Eddy Current Testing

  Presentation by

Mohammed Hliyil Hafiz, PhD, P.E., 

Metallurgical &Production Department, 

Technology University,  

Baghdad ‐Iraq. 

 
Abstract
Electromagnetic testing (ET), especially eddy current testing, is commonly used
to inspect objects throughout their life cycle. Eddy current techniques employ
alternating currents applied to a conducting coil held close to the test object. In
response, the test object generates eddy currents to oppose the alternating current in
the coil. The eddy currents are then sensed by the same coil, separate coils, or
magnetic field sensors.
Changes in the induced eddy currents may be caused by changes to a material’s
electromagnetic properties and/or changes in geometry, including the abrupt changes
in current flow caused by cracks. Thus ET methods are highly effective for the
detection of cracks present on or below the surface of metallic objects. ET equipment
has become extremely portable and is relatively cheap. It is the second most common
method specified for NDT of aircraft. Recent advances in eddy current technology
include multi-channel portable instruments, allowing faster inspections of large areas,
and new magnetic sensors, such as the giant magnetoresistive sensors (GMR)
developed for computer hard drives, instead of coils.

1-INTRODUCTION
Even though eddy current testing is one of the oldest nondestructive evaluation
methods, it was not widely understood and did not reach full, widespread use until the
1980s.[1] Whereas portable ultrasonic instrumentation offering considerable
versatility for nondestructive testing (NDT) has been available since the 1960s,
comparable eddy current testing equipment was not widely available until the 1980s.
In addition, eddy current theory did not become available until the late 1970s. Now,
excellent tutorial information is available for scientists and engineers without
advanced degrees.

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2-History of Eddy Current Testing
Eddy current testing (Figure 1) has its roots in discoveries that were made in
the 1800s. The most fundamental breakthrough was the discovery of
electromagnetism by Hans Christian Orstead in 1820. About a decade later in
1831,Michael Faraday discovered electromagnetic induction*. Then in 1834, Heinrich
Lenz developed the principal that defines how the electromagnetic properties of a test
object are communicated back to the test system. And finally, James Maxwell, who is
famous for his defining equations of electromagnetic theory, discovered eddy currents
in 1864 D.E. Hughes was the first to use eddy current testing in 1879 to conduct
metallurgical sorting tests†. More than a half century later, eddy current testing made
a leap forward when Friedrich Foerster developed and marketed practical eddy
current testing equipment in the 1940s. His major contributions led to the
development of the impedance plane display, which greatly aided presentation of test
information.
In addition, he formulated the Law of Similarity, which enables eddy current
test results to be duplicated under a wide variety of test situations. An equipment
manufacturer, Inter controlle of France, made the next major advancement in 1974,
when the company developed multi-frequency testing. Driving the device at multiple
frequencies enabled eddy current testing to overcome the major limitation of having
to interpret eddy current signals from a single display. Multi-frequency methods can
also optimize conflicting test variables such as sensitivity and penetration. The
development of microprocessor-based eddy current instruments in the 1980s greatly
enhanced the potential and user-friendliness of the method, and allowed for the
development of automated eddy current inspection equipment. Finally, at the turn of
the century in the late 1990s and early 2000s, giant magnetoresistive‡ sensors were
utilized to allow multi-frequency techniques at very low frequencies to probe for
flaws deep in multi-layer metallic aircraft structures.

3-PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES
Eddy current NDT is based on the principals of electromagnetic induction for
inducing eddy currents§ in a material or part placed in or adjacent to one or more
alternating flux field induction coils.[2] The system is operated at very low power
levels to minimize heating and temperature changes. The loop currents induced in the
material produce an additional magnetic field, and a sensor is used to measure the
total magnetic field near the specimen. The value of the total magnetic field depends
on several factors including the following:
• Geometry of the induction coil
• Geometry of the specimen
• Current and frequency in the coil
• Electrical conductivity of the specimen
• Magnetic permeability of the specimen

4-How Eddy Current Testing Works

A crack in the surface, or near the surface of the specimen interrupts the
current flowing in the specimen (i.e., it locally changes the electrical conductivity)
and causes a change in the adjacent magnetic field. The induction coil is scanned over

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the specimen, and the magnetic field is measured by a sensor and recorded. In another
approach, there is no second or sensing coil, and the reluctance** is measured directly
in the exciting or induction coil to locate a crack.
Figure 2 shows the principal elements of four types of typical eddy current
systems. Figure 2 (a) shows a simple arrangement, in which voltage across the coil is
monitored. Figure 2 (b) shows a typical impedance bridge. Figure 2 (c) shows an
impedance bridge with dual coils and Figure 2 (d) shows an impedance bridge with
dual coils and a reference sample in the second cell. The location of the eddy currents
in the specimen in the z, or depth direction, is a function of the frequency. As the
frequency is increased, the eddy currents are increasingly concentrated near the
surface of the specimen, and as the frequency is decreased the eddy currents increase
their penetration into the specimen. Employing a variety of frequencies to probe
different depths in the specimen can be very useful for analyzing a greater volume of
the specimen.

5-Types of Discontinuities
There are a number of different discontinuities that can be detected with eddy
current NDT. In metallic structures, welds, fatigue cracks, voids, hidden corrosion and
stress corrosion cracks can be detected (Figure 3) and the size of such defects can also
be determined. The geometry of the part and the defect location dictate the size of the
flaw that can be detected.
For example, automated and manual eddy current inspection of gas turbine
engine disks can reliably detect cracks as small as 0.023 inches in length in bolt holes
of seventh stage compressor disks. [3] Defects such as delaminations, voids and
broken fibers from impact damage can be detected in graphite epoxy composites.
While in carbon/carbon composites for high temperature use, eddy current NDT can
be used to determine the thickness of the silicon carbide (SiC) coating used on
Carbon/carbon composite for oxidation protection. In addition, voids caused by
oxidation between the SiC coating and the carbon/carbon base can be detected and
carbon loss due to oxidation can be determined using eddy current NDT. Eddy
Current NDT can be used on conducting materials including metals, alloys,
carbon/epoxy composites, carbon/carbon composites, and metallic matrix composites.

6-INSPECTION REQUIREMENTS
There are no special facility requirements for eddy current NDT, and portable
instrumentation is available for field applications such as aircraft inspection, as shown
in Figure 4. Rugged eddy current equipment is also available for use in manufacturing
environments to inspect metallic products as they are being processed. There is no
special material preparation for testing, but a smooth surface produces optimum
results. Eddy current equipment is calibrated using physical calibration standards
made of the same material with the same geometry as the part to be tested. Electro
discharge machining (EDM) notches, drilled holes, etc., can serve as flaws, and
several sizes should be used to encompass the actual flaw sizes expected. Figure 5
shows several fabricated discontinuities used as standards in eddy current inspection.
Real flaws such as fatigue cracks, stress corrosion cracks, etc., are required for
improved accuracy in sizing of defects. The distance of the inspection coil from the
surface of the sample, called “liftoff” must also be carefully controlled. The
interpretation of results using the modern, computer-based eddy current equipment is

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straightforward with both a display screen showing the results and the computer
recording the data.

7-PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS
Commercial, off-the-shelf eddy current equipment is available that is very
portable and user-friendly. Training for the eddy current testing technique is
somewhat straightforward (Figure 6). However, certified NDT inspectors are either
recommended or required and the training for a certified inspector involves more in-
depth training than just how to use the instrument and interpret the results. In the US,
eddy current inspectors can be certified by NAS 410 from the Aerospace Industries
Association of America or by the American Society for Nondestructive Testing
(ASNT). Eddy current instruments range in cost from about $10,000 to about
$30,000.
In additional to conventional eddy current NDT techniques, remote field eddy
current inspection capability was developed to inspect tubular metallic products from
the inside of the tube. This technique, illustrated in Figure 7, provides a means of
inspecting the outside of the tube wall with only an interior eddy current probe. The
technique is applicable to any metallic material, but has been primarily applied to
ferromagnetic materials since the wall of the tube must be magnetically saturated. The
outside of the tube or pipe can be inspected for corrosion/erosion wall thinning,
pitting, and cracks. The technique is equally sensitive to axial and circumferential
flaws.
The major disadvantage is that when applied to nonmagnetic materials the
sensitivity is generally decreased. Advantages and Disadvantages of Eddy Current
Testing There are several advantages to using the method of eddy current testing.
These typically include:
• Reasonable cost
• Availability of a wide variety of commercial, off-the-shelf instruments
• Automation potential
• Good sensitivity to small flaws at or near the surface of the sample
• Capability for quantitative flaw sizing
• Portable equipment
The disadvantages of eddy current NDT include the lack of capability to detect
flaws that are deep in thick section metallic structures and the restriction for
application to only conducting materials. Figure 8 gives the standard depths of
penetration of eddy currents as a function of frequency for several metals of various
electrical conductivities.

8-SELECTED EXAMPLES OF EDDY CURRENT

APPLICATIONS

Eddy current NDT is widely used to inspect for corrosion and cracking in
airplane wing skins at rivet holes and in aircraft frames. [4] Modern commercial eddy
current instrumentation capable of operating down to 60 Hz with small eddy current
probes is now available to detect small fatigue cracks below the surface in aircraft
airframes with more sensitivity than X-ray radiography. Fatigue cracks can also be
detected in layered structures such as an aircraft window belt splice, which is
illustrated in Figure 9 (a).

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 The technique produces easily interpreted crack responses on a screen display, as
shown in Figure 9 (b & c). These cracks were detected in the first row of rivets above
the longitudinal belt splice of aircraft windows. The cracks initiated at the fastener
holes in the internal (second layer) skin and grew in a longitudinal direction.
Corrosion of multiplayer aircraft skins can also be readily detected with eddy current
techniques, as shown in Figure 10.
Eddy current techniques are also in widespread use to detect fatigue cracks in
critical aircraft jet engines components, such as blades and turbine disk during
overhaul. For discontinuities more than 0.07 in. (1.8 mm) long fluorescent penetrant
inspection will usually suffice. However, for cracks below 0.07 in. (1.8 mm) in
length, eddy current NDT is usually required.

9-CONCLUSIONS
Eddy current NDT is a mature technology with widespread availability of
user-friendly, affordable, and commercial, off-the shelf equipment. It can be used on
conducting materials and can detect many types of discontinuities. Eddy current
testing has enjoyed considerable success in a number of applications including, for
example, inspection of nuclear reactor heat exchanger tubes, aircraft engine and metal
skin components, and in the manufacturing plant inspection of a variety of metallic
components. In addition, eddy current NDT is widely used to inspect welds along
with X-ray radiography and ultrasonic testing.

10- NOTES
* Electromagnetic induction is the generation of an electrical voltage across a
conducting material through stimulation by an applied alternating magnetic field.
† Tests used to quickly sort metal alloys with differing chemical or alloying
compositions.
‡ Giant magneto resistance is a phenomenon where the application of a magnetic field
reduces the electrical resistance of certain materials by a significant margin.
§ An eddy current is an electrical current that flows in a circular path or loop and is
induced by an applied magnetic field.
** Reluctance in a magnetic system is akin to resistance in an electrical system.

11-summry
11-1- Eddy Current Testing
Eddy current testing is particularly well suited for detecting surface cracks but
can also be used to make electrical conductivity and coating thickness measurements.
Here a small surface probe is scanned over the part surface in
an attempt to detect a crack.

11-2-Eddy Current Testing, principle

• Eddy currents are a form of induced currents that flow in a circular path. They get
their name from “eddies” that are formed when a liquid or gas flows in a circular path
around obstacles when conditions are right.
• Eddy currents flowing in the material will generate their own “secondary” magnetic
field which will oppose the coil’s “primary” magnetic field.
• This entire electromagnetic induction process to produce eddy currents may occur
from several hundred to several million times.
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each second depending upon inspection frequency.

11-3-Depth penetration of Eddy Currents

• Eddy currents are strongest at the surface of the material and decrease
in strength below the surface. The depth that the eddy currents are only
37% as strong as they are on the surface is known as the standard depth
of penetration or skin depth.
• This depth changes with probe frequency, material conductivity and
permeability.
11-4-Inspection Data
• There are three characteristics of the specimen that affect the strength of the
induced eddy currents.
– The electrical conductivity of the material
– The magnetic permeability of the material
– The amount of solid material in the vicinity of the test coil.
• Information about the strength of the eddy currents within the specimen is
determined by monitoring changes in voltage and/or current that occur in
the coil.
• The strength of the eddy currents changes the electrical impedance (Z) of
the coil.
• Impedance (Z) in an eddy current coil is the total opposition to current flow. In
a coil, Z is made up of resistance (R) and inductive reactance (XL).
•
11-5-Inspection Applications - material thickness
Thickness measurements are possible with eddy current inspection. Only a
certain amount of eddy currents can form in a given volume of material. Therefore,
thicker materials will support more eddy currents than thinner materials. The strength
(amount) of eddy currents can be measured and related to the material thickness.

11-6-Crack Detection
Crack detection is one of the primary uses of eddy current inspection. Cracks
cause a disruption in the circular flow patterns of the eddy currents and weaken their
strength. This change in strength at the crack location can be detected.

11-7-Nonconductive Coating Measurement

Nonconductive coatings on electrically conductive substrates can be measured
very accurately with eddy current inspection The coating displaces the eddy current
probe from the conductive base material and this weaken the strength of the eddy
currents. This reduction in strength can be measured and related to coating thickness.

11-8-Multi-Frequency Eddy Current Instruments

• Multi-Frequency instruments usually refer to equipment that can drive inspection
coils at more than two frequencies either sequentially (multiplexing) or
simultaneously.
• This type of instrumentation is used extensively for tubing inspection in the
power generation , chemical and petrochemical industries.
• These instruments are often capable of being computer networked and
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may have as many as four probes attached to them at one time.
• Advantages:
– Allows increased inspection information to be collected from one probe pulling.
– Provides for comparison of same discontinuity signal at different frequencies.
– Allows mixing of frequencies which helps to reduce or eliminate sources of
noise.
– Often improves detection, interpretation and sizing capabilities of
discontinuities.

11-9-Reference Standards
• In order to give the eddy current inspector useful data while conducting an
inspection, signals generated from the test specimen must be compared with known
values.
• Reference standards are typically manufactured from the same or very similar
material as the test specimen.
• Many different types of standards exist for due to the variety of eddy current
inspections performed.

11-10-Advantages of Eddy Current Inspection

+ Sensitive to small cracks and other defects
+ Detects surface and near surface defects
+ Inspection gives immediate results
+ Equipment is very portable
+ Method can be used for much more than flaw detection
+ Minimum part preparation is required
+ Test probe does not need to contact the part
+ Inspects complex shapes and sizes of conductive materials.

11-11-Limitations of Eddy Current Inspection

+Only conductive materials can be inspected Surface must be accessible to the probe
+Skill and training required is more extensive than other techniques
+Surface finish and and roughness may interfere
+Reference standards needed for setup
+Depth of penetration is limited
+Flaws such as delaminations that lie parallel to the probe coil winding and probe
scan direction are undetectable.

12- REFERENCES
[1] C.J. Hellier, “Eddy Current Testing,” Handbook of Nondestructive Evaluation,
McGraw-Hill, NY, 2001, pp. 8.1-8.7.
[2] “Eddy Current Inspection,” ASM Metals Handbook, Ninth Edition, Vol. 17,
Nondestructive Inspection and Quality Control, 1989, ASM International, Metals
Park, OH, pp. 164-194.
[3] Nondestructive Evaluation Capabilities Data Book, 3rd Edition, Appendix A,
Eddy Current Inspection, NTIAC, DB-97-02, November 1997.
[4] D.J. Hagemaier, “Low Frequency Eddy Current Testing of Aircraft Structures,”
Nondestructive Testing Handbook, Third Edition, Volume 5; S.S. Udpa and P.O.
Moore, editors; American Society for Nondestructive Testing, 2004, pp. 481-485.
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