4G WIRELESS TECHNOLOGY

A SEMINAR REPORT Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the Deg
ree of
Bachelor of Technology
in Electronics and Communication Engineering
by
MUHAMMED SHAH A S (Roll no:33)
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING
GOVERNMENT ENGINEERING COLLEGE, WAYANAD
JANUARY 2011
GOVERNMENT ENGINEERING COLLEGE WAYANAD
CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that
MUHAMMED SHAH A S (Roll no:33)
has successfully towards the
completed the seminar Report titled 4G and Communication Engineering.
WIRELESS TECHNOLOGY
partial fullllment for the award of the degree of Bachelor of Technology in Elect
ronics
Seminar coordinator
Head of Department
Oce Seal
TO
MY parents ,teachers and friends ...
Acknowledgements
Ingenuity and proper guidence are inevitable for the successful completion of an
y work.I am indebted to all sources,which helped me in working out my seminar pr
esentation at each step of its progress.I wish to thank the multitude of people
who have helped me during the course of my work. First and foremost,I thank Prof
.Vidhyasagar,our Principal,for providing the necessary facilities and ambience f
or the presentation. I also express my sincere thanks to Mr.Abdul Hameed;the Hea
d of the Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering for his valuabl
e support.I am also deeply indebited to Dr.Sindhu for her thoughtful criticism a
nd suggestions and whose friendly and unfailing support helped me throughout the
course of my work. The unique and inspiring atmosphere at the college provided
an invaluable resources and my gratitude goes out to my friends there.Above all,
I thank my parents and God. Almighty,without whom this endeavor would not have b
een a success. MUHAMMED SHAH A S
i
Abstract
4G (also known as Beyond 3G), an abbreviation for Fourth-Generation, is a term u
sed to describe the next complete evolution in wireless communications. A 4G sys
tem will be able to provide a comprehensive IP solution where voice, data and st
reamed multimedia can be given to users on an "Anytime, Anywhere" basis, and at
higher data rates than previous generations. As the second generation was a tota
l replacement of the rst generation networks and the third generation was a total
replacement of second generation networks. So the fourth generation cannot be a
n incremental evolution of current 3G technologies, but rather the total replace
ment of the current 3G networks and devices. The international telecommunication
s regulatory and standardization bodies are working for commercial deployment of
4G networks roughly in the 2012-2015 time scale. There is no formal denition for
what 4G is; however, there are certain objectives that are projected for 4G. Th
ese objectives include, that 4G will be a fully IP-based integrated system. 4G w
ill be capable of providing between 100 Mbps and 1 Gbps speeds both indoors and
outdoors, with premium quality and high security.
ii
Contents
Acknowledgements Abstract 1 2 3 Introduction History Economic Impacts i ii 1 2 4
3.1 Advantages of 4G . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. 3.2 Problems with the Current System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.
4 4
4 5
ITU Requirements and 4G wireless standards 4G candidate systems
8
5.1 LTE Advanced . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.2 IEEE 802.16m or WirelessMAN-Advanced . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9 10
11
9
6 7
Visions of 4G Current Technology
7.1 TDMA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. 7.2 CDMA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . 8.1 ORTHOGONAL FREQUENCY DEVISION MULTIPLE ACCESS 8.1.1 Key features . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.1.2 Idealized system model .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.1.3 Orthogonal frequency division mult
iple access . . . . . . . . 8.2 SOFTWARE DEFINED RADIO . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . 8.2.1 Operating principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . 8.3 MULTIPLE-INPUT MULTIPLE-OUTPUT . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.3.1 Types .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.4 HANDOVER AND MOBIL
ITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . .
14
14 15
8
Key 4G Technologies
18
18 19 20 22 23 24 24 25 26
iii
CONTENTS
iv
9
Quality Of Service
29 30 31 33 34
10 Security 11 Applications 12 Conclusion 13 References
List of Figures
2.1 Short Hstory of Mobile Telephone Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.
1 Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. 3.2 Cellular System Upgrades . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . 6.1 4G Mobile Communications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. 6.2 Seamless connections of a network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . 6.3 Key elements of 4G Vision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . 7.1 Transmission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . 7.2 Reception . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . 7.3 UWB Spectrum Usage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 8.5 8.6 8.7 OFDMA . . . . . . . . . Transmission .
. . . . . Reception . . . . . . . . OFDM . . . . . . . . . . SDR . . . . . . . .
. . . Dierent Systems . . . . MIMO Communications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 6 7 12 13 13 16 17 17 20 21 22 23 25 27 28
v
Chapter 1 Introduction
Consumers demand more from their technology. Whether it be a television, cellula
r phone or refrigerator, the latest technology purchase must have new features.
With the advent of the Internet, the most-wanted feature is better, faster acces
s to information. Cellular subscribers pay extra on top of their basic bills for
such features as instant messaging, stock quotes, and even Internet access righ
t on their phones. But that is far from the limit of features; manufacturers ent
ice customers to buy new phones with photo and even video capability. It is no l
onger a quantum leap to envision a time when access to all necessary information
, the power of a personal computer ,sits in the palm of one's hand. To support
such a powerful system, we need pervasive, high-speed wireless connectivity. A n
umber of technologies currently exist to provide users with high-speed digital w
ireless connectivity; Bluetooth and 802.11 are examples. These two standards pro
vide very high speed network connections over short distances, typically in the
tens of meters. Meanwhile, cellular providers seek to increase speed on their lo
ng-range wireless networks. The goal is the same: long-range, high-speed wireles
s, which for the purposes of this report will be called 4G, for fourth-generatio
n wireless system. Fourth-generation wireless needs to be standardized throughou
t the United States due to its enticing advantages to both users and providers.
1
Chapter 2 History
The history and evolution of mobile service from the 1G (rst generation) to fourt
h generation are discussed in this section. Table 1 presents a short history of
mobile telephone technologies. This process began with the designs in the 1970s
that have become known as 1G. The earliest systems were implemented based on ana
log technology and the basic cellular structure of mobile communication. Many fu
ndamental problems were solved by these early systems. Numerous incompatible ana
log systems were placed in service around the world during the 1980s. The 2G (se
cond generation) systems designed in the 1980s were still used mainly for voice
applications but were based on digital technology, including digital signal proc
essing techniques. These 2G systems provided circuit-switched data Communication
services at a low speed. The competitive rush to design and implement Digital s
ystems led again to a variety of dierent and incompatible standards such as GSM (
global system mobile), mainly in Europe; TDMA (time division multiple access) (I
S-54/IS- 136) in the U.S.; PDC (personal digital cellular) in Japan; and CDMA (c
ode division multiple access) (IS-95), another U.S. system. These systems operat
e nationwide or internationally and are today's mainstream systems, although the
data rate for users in these system is very limited. During the 1990s, two orga
nizations worked to dene the next, or 3G, mobile system, which would eliminate pr
evious incompatibilities and become a truly global system. 2
Chapter 2.
History
3
The 3G system would have higher quality voice channels, as well as broadband dat
a capabilities, up to 2 Mbps. Unfortunately, the two groups could not reconcile
their dierences, and this decade will see the introduction of two mobile standard
s for 3G. In addition, China is on the verge of implementing a third 3G system.
An interim step is being taken between 2G and 3G, the 2.5G. It is basically an e
nhancement of the two major 2G technologies to provide increased capacity on the
2G RF (radio frequency) channels and to introduce higher throughput for data se
rvice, up to 384 kbps. A very important aspect of 2.5G is that the data channels
are optimized for packet data, which introduces access to the Internet from mob
ile devices, whether telephone, PDA (personal digital assistant), or laptop. How
ever, the demand for higher access speed multimedia communication in today's soc
iety, which greatly depends on computer communication in digital format, seems u
nlimited. According to the historical indication of a generation revolution occu
rring once a decade, the present appears to be the right time to begin the resea
rch on a 4G mobile communication system
Figure 2.1: Short Hstory of Mobile Telephone Technologies
Chapter 3 Economic Impacts
3.1 Advantages of 4G
In a fourth-generation wireless system, cellular providers have the opportunity
to oer data access to a wide variety of devices. The cellular network would becom
e a data network on which cellular phones could operate , as well as any other d
ata device. Sending data over the cell phone network is a lucrative business. In
the information age, access to data is the "killer app" that drives the market.
The most telling example is growth of the Internet over the last 10 years. Wire
less networks provide a unique twist to this product: mobility. This concept is
already beginning a revolution in wireless networking, with instant access to th
e Internet from anywhere.
3.2
Problems with the Current System
One may then wonder why ubiquitous, high-speed wireless is not already available
. After all, wireless providers are already moving in the direction of expanding
the bandwidth of their cellular networks. Almost all of the major cell phone ne
tworks already provide data services beyond that oered in standard cell phones. U
nfortunately, the current cellular network does not have the available bandwidth
necessary to handle data services well. Not only is data transfer slowly , at t
he speed 4
Chapter 3.
Economic Impacts
5
of analog modems , but the bandwidth that is available is not allocated eciently
for data. Data transfer tends to come in bursts rather than in the constant stre
am of voice data. Cellular providers are continuing to upgrade their networks in
order to meet this higher demand by switching to dierent protocols that allow fo
r faster access speeds and more ecient transfers. These are collectively referred
to as third generation, or 3G, services. However, the way in which the companie
s are developing their networks is problematic ,all are currently proceeding in
dierent directions with their technology improvements. Figure 1 illustrates the d
ierent technologies that are currently in use, and which technologies the provide
rs plan to use. Although most technologies are similar, they are not all using t
he same protocol. In addition, 3G systems still have inherent aws. They are not w
ell-designed for data; they are improvements on a protocol that was originally d
esigned for voice. Thus, they are inecient with their use of the available spectr
um bandwidth. A data-centered protocol is needed. If one were to create two iden
tical marketplaces in which cellular providers used 3G and 4G respectively, the
improvements in 4G would be easy to see. Speaking on the topic of 3G, one of the
worlds leading authorities on mobile communications, William C.Y. Lee, states t
hat 3G would be "a patched up system that could be inecient", and it would be bes
t if the industry would leapfrog over 3G wireless technology, and prepare for 4G
(Christian ).4G protocols use spectrum up to 3 times as eciently as 3G systems,
have better ways of handling dynamic load changes (such as additional cellular u
sers entering a particular cell), and create more bandwidth than 3G systems. Mos
t importantly, fourth-generation systems will draw more users by using standard
network protocols, which will be discussed later, to connect to the Internet. Th
is will allow simple and transparent connectivity. This begs the question: Why a
re cellular providers not moving to 4G instead of 3G? A marketplace like the cel
lular industry can be modeled as a game, as seen in Table 3.1. There are three b
asic paths the game can take: Nobody makes the conversion to 4G All end up upgra
ding to 2.5G and 3G services.
Chapter 3.
Economic Impacts
6
Figure 3.1: Strategies The upgrades are incremental, and don't require a complet
e reworking of the system, so they are fairly cheap - the equipment required is
already developed and in mass production in other places in the world. Everyone
makes the conversion to 4G The equipment and technology needed for 4G will be ch
eap, because of all of the cellular manufacturers investing in it. Cellular prov
iders will market additional services to its customers. Some of the players make
the conversion to 4G Because not all of the players have chosen 4G, the equipme
nt will be more expensive than the second scenario. Even though converters will
be able to sell more services to their customers, it will not be enough to cover
the higher costs of converting to 4G. Therefore, if a player chooses the 4G str
ategy, but nobody else follows suit, that player will be at a signicant disadvant
age. No cellular provider has incentive to move to 4G unless all providers move
to 4G. An outside agent - the national government -must standardize on 4G as the
wireless standard for the United States. Of course, legitimate concerns can be
posed to the idea of implementing 4G nationwide. A common concern is the similar
ity of this proposal to the forced introduction of HDTV in the US, which has (th
us far) failed miserably. There are two key dierences, however, between 4G and HD
TV. The rst is the nature of the service providers. There are many small televisi
on broadcasters in rural areas whose cost of conversion would be as much as 15 y
ears of revenue. The cellular industry, however, does not have this problem.
Chapter 3.
Economic Impacts
7
Figure 3.2: Cellular System Upgrades The players are multi-billion dollar compan
ies, who already have enough capital; continual network upgrades are part of the
ir business plan. Our proposal is simply choosing a direction for their growth.
An often overlooked area of nancial liability for cellular providers is in the ar
ea of information security. Providers could lose money through fraudulent use of
the cellular system or unauthorized disclosure of user information over the air
waves. Both of these cases could be caused by an insecure wireless system. This
lesson was learned during the use of the rst generation of cellular phones in the
United States: If a standard is to be set nationwide, it must be secure.
Chapter 4 ITU Requirements and 4G wireless standards
* Based on an all-IP packet switched network. * Peak data rates of up to approxi
mately 100 Mbps for high mobility such as mobile access and up to approximately
1 Gbps for low mobility. * Dynamically share and utilize the network resources t
o support more simultaneous users per cell. * Scalable channel bandwidth, betwee
n 5 and 20 MHz, optionally up to 40 MHz. * Peak link spectral eciency of 15 bit/s
/Hz in the downlink, and 6.75 bit/s/Hz in the uplink * System spectral eciency of
up to 3 bit/s/Hz/cell in the downlink and 2.25 bit/s/Hz/cell for indoor usage *
Smooth handovers across heterogeneous networks. * Ability to oer high quality of
service for next generation multimedia support.
8
Chapter 5 4G candidate systems
In September 2009, the technology proposals were submitted to the International
Telecommunication Union (ITU) as 4G candidates. Basically all proposals are base
d on two technologies: * LTE Advanced standardized by the 3GPP * 802.16m standar
dized by the IEEE (WMAN)
5.1
LTE Advanced
LTE Advanced (Long-term-evolution Advanced) is a candidate for IMT-Advanced stan
dard, formally submitted by the 3GPP organization to ITU-T in the fall 2009, and
expected to be released in 2012. The target of 3GPP LTE Advanced is to reach an
d surpass the ITU requirements. LTE Advanced is essentially an enhancement to LT
E. It is not a new technology but rather an improvement on the existing LTE netw
ork. This upgrade path makes it more cost eective for vendors to oer LTE and then
upgrade to LTE Advanced which is similar to the upgrade from WCDMA to HSPA. LTE
and LTE Advanced will also make use of additional spectrum and multiplexing to a
llow it to achieve higher data speeds. Coordinated Multi-point Transmission will
also allow more system capacity to help handle the enhanced data speeds. Releas
e 10 of LTE is expected to achieve the LTE Advanced speeds. Release 8 currently
supports up to 300 Mbps 9
Chapter 5.
4G candidate systems
10
download speeds which is still short of the IMT-Advanced standards.
5.2
IEEE 802.16m or WirelessMAN-Advanced
The IEEE 802.16m or WirelessMAN-Advanced evolution of 802.16e is under developme
nt, with the objective to fulll the IMT-Advanced criteria of 1 Gbps for stationar
y reception and 100 Mbps for mobile reception.
Chapter 6 Visions of 4G
This new generation of wireless is intended to complement and replace the 3G sys
tems, perhaps in 5 to 10 years. Accessing information anywhere, anytime, with a
seamless connection to a wide range of information and services, and receiving a
large volume of information, data, pictures, video, and so on, are the keys of
the 4G infrastructures. The future 4G infrastructures will consist of a set of v
arious networks using IP (Internet protocol) as a common protocol so that users
are in control because they will be able to choose every application and environ
ment. Based on the developing trends of mobile communication, 4G will have broad
er bandwidth, higher data rate, and smoother and quicker hando and will focus on
ensuring seamless service across a multitude of wireless systems and networks. T
he key concept is integrating the 4G capabilities with all of the existing mobil
e technologies through advanced technologies. Application adaptability and being
highly dynamic are the main features of 4G services of interest to users. These
features mean services can be delivered and be available to the personal prefer
ence of dierent users and support the users' trac, air interfaces, radio environme
nt, and quality of service. Connection with the network applications can be tran
sferred into various forms and levels correctly and eciently. The dominant method
s of access to this pool of information will be the mobile telephone, PDA, and l
aptop to seamlessly access the voice communication, high-speed information servi
ces ,and entertainment broadcast services. Figure 6.1 illustrates elements and t
echniques to support the adaptability of the 11
Chapter 6.
Visions of 4G
12
4G domain. The fourth generation will encompass all systems from various network
s, public to private; operator-driven broadband networks to personal areas; and
ad hoc networks. The 4G systemswill interoperate with 2G and 3G systems, as well
as with digital (broadband) broadcasting systems. In addition, 4G systems will
be fully IP-based wireless Internet. This allencompassing integrated perspective
shows the broad range of systems that the fourth generation intends to integrat
e, from satellite broadband to high altitude platform to cellular 3G and 3G syst
ems to WLL (wireless local loop) and FWA (xed wireless access) to WLAN (wireless
local area network) and PAN (personal area network),all with IP as the integrati
ng mechanism. With 4G, a range of new services and models will be available. The
se services and models need to be further examined for their interface with the
design of 4G systems. Figures6.2 and 6.3 demonstrate the key elements and the se
amless connectivity of the networks.
Figure 6.1: 4G Mobile Communications
Chapter 6.
Visions of 4G
13
Figure 6.2: Seamless connections of a network
Figure 6.3: Key elements of 4G Vision
Chapter 7 Current Technology
Most modern cellular phones are based on one of two transmission technologies: t
imedivision multiple access (TDMA) or code-division multiple access (CDMA) (Riez
enman 2000, 40). These two technologies are collectively referred to as second-g
eneration, or 2G. Both systems make eavesdropping more dicult by digitally encodi
ng the voice data and compressing it, then splitting up the resulting data into
chunks upon transmission.
7.1
TDMA
TDMA, or Time Division Multiple Access, is a technique for dividing the time dom
ain up into subchannels for use by multiple devices. Each device gets a single t
ime slot in a procession of devices on the network, as seen in Figure 3. During
that particular time slot, one device is allowed to utilize the entire bandwidth
of the spectrum, and every other device is in the quiescent state. The time is
divided into frames in which each device on the network gets one timeslot. There
are n timeslots in each frame, one each for n devices on the network. In practi
ce, every device gets a timeslot in every frame. This makes the frame setup simp
ler and more ecient because there is no time wasted on setting up the order of tr
ansmission. This has the negative side eect of wasting bandwidth and capacity on
devices that have nothing to send (Leon-Garcia and Widjaja 2000). 14
Chapter 7.
Current Technology
15
One optimization that makes TDMA much more ecient is the addition of a registrati
on period at the beginning of the frame. During this period, each device indicat
es how much data it has to send. Through this registration period, devices with
nothing to send waste no time by having a timeslot allocated to them, and device
s with lots of pending data can have extra time with which to send it. This is c
alled ETDMA (Extended TDMA) and can increase the eciency of TDMA to ten times the
capacity of the original analog cellular phone network. The benet of using TDMA
with this optimization for network access comes when data is "bursty." That mean
s, at an arbitrary time, it is not possible to predict the rate or amount of pen
ding data from a particular host. This type of data is seen often in voice trans
mission, where the rate of speech, the volume of speech, and the amount of backg
round noise are constantly varying. Thus, for this type of data, very little cap
acity is wasted by excessive allocation.
7.2
CDMA
CDMA, or Code Division Multiple Access, allows every device in a cell to transmi
t over the entire bandwidth at all times. Each mobile device has a unique and or
thogonal code that is used to encode and recover the signal (Leon-Garcia and Wid
jaja 2000). The mobile phone digitizes the voice data as it is received, and enc
odes the data with the unique code for that phone. This is accomplished by takin
g each bit of the signal and multiplying it by all bits in the unique code for t
he phone. Thus, one data bit is transformed into a sequence of bits of the same
length as the code for the mobile phone. This makes it possible to combine with
other signals on the same frequency range and still recover the original signal
from an arbitrary mobile phone as long as the code for that phone is known. Once
encoded, the data is modulated for transmission over the bandwidth allocated fo
r that transmission. A block diagram of the process is shown in Figures. The pro
cess for receiving a signal is shown in Figure . Once the signal is demodulated,
Chapter 7.
Current Technology
16
Figure 7.1: Transmission a correlator and integrator pair recovers the signal ba
sed on the unique code from the cellular phone. The correlator recovers the orig
inal encoded signal for the device, and the integrator transforms the recovered
signal into the actual data stream. CDMA has been patented in the United States
by Qualcomm, making it more expensive to implement due to royalty fees. This has
been a factor for cellular phone providers when choosing which system to implem
ent. By keeping security in mind while designing the new system, the creators of
2G wireless were able to produce a usable system that is still in use today. Un
fortunately, 2G technology is beginning to feel its age. Consumers now demand mo
re features, which in turn require higher data rates than 2G can handle. A new s
ystem is needed that merges voice and data into the same digital stream, conserv
ing bandwidth to enable fast data access. By using advanced hardware and softwar
e at both ends of the transmission, 4G is the answer to this problem.
Chapter 7.
Current Technology
17
Figure 7.2: Reception
Figure 7.3: UWB Spectrum Usage
Chapter 8 Key 4G Technologies
Some of the key technologies required for 4G are briey described below:
8.1
ORTHOGONAL FREQUENCY DEVISION MULTIPLE ACCESS
Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM) not only provides clear advant
ages for physical layer performance, but also a framework for improving layer 2
performance by proposing an additional degree of free- dom. Using ODFM, it is po
ssible to exploit the time domain, the space domain, the frequency domain and ev
en the code domain to optimize radio channel usage. It ensures very robust trans
mission in multi-path environments with reduced receiver complexity. OFDM also p
rovides a frequency diversity gain, improving the physical layer performance .It
is also compatible with other enhancement Technologies, such as smart antennas
and MIMO.OFDM modulation can also be employed as a multiple access technology (O
rthogonal Frequency Division Multiple Access; OFDMA). In this case, each OFDM sy
mbol can transmit information to/from several users using a dierent set of sub ca
rriers (sub channels). This not only provides additional exibility for resource a
llocation (increasing the capacity), but also enables cross-layer optimization o
f radio link usage. Orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing (OFDM), essential
ly identical to coded 18
Chapter 8.
Key 4G Technologies
19
OFDM (COFDM) and discrete multi-tone modulation (DMT), is a frequency-division m
ultiplexing (FDM) scheme used as a digital multi-carrier modulation method. A la
rge number of closely-spaced orthogonal sub-carriers are used to carry data. The
data is divided into several parallel data streams or channels, one for each su
b-carrier. Each sub-carrier is modulated with a conventional modulation scheme (
such as quadrature amplitude modulation or phase-shift keying) at a low symbol r
ate, maintaining total data rates similar to conventional single-carrier modulat
ion schemes in the same bandwidth.OFDM has developed into a popular scheme for w
ideband digital communication, whetherwireless or over copper wires, used in app
lications such as digital television and audio broadcasting, wireless networking
and broadband internet access. The primary advantage of OFDM over single-carrie
r schemes is its ability to cope with severe channel conditions (for example, at
tenuation of high frequencies in a long copper wire, narrowband interference and
frequency-selective fading due to multipath) without complex equalization lters.
Channel equalization is simplied because OFDM may be viewed as using many slowly
-modulated narrowband signals rather than one rapidly-modulated wideband signal.
The low symbol rate makes the use of a guard interval between symbols ardable,
making it possible to handle time-spreading and eliminate intersymbol interferen
ce (ISI). This mechanism also facilitates the design of single frequency network
s (SFNs), where several adjacent transmitters send the same signal simultaneousl
y at the same frequency, as the signals from multiple distant transmitters may b
e combined constructively, rather than interfering as would typically occur in a
traditional single-carrier system.
8.1.1 Key features
The advantages and disadvantages listed below are further discussed in the Chara
cteristics and principles of operation section below. Advantages * Can easily ad
apt to severe channel conditions without complex time-domain equalization.
Chapter 8.
Key 4G Technologies
20
Figure 8.1: OFDMA * Robust against narrow-band co-channel interference. * Robust
against intersymbol interference (ISI) and fading caused by multipath propagati
on. * High spectral eciency as compared to conventional modulation schemes, sprea
d spectrum, etc. * Ecient implementation using Fast Fourier Transform (FFT). * Lo
w sensitivity to time synchronization errors. * Tuned sub-channel receiver lters
are not required (unlike conventional FDM). * Facilitates single frequency netwo
rks (SFNs); i.e., transmitter macrodiversity Disadvantages * Sensitive to Dopple
r shift. * Sensitive to frequency synchronization problems. * High peak-to-avera
ge-power ratio (PAPR), requiring linear transmitter circuitry, which suers from p
oor power eciency. * Loss of eciency caused by cyclic prex/guard interval.
8.1.2 Idealized system model
This section describes a simple idealized OFDM system model suitable for a timei
nvariant AWGN channel.
Chapter 8.
Key 4G Technologies
21
An OFDM carrier signal is the sum of a number of orthogonal sub-carriers, with b
aseband data on each sub-carrier being independently modulated commonly using so
me type of quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM) or phase-shift keying (PSK). Th
is composite baseband signal is typically used to modulate a main RF carrier, is
a serial stream of binary digits. By inverse multiplexing, these are rst demulti
plexed into parallel streams, and each one mapped to a (possibly complex) symbol
stream using some modulation constellation (QAM, PSK, etc.). Note that the cons
tellations may be dierent, so some streams may carry a higher bit-rate than other
s. An inverse FFT is computed on each set of symbols, giving a set of complex ti
medomain samples. These samples are then quadrature -mixed to passband in the st
andard way. The real and imaginary components are rst converted to the analogue d
omain using digital-to-analogue converters (DACs); the analogue signals are then
used to modulate cosine and sine waves at the carrier frequency, , respectively
. These signals are then summed to give the transmission signal.
Figure 8.2: Transmission
Chapter 8.
Key 4G Technologies
22
Figure 8.3: Reception The receiver picks up the signal , which is then quadratur
e-mixed down to baseband using cosine and sine waves at the carrier frequency. T
his also creates signals centered on , so low-pass lters are used to reject these
. The baseband signals are then sampled and digitized using analogue-to-digital
converters (ADCs), and a forward FFT is used to convert back to the frequency do
main. This returns parallel streams, each of which is converted to a binary stre
am using an appropriate symbol detector. These streams are then re-combined into
a serial stream, , which is an estimate of the original binary stream at the tr
ansmitter.
8.1.3 Orthogonal frequency division multiple access
Orthogonal Frequency-Division Multiple Access (OFDMA) is a multi-user version of
the popularOrthogonal frequency-division multiplexing (OFDM) digital modulation
scheme. Multiple access is achieved in OFDMA by assigning subsets of subcarrier
s to individual users as shown in the illustration below. This allows simultaneo
us low data rate
Chapter 8.
Key 4G Technologies
23
Figure 8.4: OFDM transmission from several users. USES * IEEE 802.16 Wireless ma
n std(WIMAX) * IEEE 802.20 Mobile man std(WBMA) * 3GPP Long Term Evolution * 3GP
P2 Ultra Mobile Broadband(UMB) * IEEE 802.22(WRAN)Wireless regional area network
8.2
SOFTWARE DEFINED RADIO
Software Dened Radio (SDR) benets from today's high processing power to develop mu
lti-band, multi-standard base stations and terminals. Although in future the ter
minals will adapt the air interface to the available radio access technology, at
present this is done by the infrastructure. Several infrastructure gains are ex
pected from SDR. For
Chapter 8.
Key 4G Technologies
24
example, to increase network capacity at a specic time (e.g. during a sports even
t),an operator will recongure its network adding several modems at a given Base T
ransceiver Station (BTS). SDR makes this reconguration easy. In the context of 4G
systems, SDR will become an enabler for the aggregation of multi-standard pico/
micro cells. For a manufacturer, this can be a powerful aid to providing multi-s
tandard, multi-band equipment with reduced development ert and costs through sim
ultaneous multi-channel processing. Hardwares used in radio communication system
replaced by means of software on computer or Embedded computing devices. SDR co
nsist of a personal computer equipped with a sound card or ADC, preceded by some
RF front end. SDR used to produce radio which can interchange widely dierent rad
io protocols. Used in military and cell phone services
8.2.1 Operating principle
* The ideal receiver scheme would be to attach an analog-to-digital converter to
an antenna. * A digital signal processor would read the converter, and then its
software would transform the stream of data from the converter to any other for
m the application requires * Transmitter contains a digital signal processor wou
ld generate a stream of numbers. * These would be sent to a digital-to-analog co
nverter connected to a radio antenna. In the long term, software-dened radios are
expected by proponents like the SDRForum (now The Wireless Innovation Forum) to
become the dominant technology in radio communications. SDRs, along with softwa
re dened antennas are the enablers of the cognitive radio.
8.3
MULTIPLE-INPUT MULTIPLE-OUTPUT
MIMO uses signal multiplexing between multiple transmitting antennas (space mult
iplex) and time or frequency. It is well suited to OFDM, as it is possible to pr
ocess independent time symbols as soon as the OFDM waveform is correctly designe
d for the
Chapter 8.
Key 4G Technologies
25
Figure 8.5: SDR channel. This aspect of OFDM greatly simplies processing. The sig
nal transmitted by m antennas is received by n antennas. Processing of the recei
ved signals may deliver several performance improvements: range, quality of rece
ived signal and Spectrum eciency. In principle, MIMO is more ecient when many mult
iple path signals are received. The performance in cellular deployments is still
subject to research and simulations. However, it is generally admitted that the
gain in spectrum eciency is directly related to the minimum number of antennas i
n the link.
8.3.1 Types
PRECODING * Precoding is multi-stream beamforming. * In beamforming, the same si
gnal is emitted from each of the transmit antennas with appropriate phase weight
ing such that the signal power is maximized at the receiver input.
Chapter 8.
Key 4G Technologies
26
DIVERSITY CODING * Diversity Coding techniques are used when there is no channel
knowledge at the transmitter * In diversity methods, a single stream is transmi
tted, but the signal is coded using techniques called space-time coding. * Diver
sity coding exploits the independent fading in the multiple antenna links to enh
ance signal diversity SPECTRAL MULTIPLEXING * A high rate signal is split into m
ultiple lower rate streams and each stream is transmitted from a dierent transmit
antenna in the same frequency channel. * signals arrive at the receiver antenna
array with suciently dierent spatial signatures * The receiver can separate these
streams into parallel channels. Spatial multiplexing is a very powerful techniq
ue for increasing channel capacity at higher signal-to-noise ratios (SNR). * The
maximum number of spatial streams is limited by the lesser in the number of ant
ennas at the transmitter or receiver.
8.4
HANDOVER AND MOBILITY
Handover technologies based on mobileIP technology have been considered for data
and voice. Mobile IP techniques are slow but can be accelerated with classical
methods (Hierarchical, fast mobile IP). These methods are applicable to data and
probably also voice. In single-frequency networks, it is necessary to reconside
r the handover methods. Several techniques can be used when the carrier to inter
ference ratio is negative (e.g. VSFOFDM,bit repetition), but the drawback of the
se techniques is capacity. In OFDM, the same alternative exists as in CDMA, whic
h is to use macro-diversity. In the case of OFDM, MIMO allows macro-diversity pr
ocessing with performance gains. However, the implementation of macro-diversity
implies that MIMO Processing is centralized and
Chapter 8.
Key 4G Technologies
27
Figure 8.6: Dierent Systems transmissions are synchronous. This is not as complex
as in CDMA, but such a technique should only be used in situations where spectr
um is very scarce
Chapter 8.
Key 4G Technologies
28
Figure 8.7: MIMO Communications
Chapter 9 Quality Of Service
* Trac generated by the dierent services will not only increase trac loads on the n
etworks, but will also require dierent quality of service (QoS) requirements (e.g
.,cell loss rate, delay, and jitter) for dierent streams (e.g., video, voice, dat
a). * Providing QoS guarantees in 4G networks is a non-trivial issue where both
QoS signaling across dierent networks and service dierentiation between mobile ows
will have to be addressed. * One of the most dicult problems that are to be solve
d, when it comes to IP mobility, is how to insure the constant QoS level during
the handover. * Depending on whether the new access router is in the same or som
e other sub network, we recognize the horizontal and vertical handover. * Howeve
r, the mobile terminal cannot receive IP packets while the process of handover i
s nished. This time is called the handover latency. * Handover latency has a grea
t inuence on the ow of multimedia applications in realtime. * Mobile IPv6 have bee
n proposed to reduce the handover latency and the number of * lost packets. * Th
e eld "Trac Class" and "Flow Label" in IPv6 eader enables the routers to * secure
the special QoS for specic packet series with marked priority.
29
Chapter 10 Security
* The heterogeneity of wireless networks complicates the security issue. * Dynam
ic recongurable, adaptive, and lightweight security mechanisms should be develope
d. * Security in wireless networks mainly involves authentication, condentiality,
integrity, and authorization for the access of network connectivity and QoS res
ources for the mobile nodes ow. * AAA (Authentication Authorization Auditing) pro
tocols provide a framework for such suered especially for control plane functions
and installing security policies in the mobile node such as encryption, decrypt
ion and ltering.
30
Chapter 11 Applications
1. VIRTUAL PRESENCE: This means that 4G provides user services at all times, eve
n if the user is o-site. 2. VIRTUAL NAVIGATION: 4G provides users with virtual na
vigation through which a user can access a database of the streets, buildings et
c. 3.TELE-GEOPROCESSING APPLICATIONS: This is a combination of GIS(Geographical
Information System) and GPS (Global Positioning System) in which a user can get
the location by querying. 4.TELE MEDICINE AND EDUCATION: 4G will support remote
health monitoring of patients. For people who are interested in life long educat
ion, 4G provides a good opportunity. 5.CRISIS MANAGEMENT: Natural disasters can
cause break down in communication systems. In today's world it might take days o
r 7 weeks to restore the system. But in 4G it is expected to restore such crisis
issues in a few hours. 6.MULTIMEDIA VIDEO SERVICES * 4G wireless systems are ex
pected to deliver ecient multimedia services at very high data rates. * Basically
there are two types of video services: bursting and streaming video services. *
Streaming is performed when a user requires real-time video services, in which
the 31
Chapter 11.
Applications
32
server delivers data continuously at a playback rate. *Bursting is basically le d
ownloading using a buer and this is done at the highest data rate taking advantag
e of the whole available bandwidth.
Chapter 12 Conclusion
As the history of mobile communications shows,attempts have been made to reduce
a number of technologies to a single global standard. Projected 4G systems oer th
is promise of a standard that can be embraced worldwide through its key concept
of integration. Future wireless networks will need to support diverse IP multime
dia applications to allow sharing of resources among multiple users. There must
be a low complexity of implementation and an ecient means of negotiation between
the end users and the wireless infrastructure. The fourth generation promises to
fulll the goal of PCC (personal computing and communication)-a vision that ardab
ly provides high data rates everywhere over a wireless network.
33
Chapter 13 References
* IEEE802.16-2004 * www.4g.co.uk * www.uscwc.com/4GReport * www.four-g.net * htt
p://en.wikipedia.org/wiki
34