without the use of a distracting stimulus to facilitate the process (for instance, a newer
technique called EMDR uses an alternating, bilateral stimulus while recollecting the traumatic
event). Finally, CBT is very useful for treating the negative cognitions that often underlie and
perpetuate chronic depression. Examples of these core negative ideas include, "I'm no good",
"I'm ugly", "I have no talents", "No one likes me", "I'm stupid", "I don't deserve to be loved",
and so on (Birk, in Nicholi, 1999, pp. 497-524; Rush and Beck, in Sadock and Sadock, 2000,
pp. 2167-2178).
In neurological terms, CBT recruits, the cognitive functions of the frontal cortex to inhibit
impulses of primary emotion (fear, sadness, anger, shame, guilt, disgust) that arise from the
deeper structures of the limbic system, which constitutes the more primitive or "animal" part
of the brain. In yogic terms, this amounts to using the reason and higher intelligence (buddhi)
to master the emotions, desires and passions of the cakras from the heart down. The following
exchange between Sri Aurobindo and a disciple who was famously moody and pessimistic
shows how Sri Aurobindo used yogic force from within, with an interface of CBT outwardly,
to help the man gain greater emotional equilibrium. Sri Aurobindo uses ironic humor here due
to the nature of their friendship, but the underlying strategy is to replace catastrophic, self-
critical thoughts with more balanced and reasonable ones:
Disciple: You will see from J's letter what has happened. I am absolutely moribund and
gasping; don't see the way. Cursing myself every minute.
Sri Aurobindo: All that is rather excessive. It would be better to stop dying, gasping and
cursing.
Disciple: What have all these to do with Yoga?
Sri Aurobindo: It has nothing to do with Yoga. Usual human tangles, sir.
Disciple: The Yoga of oblation, sacrifice and severe austerities would be better.
Sri Aurobindo: There is no such Yoga.
Disciple: No hankering for fame, name or meddling with others' affairs.
Sri Aurobindo: That also is not Yoga.
Disciple: / have lost all faith, confidence, hope, and if all that is gone, what else remains for
me to do here?
Sri Aurobindo: Good God! What a shipwreck in a teacup! Kindly cultivate a sense of
proportion. Learn the lessons of experience, ponder them in silence and do better next time
— that would be more sensible.
(Nirodbaran, 1983, p. 376)
There are other fine examples of cognitive therapy to be found in the life and teaching of
the Buddha, who is arguably the most brilliant cognitive-behavioural therapist the world has
ever known. The Buddha's eight-fold path to enlightenment is a masterpiece of existential
CBT that aims to dissolve the illusion of permanence that sustains ego-centric awareness and
thus perpetuates all forms of psychological suffering. While this radical psycho-spiritual goal
well exceeds the more limited concerns of typical CBT as it is used in the West, nonetheless,
the clinical utility of the Buddha's methods has been highlighted recently by the remarkable
effectiveness of dialectical behaviour therapy (DBT). DBT is a form of highly structured
psychotherapy that combines CBT with elements of Zen mindfulness (non-judgmental awareness
of the moment), and is used to treat patients with severe emotional dysregulation, impulsivity,
and chronic suicidal behaviour. The proven results of DBT with some of the most difficult
patients known to psychotherapy attests to the essential truth of the Buddha's insight into the
nature of mind (Linehan, 1993). Also, mindfulness practise combined with CBT has been
shown to change the underlying brain chemistry of obsessive-compulsive disorder (Schwartz
and Begley, 2002); and in India, a short program (10 days) of asanas, pranayama, relaxation
training, and education about yoga lifestyle modification has been experimentally shown to
reduce anxiety symptoms in both medical and psychiatric patients (Gupta, Khera, Vempati,
Sharma, and Bijlani, 2006). These latter results, too, fall under the umbrella of CBT in as much
as they involve cognitive restructuring and behaviour modification. Finally, there is a large and
growing body of research on the phenomenology, neuropsychology, and neuroanatomy of
meditation that is broadly relevant to psychotherapy and CBT, but that literature is too complex
and extensive to summarize here.
The Dark Side

No discussion of spiritually informed psychotherapy would be complete without addressing
the potential dangers of yoga. In addition to the risks of cult dynamics and inducing premature
kundalini awakenings (see Scotton, et aL, 1996, pp. 261-270, 316-326), practicing yoga can
have even more disquieting dangers. Yoga teachings have always warned about the existence
of hostile beings and forces whose aim is to destroy life and oppose all that is divine (asiiras
and raksasas). Although Indian philosophy affirms that there is no Evil in an absolute sense,
for ultimately all is Brahman, yoga psychology also notes that hostile beings and forces are
part of the universal prakrti, and are therefore as relatively real as any other manifestation of
phenomenal existence.
Mainstream Western psychology is not at all comfortable with the notion of hostile influence
and possession. Western medical anthropologists have long been interested in the frequent use
of possession models of illness in many traditional societies, but for the most part this literature
deals with possession as a cultural construct rather than a spiritual fact. For example, a recent
study found that the traditional possession model of mental illness is currently giving way to
more modernized idioms of psychological "tension" and "depression" in Kerala (Halliburton,
2005). Outside of India, some have attempted to correlate the phenomenology of possession
with psychiatric models of dissociative states (Ferracuti, Sacco, and Lazzari, 1996); others
have studied descriptively the frequency of possession attributions across both psychotic and
non-psychotic diagnostic categories (Pfeifer, 1999); and finally some have recommended that
mental health professionals work with rather than against beliefs about possession and exorcism
(such as allowing patients to engage in combined treatment), so as to improve compliance and
outcomes (Vlachos, Beratis, and Hartocollis, 1997). However, very few writers are willing to
entertain the possibility (at least publicly) that hostile forces may actually exist and have an
influence on human psychology in some cases.
One of the main barriers to examining the issue of hostile possession more deeply in academic
and scientific literature is the historical conflict between religion and science in the
West, which has lead to polarization and politicization of discourse on spiritual psychology.
From the perspective of IYP, according to which spiritual and material planes of consciousness
exist on an interfused, interacting continuum, physical and psychosocial mechanisms of disease
are simply the gateways through which hostile forces enter people and then exert their
negative influence (Aurobindo, 1970, pp. 393-398,1735-1775; Pandey, in Cornelissen, 2001,
pp. 80-88). Conversely, in this worldview, biopsychosocial interventions can also have occult
spiritual effects due to the positive intentions of those who deliver the help (i.e., non-local
effects of consciousness).
For example, I remember vividly the case of a man with schizophrenia (in the United States)
who was suffering extremely violent paranoid delusions and needed to be placed in a locked
cell for several months. I went in to interview him one day and was struck by the dark, demonic
force that clouded his consciousness. Chills ran down my spine, fear gripped my heart, and I
felt like fleeing the room. I had no doubt that I was in the presence of a hostile force that had
possessed the poor fellow. One year later, I met the same man again after he had been placed
on clozapine (a powerful antipsychotic medication) and sent to a day treatment program that
employed highly skilled and dedicated social workers, psychiatrists, nurses, and support staff.
I was surprised to find that the formerly possessed man had become extremely tender and
gentle. The darkness in his aura was mostly gone, pushed far into the background as a potential
that could return but was now effectively held in check, and the man had a lovely psychic
sweetness about him, even though his mental capacity remained quite confused due to chronic
schizophrenia. Since this man did not receive any formal exorcism, IYP would suggest that the
positive consciousness of the excellent biopsychosocial treatment he received repelled the
hostile attack on him.
That is one example of how Indian psychology could be used to frame a more subtle
discussion about the possession model of illness. In my experience and that of several colleagues,
such a synthetic approach to the subject is also useful in understanding a common pattern we
see in clinical practise, where we observe cyclical relationships among psychological trauma,
substance abuse, family dynamics, and hostile forces. To help clients extricate themselves
from this negative cycle, psychotherapists may need to bring a spiritual understanding of the
problem into treatment, and they may need at times to avail of spiritual guidance and protection
both for themselves and for their clients (S. Curtiss, personal communication, September 1,
2005). In the West, this might entail the use of exorcism to deal with the possession component
of the case (Peck, 1983), or perhaps visiting a Native American shaman* while in India one
could seek the help of a sufficiently powerful occultist, yogi or guru. Space does not permit a
full exposition here of yogic methods for dealing with hostile beings and forces, but suffice to
say that psychotherapists stand to learn much in this regard if they are willing. In the future, a
fascinating collaboration between mental health professionals and spiritual healers could evolve
in many parts of the world, and culturally that should be especially easy to accomplish in India
(Basu, 2004; S. Basu, personal communication, October 15, 2004).
Finally, a word about the difference between the Jungian and yogic views of the "dark
side". For most of his career, Jung viewed parapsychological phenomena, whether positive or
negative, as stemming from the collective unconscious rather than a spiritual reality that exists
independent of the human psyche (McLynn, 1996). IYP, in contrast, views hostile forces and
beings as spiritual facts, and therefore places more emphasis on volitional efforts to reject or
eject them, rather than trying to interpret them as split-off aspects of a Jungian "shadow" that
needs to be re-integrated psychologically. Evidently, both views have their relative merits,
depending on the exact nature of the phenomena in question, and again the two views are not
mutually exclusive. Thus, the art of spiritually informed therapy is to intuit when to use which
approach with whom and in what proportion, and to know how to get appropriate spiritual
guidance and protection when needed.
Adapting Therapy to Indian Culture

The last topic of this chapter is how to adapt psychotherapy to the needs of the many sub-
cultures within India and among Indian emigrants abroad. While the principles of yoga
psychology are universal, practically it is important for therapists to know how to implement
them with specific clients, and this in turn requires a working knowledge of each client's
family and cultural background. Although the literature on adapting psychotherapy to the cultural
needs of Indian clients is still fairly small, it has grown exponentially in the last five years and
is referenced here for readers who may find it useful. Some of the topics addressed to date in
the professional literature include the history of clinical psychology in India (Prasadarao and
Matam Sudhir, 2001); descriptions of various traditional healing practices, such as Ayurveda,
ritualistic ceremonies in temples and shrines, visiting gurus and mystics, etc. (Kumar, Bhugra,
and Singh, in Moodley and West, 2005, pp. 112-121); case-based evidence that such traditional
models can enhance outcomes by offering a greater diversity of therapeutic modalities for
clients to choose from, thus increasing the probability of a fit (Halliburton, 2004); analysis of
dowry and its link to domestic violence against women in India (Rastogi and Therly, 2006);
a case series discussing the cultural and psychosocial issues found in the treatment of sexual
dysfunction among single males in India (Manjula, Prasadarao, Kumaraiah, Mishra and
Raguram, 2003); clinical reflections on adapting therapy to the cultural and family systems
context of contemporary, urban, middle-class India (Paralikar, Agashe, and Weiss, in Ancis,
2004, pp. 102-124); and broad coverage of historical, philosophical, and cultural issues involved
in adapting Western models of counseling and psychotherapy to the needs of Indian
clients (Laungani, 2004). Also, there is now a small corpus of literature about family therapy in
India, including the history of the field (Carson and Chowdhury, 2000; Rastogi, Natrajan, and
Thomas, 2005); problems and progress in developing family therapy training programs in India
(Shah et al.9 2000; Prabhu, in Ng, 2003, pp. 57-67; Juvva, Redij, and Koshy, 2006); clinical
issues that arise in working with Indian families (Singh, Nath, and Nichols, 2005), including
marital concerns in light of typical Indian family structures and the rules that govern family
relationships (Sonpar, 2005); and understanding family therapy from the perspective of Hindu
women (Karuppaswamy and Natrajan, in Rastogi and Wieling, 2005, pp. 297-311).
Practically, some of the key recommendations from this emerging literature include the
importance of holding family meetings and managing intergenerational issues with Indian clients;
recognizing that Indian clients may expect therapists to be more directive; involving gurus and
other spiritual teachers in the treatment alliance; supporting the Asian social values of harmony
and interdependence rather than the Western ideal of personal independence; supporting the
use of religious coping and spiritual practises (meditation, prayer, other devotional rituals);
and being sensitive to reluctance to discuss sexual and aggressive feelings or negative
transference. Indian clients may prefer to focus on symptom relief in treatment and leave
personality restructuring to their spiritual sadhana, and they may see suffering as a karmic
phenomenon necessary for spiritual growth (Juthani, 2004; Hoch, 1990; Ananth, 1984; Sethi,
Gupta and Lai, 1975).
Finally, note that a unique set of clinical problems may arise with children of Indian
immigrants in the West (e.g., the famous ABCDs of the United States), who can have very
different ideas about marriage, family and autonomy than their parents, leading to cross-
generational conflict (Juthani, 2004). However, since India itself is currently undergoing major
cultural changes and westernization, the typical cultural differences between East and West are
becoming increasingly blurred so we may soon see the emergence of a new stereotype to contend
with, the IBCD (Indian-born confused desi).
Conclusion
This chapter has reviewed the history, methods, and aims of Western psychotherapy and
attempted to integrate these into the worldview of Indian psychology. In summary, psychotherapy
can be used to stabilize the outer, emotional nature and thus increase some clients' capacity to
engage in the larger aims of yoga. Indian psychology can expand the conceptual framework of
psychotherapy by providing a consciousness perspective that allows for a variety of spiritual
and mystical experiences to be seen as progressive and healthy. Indian yoga also provides
various approaches to consciousness training, discussed elsewhere in this Handbook, that can
enhance mental and emotional well-being outside of therapy and can help both clients and
therapists grow within the setting of psychotherapy. There are some potential dangers involved
in psycho-spiritual practise, both individually and collectively, but Indian psychology suggests
ways of understanding and dealing with these as well. Finally, because psychotherapy is
ultimately a practical field, the theoretical integration of psychotherapy and Indian psychology
proposed in this chapter awaits completion in clinical practice based on the future contributions
from psychotherapists working within Indian culture, both in India and abroad. If the history of
Indian civilization is any precedent, those refinements to existing psychotherapeutic theory
and practise shall be subtle, profound, and spiritual.
Note: All Sanskrit terms in this chapter are used as defined in the chapter on Sri Aurobindo's
Integral Yoga.
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24

Therapeutic Psychology and Indian Yoga

Psychotherapy: History and Myth

2. Cognitive-behavioural (CBT) approaches: examine how behaviour and emotion can be

Psychoanalysis and Psychodynamic Therapy

and separation, problems at work, career transitions, educational difficulties, relationship

Such cultivation of a witnessing consciousness seems especially germane to the practise of

The Subliminal vs The Subconscious

Meditation During Sessions

Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT)

The Dark Side

Adapting Therapy to Indian Culture

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