Bio 170

LO3
Skeletal system
Chapter 6

1. Describe what are anatomically included as parts of the skeletal system.

 Skeletal System
o is composed of bones, cartilage, and ligaments
o Cartilage
 Forerunner of the most bones in embryonic development
 Forms a growth zone in the bones of children
 Covers many joint surfaces in the mature skeleton
o Ligaments
 Collagenous bands that hold bones together at the joints
o Tendons
 Structurally similar to ligaments; attach muscle to bone
o Bone Marrow
 Soft bloody or fatty material enclosed in the bones
2. What are the bone classifications based on shape? Give an example of each.
 Long Bones
o Specialized for leverage and movement
o The elongated midsection is called the shaft or Diaphysis
o Each of the expanded end is called the head or Epiphysis
o The ends where two bones meet are covered in a thin layer of hyaline cartilage called
the articular cartilage
 Eases joint movements
o Each head and nearby region of the shaft contains spongy bone
o Bone marrow occupies the medullary cavity of the shaft and the spaces in the
spongy bone of the head
o Epiphyseal lines of an adult bone mark the former growth zones of a child’s bone
 ex. bones in the lower limbs (the tibia, fibula, femur, metatarsals, and
phalanges) and bones in the upper limbs (the humerus, radius, ulna,
metacarpals, and phalanges).
 Flat bones
o Act as protective armor-like places covering delicate organs beneath
 eg. Sternum anterior to the heart and the cranial bones enclosing the brain
o Two layers of compact bones enclose a middle layer of spongy bone like a sandwich
 Short bones
o E.g., wrist bones
 Irregular bones
o E.g., vertebrae
3. Identify and describe the anatomical structure/features of a long bone.
 Long bones
o Specialized for leverage and movement
o The elongated midsection is called the shaft or Diaphysis
 o Each of the expanded end is called the head or Epiphysis
o The ends where two bones meet are covered in a thin layer of hyaline cartilage called
the articular cartilage
 Eases joint movements
o Each head and nearby region of the shaft contains spongy bone
o Bone marrow occupies the medullary cavity of the shaft and the spaces in the
spongy bone of the head
o Epiphyseal lines of an adult bone mark the former growth zones of a child’s bone
o Articular cartilage
 Hyaline cartilage covering the ends where bones meet
 Eases joint movements
o Medullary cavity
 Long cavity inside diaphysis
 Contains bone marrow
o Epiphyseal lines
 In adults; mark former growth zones
4. Identify and describe the major functions of the skeletal system
 Support
o Bones of limbs and vertebral column support body
o Mandible and maxilla support teeth
o Some viscera are supported by bones
 Protection
o Of brain, spinal cord, lungs, heart, and pelvic viscera
 Movement
o Provide attachment and leverage for muscles
o Allow for limb movement and breathing (ventilation)
 Blood formation
o Bones are the major producer of blood cells (Red Bone Marrow Major Producer of
Red Blood Cells)
 Storage
o Body’s main reservoir of calcium and phosphorus; they are released when needed
for other functions
o Fatty Bone marrow (yellow) is a reserve of stored fuel
5. What are the major cell types found in bone tissue and how do they differ in function?
 Osteogenic cells (GENIC = Stem Cells)
o Occur on bone surface
o Stem cells that give rise to osteoblasts
o The only bone cells capable of dividing and making more bone cells
 Osteoblasts
o Lie in single layer on bone surface
o Synthesize organic matter of bone and deposit matrix, so have an abundance of
mitochondria (atp) and rough endoplasmic reticulum (protein synthesis)
 Osteocytes
o Former osteoblasts that became trapped in deposited matrix
 o Reside in cavities called lacunae, which are connected by channels called canaliculi
 Processes of osteocytes reach into canaliculi and meet processes of other
osteocytes
 Osteocytes pass nutrients, wastes, and signals to each other through gap
junctions here
 Osteoclasts
o Bone-dissolving cells that develops from a separate line of bone marrow stem cells
o Large, with multiple nuclei (fusion of many stem cells)
o Lie on pits on bone surface like osteoblasts
o Have unusual comb-like row of infoldings of plasma membrane called a ruffled
border on the side facing bone
 Secrete hydrochloric acid and enzymes here (in order to make from compact
to spongy)
6. Where in the bone are blood cells produced?
 Red Bone Marrow
o Serves to produce blood cells and platelets
o Fills nearly every bone of a child’s skeleton, but has a more limited distribution in
adults
o It is an organ itself, but consists of a soft and structured network of delicate blood
vessels surrounded by reticular tissues and blood forming cells
7. Briefly describe the 5 steps in endochondral ossification.
o Endochondral Ossification
o Produces most of the bones of the body
 1. The forerunner of the future bones is a body of hyaline cartilage that
approximates its shape (Starts with a hyaline cartilage model that
approximates the shape of the future bone)
 2. In a primary ossification center near the middle of this cartilage
 Chondrocytes begin to inflate and die, while the thin walls between
them calcify
 Osteoblasts of the perichondrium deposit a thin layer of bone around
cartilage model, form a collar that reinforces the shaft of the future
bone
 Fibrous sheath considered to be periosteum
 3. Blood vessels grow inward from the periosteum and invade the
ossification center
 stem cells arrive with this blood and differentiates into osteoclasts and
digests calcified tissue in the shaft, creating medullary cavity
(primary marrow)
 about this time, secondary ossification center develops at one end of
the bone, resembling the primary ossification center
 4. By the time of a child’s birth, secondary ossification center created a
secondary marrow cavity at that end, and another ossification center begun to
appear at the other end of the bone
 5. Throughout childhood and adolescence, primary and secondary marrow
cavities separated by epiphyseal plate
  consist of middle later hyaline cartilage bordered by a zone of
transition from cartilage to bone
 it is basically the growth zone
 the plate functions as a growth zone, enabling the individual to grow
in limb length and height
 6. By late teens to early twenties, the reserve cartilage in the epiphyseal plate
is depleted and primary and secondary marrow cavities unite into a single
medullary cavity
 bones can no longer grow because one reaches her or his maximum
height already
 remnants of the original cartilage model is the articular cartilage that
cover the joint surfaces of the bone
8. Describe what happens to bones as the calcium levels fluctuate in the blood.
o Mineral Homeostasis (Calcium)
o Mineral deposition by osteoblasts
 They extract calcium phosphate from blood and deposit them in osseous
tissue with the help of hormone (Calcitonin)
o Mineral resorption by osteoclasts
 Process in which osteoblasts dissolve bone and release minerals into blood
and making them available for other uses
 Requires critical balance between resorption and deposition; can cause bone
abnormalities if either is unbalanced (PTH)
 Hypocalcemia
o Calcium deficiency
o Causes muscle tremors, inability of muscle to relax; life-
threatening
 Hypercalcemia
o Excess calcium
o Depresses nervous, muscular, and cardiac function
o Calcitriol (calcitonin)
 Most active form of Vitamin D
 Raises blood calcium by promoting calcium absorption from digested food,
reducing urinary loss of calcium, and stimulating osteoclasts to release
calcium from the bones to the blood
o Parathyroid Hormone (PTH)
 Secreted by the parathyroid glands and responds when blood calcium drops
(PTH secreted when there’s a drop in blood Ca level)
 PTH stimulates bone resorption by osteoclasts, promotes calcium
reabsorption by the kidneys, and promotes calcitriol synthesis.
9. Be able to identify the following bones: frontal bone, maxilla, mandible, occipital,
temporal, humerus, clavicle, radius, ulna, scapula, femur, tibia, fibula, carpals, metacarpals,
tarsals, metatarsals, axis, atlas. Where are they
located?

10. What is the difference between compact and spongy bone?

 Compact Bones
o Forms outer shell that surrounds the spongy bone
o Prevents bone marrow from seeping (leak) out and provides solid attachment
surfaces for muscles, tendons and ligaments
o At the surfaces of the bone, it is organized in parallel layers like plywood, laid down
by surface osteoblasts
o Deeper in the bone, it is organized in cylindrical units (osteons)
 Spongy Bones
o Consists of porous lattice of slender rods and plates called trabeculae
o Calcified and hard, but it has a sponge-like appearance (permeated by tiny spaces)
 These places are filled with bone marrow and small blood vessels
o Design to impart strength to a bone without adding too much weight
11. How many vertebrae are in each section of the spine?
 Flexible chain of 33 vertebrae and 23 cartilaginous invertebral discs
o 7 cervical vertebrae in the neck
o 12 thoracic vertebrae in the chest
o 5 lumbar vertebrae in the lower back
o 5 sacral vertebrae at the base of the spine
o 4 tiny coccygeal vertebrae
12. What are the major differences in the structures of the 3 different types of vertebrae?
 Cervical Vertebrae (C1-C7)
o Smallest and lightest
o C1 (Atlas) and C2 (axis) have unique structures that allows for head movements
 o C1 is called the atlas; it supports the head
 When you nod head “yes”, the occipital condyles rock back and forth on
these facets
o C2 is called the axis
 Allows rotation of the head as in gesturing “no”
 Prominent knob called the dens
 First vertebra that exhibits a spinous process
 Thoracic Vertebrae (T1-T12)
o Support the ribs
o Relatively pointed spinous processes that angle sharply downward, and they exhibit
small smooth depressions for attachment of the ribs
o Depressions for rib attachment
 Include slightly concave spots called costal facets on the body of each
vertebra
 Include a transverse costal facet at the ends of each transverse process of
Vertebrae T1-T10
 T1 and T10-T12 have complete costal facets on the bodies
 Lumbar Thoracic (L1-L5)
o Thick, stout body and a blunt, squarish spinous process
o Superior articular processes face medially, and the inferior process face laterally,
toward the superior processes of the next vertebra
 this arrangement enables the lumbar region of the spin to resist twisting
13. What is the difference between red and yellow bone marrow?
 Red Bone Marrow
o Serves to produce blood cells and platelets
o Fills nearly every bone of a child’s skeleton, but has a more limited distribution in
adults
o It is an organ itself, but consists of a soft and structured network of delicate blood
vessels surrounded by reticular tissues and blood forming cells
 Yellow Bone Marrow
o As we mature, most of the red bone marrow is gradually replaced by fatty yellow
bone marrow
o Contains fat
o Yellow bone marrow dominates the long limb bones of the adult
14. What is the difference between the epiphyseal line and epiphyseal plate?
 Epiphyseal plate
o Is a plate of hyaline cartilage found in children and adolescents, located in the
metaphysis at the ends of each longbone
o To separate the primary and secondary marrow cavities (ossification process)
 Epiphyseal line
o In adults, the epiphyseal plate is replaced with the epiphyseal line and marks the
point of union were the epiphysis meets the diaphysis (basically, epiphyseal line are
former growth zones)
15. Name the major differences between the male and female pelvis.
o Male Pelvis
 o Average male pelvis is more robust (heavier and thicker) than the female’s
o Female Pelvis (flexible)
o Female pelvis is adapted to the needs of pregnancy and childbirth
o It is wider and shallower
o Has larger rounder pelvic inlet and outlet for passage of the infant
16. What are the differences between true, false, and floating ribs?
o Ribs
o 12 pairs of ribs
o each attaches posteriorly to the vertebral column
 except the last two arch around the flank of the chest and attach by way of a
cartilaginous strip (costal cartilage) to the sternum
o most of the ribs are curved, flattened blades, squared off at the distal ends (where
costal cartilages begin)
o broad surfaces of the blades oriented vertically
o True Ribs (bone to bone)
 Ribs 1 to 7
 Ribs 1 is a horizontal plate
 Each has its own costal cartilage
o False Ribs (bones connected into one line, and connected into one bone)
 Ribs 8-12
 Ribs 8-10 attach to the costal cartilage of rib 7
 Ribs 11 and 12 have no costal cartilages at all
o Floating Ribs (nothing binds with it)
 Ribs 11-12
 Only articulate with the vertebral bodies only
 Are pointed at the distal ends
 Part of the false ribs as Ribs 11-12 are also called floating ribs
 Because for lack of any connection to the sternum
17. What are the major health conditions associated with the skeletal system?
o Fractures
o When bone fractures it bleeds and the blood clot becomes infiltrated with fibroblasts,
macrophages, osteoclasts, and osteogenic cells, which all clean up the tissue
fragments and begin repair process
 First, a fracture hematoma forms from the broken blood vessels
 Deposition of collagen and fibrocartilage turns the hematoma into a soft
callus
 4-6 weeks osteoblasts deposit calcified tissue (a hard callus), around the soft
callus to splint the broke bone pieces together
 Hard callus persists 3-4 months, osteoclasts dissolve and remove the
remaining fragments of broken bone
 osteoblasts build spongy bone then fills in by intramembranous
ossification to solidify the repair
o Closed reduction
 Requires no surgery, but uses cast to limit movement on the healing bones
o Open reduction
  More serious fractures may require it
 Bone pieces are surgically exposed and joined by plates, screws or pins
(requires surgery)
o Stress fracture
 Fracture results from an unusual stress on a bone, such as a fall or an accident
o Pathological fracture
 When a bone has been weakened by some other condition (diseases) and it
fractures under a stress that a healthy bone would withstand
 Ex osteoporosis and bone cancer
o Open fracture
 Any facture that breaks through the skin
o Closed fracture
 If it doesn’t break the skin
o Osteoporosis
o Most common of all bone diseases (many holes inside)
o Loss of bone tissues (especially spongy bone) to the point bone becomes unusually
porous and brittle
o Bones fracture easily
 Wrist and hip fractures are common
 Crushing compression fractures of the vertebrae
o Associated with aging and most commonly affects post-menopausal white women
 After menopause, ovaries cease to secrete estrogen, which estrogen levels
decrease; (estrogen stimulates bone deposition)
o Arthritis (inflammation in the bone)
o Osteoarthritis (OA)
 Sets in as the synovial joints contain less lubricating synovial fluid and the
articular cartilages soften and degenerate
 Articular cartilages become roughened by wear (wear down)
 Joint movements may sound like crunching or crackling sound
 Bones surfaces tend to develop spurs that grow into joint cavity, restrict
movement, and cause pain, especially in fingers, spine, hips and knees
 85% of people over 70 experience OA
o Rheumatoid arthritis
 Less common, but more often crippling
 Results from an autoimmune attack against the joint tissues (synovial
membranes)
 Begins when a misguided antibody called Rheumatoid factor attacks
the synovial membranes
 Inflammatory cells accumulate in the joint and produces enzymes that
degrade the articular cartilage
 As cartilage degenerates, joint begins to ossify
o Bones become solidly fused and immobilized which causes
ankyloses – bony fusion of joints
 Affects more women than men because it begins between age of 30 and 40
  No cure, but it is possible to slow its progression with anti-inflammatory
drugs and physical therapy
o Gouty arthritis
 Gout – accumulation of uric acid crystals in joints, especially great toe
 Uric acid irritates the articular cartilage and synovial membrane,
cause to swell, tissue generation and sometimes joint fusion
 More common in men and it is hereditary
o Rheumatism
 Broad term that includes pain in the muscles, bones and joints
 Include arthritis, bursitis, gout and many other conditions
 Doctor in this specialty is called a rheumatologist
18. What is the vertebral disc made of?
 Intervertebral disc (in between the vertebrae)
o Pad consisting of an inner gelatinous nucleus pulposus surrounded by a ring of
fibrocartilage (annulus fibrosus)
 Discs bind adjacent vertebrae together, enhance spinal flexibility, support the
weight of the body and absorb shock
 Ex. When lift a heavy weight, the discs bulge laterally (excessive
stress can cause herniated disc; condition where annulus fibrosus
cracks and the nucleus pulposus oozes out, the gel may put painful
pressure on spinal cord and spinal nerve)
19. Where are the carpals found?
 Carpals
o are found on the hand, wrist part
o In the base of the hand; allow movements of hand
o Arranged in two rows of four bones
20. What are synovial joints, and what are the 6 major types?
o Synovial Joints
o Include the most familiar and movable joints of the body, such as the shoulder,
elbow, knuckle, and hip joints
o Most structurally complex type of joint, and are the most likely to develop
uncomfortable and crippling dysfunction
o Most important joint for professionals such as physical and occupation therapists,
nurses, fitness trainers, and athletic and dance coaches
o Types of Synovial Joints
 Ball-and-socket Joints
 Occur at the shoulder and hip, where one bone has a smooth
hemispherical head that fits within a cuplike socket on the other
o Head of the humerus fits into the glenoid cavity of the scapula
o Head of the femur fits into the acetabulum of the hip bone
o The only multiaxial joints of the skeleton
 Condylar (Ellipsoid) Joints
 Have an oval convex surface on one bone that fits into a
complementary depression on the next
 o Ex., joints between the phalanges and metacarpal bones at
base of the fingers
o Biaxial joints, can move in two planes
 Fist (sagittal plane) and fingers apart (frontal plane)
 Saddle Joints
 Occur at the base of the thumb between the trapezium and metacarpal
1, and between the clavicle and sternum
o Each bone has a saddle shaped surface – concave in one
direction and convex in the other
 Biaxial joints; the thumb moves in frontal plane when
you spread fingers and in sagittal plane when you
move it as if to grasp the handle of a hammer
 Saddle joint makes the human thump able to encircle
and grasp objects (opposable)
 Plane (Gliding) Joints
 Articular surfaces are flat or only slightly concave and convex
 Occur between the wrist and ankle bones
o Adjacent bones slide over each other and have rather limited
movement (movements complex, but usually biaxial)
 Hinge Joint
 One bone has a convex surface that fits into a concave depression of
the other one
o Monaxial – like a door hinge, they can move freely on one
plane, but have very little movement
 Ex,. Elbow, knee, and interphalangeal (finger and toe
joints)
 Pivot Joints
 Monaxial joints in which a bone spins on its longitudinal axis
o Ex., joints between the first 2 vertebrae and between radius
and ulna at the elbow
o Ex., skill and atlas pivot on the axis when your shake your
head “no”, and radius spins on its axis when you rotate your
forearm
21. Describe the following movements: flexion, extension, adduction, and abduction?
o Flexion
o Decreases the joint angle (as in bending the elbow or knee)
o Less obvious in the ball and socket joints of the shoulder and hip
o Flexion of the shoulder consists:
 Raising the arm from zero position in a sagittal plane, as if to point in front of
you or toward the ceiling
 Flexion of the hip; raising the thigh, as in placing your foot on the next step
when ascending stairs
o Extension
o Straightens a joint and generally returns a body part to zero position
  Eg. Straightening the elbow or knee to move the arm or thigh back to zero
position
o Hyperextensions
 Extends a joint beyond zero position
 Eg. Raising the back of your hand as if admiring a new ring
hyperextends the wrist
 Eg. If you move your arm to a positon posterior to the shoulder, such
as reaching for something in your back pocket, you hyperextend your
shoulder
o Adduction
o Movement toward the median plane, returning the body part to zero position
o Abduction
o Movement of a body part in the frontal plane away from the midline of the body
 Eg. Raising the arm away from one side of the body stranding or standing
spread legged
 To abduct the fingers is to spread them apart
22. What conditions are associated with aging of the skeletal system?
 Osteopenia
o Bone loss that everyone will experience as they age
o Begins as early as the 30s
o Osteoblasts become less active than osteoclasts and bone deposition fails to keep
pace with the rate of resorption
o The aging of other organ systems contributes to aging of the skeleton
 As skin ages, vitamin d synthesis declines by as 75%, which means declining
levels of vitamin D
 Low levels of Vitamin D mean we absorb less calcium from our food
 Muscle mass and strength decline, the bones are subject to less stress and less
stimulated to deposit osseous tissue
 Muscles become weaker, they pull less on bones so bones thin
 Invertebral discs
o The discs become more fibrous in old age
o Have less nucleus pulposus, which they are less likely to rupture
o The degeneration however, contributes to back pain and stiff-ness as the vertebral
column becomes less flexible
 Thoracic cage
o Stiffens with age
o Costal cartilages tend to ossify (cease developing)
o Consequence: breathing becomes shallower and more laborious
 Osteoporosis
o is a gradual decrease in bone density.
 Ricketts
o is malformation of bone in adults, usually due to calcium and vitamin D deficiencies.
23. What are the functions of tendons and ligaments?
 Tendons
o Structurally similar to ligaments; attach muscle to bone
  Ligaments
o Collagenous bands that hold bones together at the joints
24. How would you distinguish between the axial and appendicular skeleton?
o Axial Skeleton (central or the main)
o Forms the central supporting axis of body
o Comprises of 80 bones
 Includes skull, vertebral column, ribs, and sternum
o Appendicular Skeleton (skeleton that can give movement to organism)
o Comprise of 126 bones
o Consists of bones of the upper and lower limbs and the pectoral and pelvic girdles
that attach the limbs to the axial skeleton

9. Be able to identify the following bones: frontal bone, maxilla, mandible, occipital, temporal,
humerus, clavicle, radius, ulna, scapula, femur, tibia, fibula, carpals, metacarpals, tarsals,
metatarsals, axis, atlas. Where are they located?
 Cervical Vertebrae (C1-C7)
o Smallest and lightest
o C1 (Atlas) and C2 (axis) have unique structures that allows for head movements
o C1 is called the atlas; it supports the head
 When you nod head “yes”, the occipital condyles rock back and forth on
these facets
o C2 is called the axis
 Allows rotation of the head as in gesturing “no”
 Prominent knob called the dens
 First vertebra that exhibits a spinous process
 Ribs
o Clavicle
o Slightly S-shaped
o Medial end articulates with manubrium
o Lateral end articulates the scapula
o Braces the shoulders
o Scapula
o Triangular plate overlying ribs 2 to 7 on upper back
 Bones in the upper limbs:
• Humerus in the arm
• Radius and ulna in the forearm
• Radius; Extends from elbow to wrist laterally, ends just proximal to base of
thumb
• Ulna; Medial bone of the forearm
• 8 carpal bones in the wrist
• In the base of the hand; allow movements of hand
• Arranged in two rows of four bones
• 5 metacarpal bones in the hand
 Bones of the lower limb:
• Femur in thigh, patella (kneecap)
• Tibia and fibula in leg
• Tibia
• On medial side of leg (between knee and ankle)
• Thick, strong bone
• Only weight-bearing bone of this region
• Fibula
• Helps stabilize the ankle; does not bear any weight
• Broader at the proximal end, the head
• 7 tarsal bones in ankle
• 5 metatarsal bones in foot
• Adapted for weight bearing and locomotion