COV ER FE ATURE

What
a Blast!
T
he mai n goal of surface-
gauging radar applications
is to obtain a complete im-
age of a surface area inside
a closed and possibly tight-
ly sealed container filled with materials
having sufficient reflectivity for high-
frequency electromagnetic waves. Ra-
dar systems are applicable where stan-
dard acoustical or optical measurement
techniques are strongly impaired due to
harsh environmental conditions—such
as extreme dust, heat, occasional heavy
humidity, and aggressive chemicals—
that occur, for example, inside a fully
operative blast furnace.

Dominik Zankl, Stefan Schuster,

Reinhard Feger, and
Andreas Stelzer

Dominik Zankl (dominik.zankl@voestalpine.com)

and Stefan Schuster (stefan.schuster2@voestalpine.com)
are with Voestalpine Stahl GmbH, Linz, Austria. Reinhard Feger
(reinhard.feger@jku.at) and Andreas Stelzer (andreas.stelzer@jku.at)
©istockphoto.com/maki_shmaki are with the Institute for Communications Engineering and
RF Systems, Johannes Kepler University, Linz, Austria.

Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/MMM.2017.2711998

Date of publication: 8 August 2017

52 1527-3342/17©2017IEEE September/October 2017

Blast Furnaces
One of the first steps in steel production is performed
by a blast furnace, so blast furnaces represent one of
the key aggregates within every integrated steel mill.
A schematic representation of such a blast furnace is
depicted in Figure 1, showing its most important parts.
Among numerous process parameters, the burden
distribution strongly influences the hot gas flow dis-
tribution inside the furnace and is, consequently, very
important for a stable blast furnace process and high-
quality productions of pig iron.
Changes to the burden distribution are executed by
a rotating chute that charges the furnace with alter-
nating layers of different materials, e.g., coke, ore, and
so forth. Figure 2 provides photos of such a burden
surface distribution for two different scenarios. The
photo in Figure 2(a) was taken inside a blast furnace
during stopped operation, and that in Figure 2(b) was
taken at an experimental assembly of the blast furnace
top—clearly, without being influenced by the harsh
environmental conditions prevailing in an operating
blast furnace. To considerably reduce operating costs
and improve the furnace’s productivity by means of
an optimized charging process, a real-time knowledge
of the full three-dimensional (3-D) burden surface dis-
tribution is necessary [1], [2]. Furthermore, there are
ongoing efforts to make blast furnace processes more
transparent and model their behavior more accurately.
Full knowledge of the burden distribution plays an
important role in meeting these goals.
Measurement Systems
Until recently, either standard tank-level radar gauges
or mechanical depth probes [3]–[5] were installed to
receive point-wise measurements only. Even if sophis-
ticated burden movement models are developed to
control the charging process [1], the lack of knowledge
of the actual burden distribution limits their practical
usefulness. Continuous monitoring of the blast fur-
nace burden surface with contact-free measurement

Blast Furnace Charging

Radar Sensor
+ Housing Rotating Chute
Blast Furnace
Top Gas Blast Furnace
Top Gas

Transmit
Signals Throat Armor
Burden
Reflected
Surface
Signals

(a)

Burden

Hot-Air Hot-Air
Blast Blast
Slag Molten
Molten Iron Slag
Iron (b)

Figure 2. Photos of a typical blast furnace burden

Figure 1. A schematic representation of a typical blast surface: (a) the burden surface during a stopped blast
furnace, showing its most important parts and the furnace operation and (b) the burden surface at an
mounting position of the developed radar sensor. The radar experimental assembly of the blast furnace top charged
beam illuminating the burden surface is indicated in blue. with sinter material.

September/October 2017 53
To considerably reduce operating
costs and improve the furnace’s
productivity by means of an
optimized charging process, a real-
time knowledge of the full 3-D burden
surface distribution is necessary.
methods in real time should improve this situation. For
example, [6]–[8] present investigations regarding the
feasibility of radar sensor systems for burden surface
monitoring. An overview of microwave technology
in the steel and metal industry is provided in [6], and
measurements at an experimental blast furnace setup
are described in [9]. Several systems based on point-
wise measurements with radar sensors are available
that are capable of measuring and monitoring the bur-
den surface height in industrial environments [8], [10]–
[13]. However, these measurement methods require a
multiradar installation, and, for these systems, burden
surface imaging is based mostly on curve-fitting, sur-
face-fitting, and interpolation algorithms applied to
the results of each individual measurement.
Different approaches for full 3-D surface monitor-
ing have already been published. One early approach
is based on a mechanical scanning of the radar beam:
IMI Critical Engineering (formerly, Zimmermann &
Jansen) introduced a radar system, which the company
called p-matriX, that uses this technology [14]. Due to
a required sensor movement after every one-dimen-
sional measurement, it takes several minutes to scan
the whole burden surface. Aggravating this situation,
the rotating chute periodically shadows parts of the
surface, which, in turn, further delays calculation of
the reconstructed surface.
In terms of the basic measurement principle, a sys-
tem comparable to the 3-D level-measurement system
p-matriX is the movable above-burden profilemeter
by Tapping Measuring Technology GmbH (TMT) [3].
This hydraulically or electrically driven profilemeter
captures the burden profile on a single line, yet still
with very high accuracy. A major drawback of this
system is that, during measurements, the blast fur-
nace’s charging process needs to be stopped because
the probe may potentially interfere with the charged
material [15]. As a consequence, the system is in opera-
tion only a few times a day.
Further burden profile models are needed to visu-
alize the burden distribution and enable an optimized
furnace charging. See, for example, [16] and [17] for pro-
filemeter measurement results within a fully operative
blast furnace and [15] for applications of the recently
introduced TMT 3-D TopScan profilemeter.
A system based on interferometric techniques has
been described in [7], [18], and [19]. In [20]–[22], we
54 September/October 2017
presented a radar sensor system that leads to higher
angular and distance resolution compared to previous
systems; image-reconstruction algorithms are shown,
and the described system survives inside a fully opera-
tive blast furnace for a long period without being direct­­ly
exposed to the hostile environment of the blast furnace.
In this article, we explain this system and the devel-
oped concept in greater detail.
Digital Beamforming, the Imaging
Principle, and MIMO
In general, an imaging radar system is tasked with ob­­­
taining estimates of 3-D target parameters consisting of
the target range r and spherical angles z, i. Allowing
full 3-D localization of targets in spherical coordinates
implies the use of multiple M Rx receive (Rx) antenna
elements, indexed with m r positioned at p Rx [m r] and
forming a planar antenna array.
In the following, the spherical angles are combined
in the unit spatial u-space direction cosine vector,
defined as
u = u (i, z) = [u x u y u z] T
= 6sin (i) cos (z) sin (i) sin (z) cos (i)@T .
The unknown target parameter vector H = [r, u T] T is
determined based on discrete-time ^n h data sets, or
noisy radar system measurements x IF 6n, m r@, for every
Rx antenna [23].
Digital Beamforming and Imaging Principle
A very popular approach for target parameter esti-
mator, often used in radar system measurements, is
the concept of single-target maximum likelihood
estimation (MLE) [23], [24]. Due to its simple pro-
cess of finding target parameter estimates, the MLE
is one of the most often used methods for practi-
cal estimators [24]. Combining the properties of the
MLE with the well-known single-target frequency-
modulated, continuous-wave (FMCW) signal model
influenced by additive white Gaussian noise (AWGN)
leads to a formulation called the least-squares (LS) prob-
lem formulation. Solving these equations results in a
parameter estimation technique using the periodo-
gram-based approach.
The resulting multidimensional, i.e., 3-D, cost func-
tion [21], [25] with digital beamforming applied to
extract angle estimates is given by
J ^r, u h = J ^H h
M Rx -1 2
e -jk w u p Rx 6mr@ / x IF 6n, m r@ e -j2r N c0 n . (1)
N -1
= 1 / T B 2r
X 144 4244 43 n = 0
= a s * ^u, p Rx 6m r@h 144444
mr = 0
4244444 43
= X RC ^ r, m r h
Also known as the delay-and-sum beamformer, (1) describes
the signal power density distribution, with the positions
of maximum power related to the target’s parameters.
Therefore, evaluating the cost function for many possible
values of r and u (i, z) (i.e., applying a sufficiently fine
grid search) allows localization of the points of maximum
power and thus estimates H t . In (1), B denotes the system
sweep bandwidth, N is the number of discrete time sam-
ples, c 0 denotes the velocity of the electromagnetic wave,
and the angular wave number is given as k w . The target
range information r can easily be calculated using a
discrete Fourier transform (DFT) of the data along the
temporal dimension n to get the range-compressed
data X RC (r, m r) for every receiver m r, followed by a
maximum search.
To find spatial estimates for the target angles con-
tained in u (i, z), all X RC (r, m r) are multiplied by the
components of the complex conjugate of the steering
vector a *s (u, p RX [m r]) for each of the M Rx Rx anten-
nas before they are summed up. This delay-and-sum
beamformer is a method often used for spatial pro-
cessing [23]. Signals coming from directions other than
the actual steering angle or looking direction u (i, z),
respectively, are suppressed. It is quite obvious that,
if the antenna elements are uniformly spaced, the 3-D
cost function (1) has the form of a 3-D DFT and thus
allows an efficient c­ alculation with a multidimensional
fast Fourier transform.
Figure 3 shows how such an antenna array system can
be used for imaging a contiguous surface by illuminat-
ing the surface with a single transmit (Tx) antenna and
forming beams to receive signals from all directions of
interest. For simplicity, the steering vectors shown here
form directions in only one
spatial dimension i i . But it
is clear that, for a full two-
dimensional (2-D) spatial scan-
ning, the steering directions
are also functions of different
azimuth angles z i . Thereafter,
pRx [MRx−1]
target scenarios, accurate solutions are obtained, and the
algorithm can be implemented in a very computationally
efficient way.
MIMO Principle
The spatial resolution capability of the periodogram (1) is
strongly dependent on the chosen antenna array design and
the number of antenna elements. Thus, the spatial resolution can
be improved by increasing the numberofantennaelementsor,
more specifically, by increas­­ing  the array’s overall aper-
ture. Clearly, for imaging radar systems, a high angular re­­
solution is desired while keeping the number of physical
antennas on the RF front end as low as possible. For the
proposed radar sensor system, a concept is used that
allows the synthesis of so-called virtual antenna posi-
tions. A virtual increase of the array can be achieved if
multiple Tx in combination with multiple Rx are used,
leading to a multiple-input, multiple-output (MIMO)
radar system [29]–[31].
Analogous to the definitions of Rx antennas, i.e.,
M Tx indexed with m t, Tx antennas are placed at positions
p Tx [m t] . According to the MIMO principle, the positions
of the associated so-called virtual antennas p V [m v] are
introduced, obtained by the sum of all combinations of
physical Rx and Tx positions. An increased number of
virtual antennas M V is achieved without adding addi-
tional physical antenna elements. Thus, the synthesized
virtual antenna array has a larger number of effective ele-
ments compared to the available physical elements and,
J (r, u)
Digital Beamforming Tx Antenna

the parameters of a point on

pRx [1]

pRx [0]

pTx [0]

the surface in a sought direc-

tion can be estimated from
the beamformer’s output sig- Rx Antenna Array
nal. This digital beamforming
configuration allows beam-
steering that is completely
Tx

performed using soft ware

[26], [27] and, thus, leads to a u(θ6, 0) u(θ0, 0)
setup with much lower hard- u(θ5, 0) u(θ1, 0)
ware effort compared to, e.g., a u(θ4, 0) u(θ , 0) u(θ2, 0)
3
phased-array technique. Even Rx
if so-called superresolution Reflection
algorithms do exist [23], [24], Burden Surface
[28] (e.g., MUSIC and ROOT),
t h e convent ional d i g i t a l
Figure 3. The imaging principle using digital beamforming with different steering
beam­­f ormer (spatial filter, directions u (i i, 0) for a set of Rx antennas and a single Tx antenna positioned at the
delay-and-sum beamformer) reference point. For simplicity the array steering directions are functions of spherical
shown here enables efficient angles i i only. For a full 2-D spatial scan of the scenario, it is clear that the antennas
estimations of the 3-D target are also steered in dependency of z i . Therefore, 3-D target parameter estimates can be
parameters. Also, for multiple calculated according to (1).

September/October 2017 55
 as a consequence, a larger antenna aperture. Because virtual positions, this is not always possible, and vir-
of additional Tx antennas, the resulting effective vir- tual antennas might overlap.
tual array factor AFV (also referred to as the array beam- A separate operation can be achieved if the Tx antennas
pattern) is equal to the multiplication of the Tx array factor are activated sequentially (i.e., activated one after the other),
AFTx with the Rx array factor AFRx according to which leads to a time-division, multiple-access (TDMA)
MIMO configuration. A TDMA approach is useful in this
AFV (Du) = AFRx (Du) ·AFTx (Du) case because the FMCW principle is unaffected, which
M Rx -1 M Tx -1
= / / e jkw Du
T
(p Rx [m r] +p Tx [m t]) would not be the case for, e.g., code-division multiplex-
mr = 0 mt = 0 ing. Further, the additional hardware effort for switching
M Rx -1 M Tx -1
= / / e jk w Du
T
p V [m r, m t]
 certain Tx antennas on and off is very low.
mr = 0 mt = 0 To keep the transmitted signals separable at reception,
M V -1
during one FMCW ramp, only one Tx element is active.
= / jk w Du T p V [m v]
e
See Figure 4(c) for the discrete time line showing the vary-
mv = 0
M V -1 ing Tx activation over time that works because of negligi-
= / e -jk w u
T
(i, z) p V [m v] jk w u T (i s, z s) p V [m v]
e , (2)
ble target movement. Due to different propagation paths,
mv = 0
an illumination of the target scenario with distributed Tx
where Du = u (i s, z s) - u (i, z) denotes the u-space devia- antenna positions provides additional information about
tion between the array steering direction (or main beam the scenario. Because the virtual MIMO array inherits the
direction) u x, s, u y, s and the arbitrary discrete values of properties of parameter estimates and classical array
the direction cosines, i.e., the directions u (i, z) of poten- design, pre­­viously developed frameworks can be reused
tial signals impinging onto the array. with minor changes, according to the synthesized array.
Figure  4 shows a graphical interpretation of the It should be noted that the properties are kept un­­
proposed MIMO concept. Depending on the asso- changed as long as the signals coming from different
ciated activated Tx antenna, any resulting virtual Tx antennas can be distinguished at reception. Thus,
antenna combination is plotted in a different color and the information from each Rx and Tx combination can be
in accordance to the given Tx activation table. The simple clearly separated. Several different optimization tech-
example depicted in Figure 4 is designed in such a way niques to find potential candidates for the antenna array
that the maximum number of unique virtual antenna positions are presented the literature, e.g., statistically
positions is achieved. While it is preferable to gener- designed arrays, exhaustive-search algorithms, and
ate a MIMO array with a maximum number of unique numerical-optimization techniques [32]–[35], among

20 20

15 15
Tx4
2dy
y Position (mm)

y Position (mm)

10 10
Tx3
5 Rx 5
Tx2
dy

0 0
dx Tx1
dx
Tx1
Tx2
Tx3
Tx4

2
–5 –5

–10 –10
–30 –25 –20 –15 –10 –5 0 –30 –25 –20 –15 –10 –5 0
x Position (mm) x Position (mm)
(a) (b)

Tx1 Tx2 Tx3 Tx4

n′
0 N−1 N 2N−1 2N 3N−1 3N 4N−1

n = 0: N−1 n = 0: N−1 n = 0: N−1 n = 0: N−1

(c)

Figure 4. The MIMO array configuration and its corresponding virtual antenna array: (a) the physical antenna
placement with a 16-element Rx array (marked with purple crosses, p Rx [m r]) and four Tx antennas positioned along
a line (marked with different colored circles, p Tx [m t]) and (b) the corresponding synthesized virtual antenna array
(p V [m r, m t] = p V [m v] = p Rx [m r] + p Tx [m t]) . Different colors in the virtual antenna array show the actual activated Tx
channel, and (c) the discrete time line shows the sequential Tx activation.

56 September/October 2017
others. However, no solution is known that guarantees an
optimal result.
While these methods give answers concerning grating
lobes, no further investigations related to the sensitivity to
measurement noise and the presence of multiple targets
are given. Furthermore, none of the methods provide a
specific design rule, and the array design process for large
arrays mostly ends with the use of a genetic algorithm.
Even more important in the case of a real-world
system, the optimization procedure is further compli-
cated by restrictions regarding the size and placement
of the RF components and transmission lines. For this
optimization problem, a beampattern and burden sur-
face simulator was written in MATLAB, providing an
optimized physical antenna placement and also taking
into account manufacturing constraints together with
all derived parameters (such as antenna positions).
In the case of blast furnace simulations, the statistics
of the outcomes of the simulator and the simulation
parameters, respectively, are matched to real-world
measurement data to get as realistic results as pos-
sible. Different array designs can be investigated and
evaluated with respect to their beampattern (2), range
of unambiguousness, resolution, and the number of
required Tx/Rx channels. In this way, a suitable array
arrangement can be found and realized, fulfilling all
constraints and requirements and performing with the
desired measurement accuracy defined for this work.
Signal Processing and Surface Reconstruction
Supporting Points Detection
At a first glance, further signal-processing algorithms
for image calculations may consist of a thresholding
and local maxima search of the beamformer’s output
cost function (1) to obtain points of target reflections
and, thus, discrete supporting points for an image
reconstruction. Figure 5 shows a basic flowchart of all
calculation steps, from measured or simulated data
sets to the visualization and offline analysis of recon-
structed blast furnace burden surfaces.
Thresholding
Thresholding is considered the simplest form of image
segmentation involving separation into regions. The most
obvious common property that certain image pixels in
a region share is, in fact, pixel intensity; thus, segmentation
of regions is performed through thresholding [36], [37].
The choice of a global threshold value is crucial for
accurate surface reconstructions. When a global thresh-
old value is set too low, outliers occur. Local maxima
from spurious peaks are detected that are far away
from the real target parameters. Setting a threshold too
high, on the other hand, may lead to the nondetectabil-
ity of supporting points and thus the loss of parts of the
illuminated region. In general, the threshold value to
be set depends on the system’s signal-to-noise ratio, the
September/October 2017 57
For the optimization problem,
a beampattern and burden surface
simulator was written in MATLAB,
providing an optimized physical
antenna placement and also
taking into account manufacturing
constraints together with all
derived parameters.
array’s sidelobe level (SLL), the quality of system cali-
bration, and so forth and can be found by evaluating
the histogram of the received signals.
However, a global threshold for a local maxima
search in the periodogram suffers from several dis-
advantages. First, the intensity is not equal over the
whole surface. The outcome of the beamformer is dete-
riorated by imperfections (such as measurement noise
and nonperfect calibration), and changes in the illumi-
nation across the scenario can lead to omitted pixels
within a certain region. Changes occur depending on
the target range, the target scenario, and the array’s
beampattern magnitude for different target angles,
speckle effects, and so forth. Furthermore, only the
intensity of the scene is considered. No relationship
among the pixels is assumed; however, for contiguous
surfaces, it is recognized that each pixel must have a
support in the image. Thus, simple global thresholding
and local maxima searching together with smooth-
ing may not be sufficient to obtain good image qual-
ity. To improve the image quality, i.e., to considerably
increase the dynamic range of the imaging system,
we must refrain from simple thresholding and use
advanced processing methods instead.
Rather than thresholding the whole image with the
same level, different versions of mixed thresholding,
or adaptive/local varying thresholds, can be used to,
at least partly, overcome the global thresholding prob-
lem. For example, adaptive thresholding methods
introduce relative thresholds related to the maximum
amplitude of the signal in each range bin. Based on
an iterative process, the 3-D cost function (1) is evalu-
ated at each range bin independently. With respect to
the actual maximum of (1), the actual threshold value
is defined and valid only for the actual range bin. A
local maxima search of the thresholded cost function
provides 3-D target positions/parameters that are fur-
ther processed within a clustering algorithm.
CLEAN and Clustering Algorithms
Another possible method is to implement the classical
CLEAN algorithm, published by Högbom in [38], with
some modifications tailored to the problem at hand to
make the surface reconstruction more robust [21]. This
 J k+1 (ri, u)

Clusters p
System

xIF[n, mv]
Measurements
J (r, u)
Calculate Maximum Clean and
Beamformer Search Clustering

Densely
Simulated
Surface Points − 10 dB

0.20
0.15 0.6
0.10 0.4

Voltage (V)
0.05 0.2

uy (1)
0.00 0.0
Tx

–0.05 –0.2
Reflection

–0.10 –0.4
–0.15 –0.6
–0.20 8.5
Rx

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 7.5

–0.6
6.5

–0.4
–0.2
0.0
5.5

0.2
Time (ms)

0.4
0.6
ux (1) Range (m)
x, y, z

Delete Points xyz– Q

Θ Offline
Smoother Visualization
Outside Area Transform Analysis

− 10 dB
5.2
5.0
3.5
4.0 4.8
z (m)

4.5
5.0

Depth (m)
3 3.5 4.6
5.5
–3 –2 12
–10 4.0
z (m)

–1 0 –2 y (m) 4.5 4.4

x (m) 1 2 –3
3 5.0 3 4.2
3.5 5.5 2
4.0 –3 1 4.0
–2
z (m)

4.5 –1 0 y (m)
0 –1
5.0 1 –2 3.8
5.5 x (m) 2 –3
–3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 3
y (m)

Figure 5. A flowchart of the blast furnace measurement or simulation procedure used in this work. The chart essentially
shows the calculation steps involved, with several intermediate results of the progress.

variant of the CLEAN algorithm leads to reduced SLL identified are suitably scaled with the array’s radia-
in the angular domain and, in turn, to a reduced num- tion pattern and the loop gain and then further sub-
ber of outlying supporting points compared to a calcu- tracted from the cost function to receive the residual
lation using the standard beamformer approach with image. This implies that, within the current iteration
thresholding and a local maxima search. Furthermore, step, not only the main peak but also all the sidelobe
a CLEAN algorithm enables the use of clustering meth- responses of this “largest” target are eliminated
ods, in which similar position estimation results are due to the radiation pattern of the antenna array.
grouped into clusters. Thus, much weaker targets previously submerged
Generally speaking, applying a CLEAN algorithm is in the sidelobes are exposed. To prevent detection of
an iterative beam-removing process. Within every loop spurious peaks, the algorithms and peak parameters
pass, the maximum amplitude(s) of point source(s) must meet specified requirements, with values chosen

58 September/October 2017
carefully and fitted to the problem. The amplitude,
phase, and position of a detected target are stored
and will be classified in a clustering algorithm after-
ward. A technique of target clustering combines sev-
eral peaks within the same cluster to be represented
by a single target located at the center of gravity of the
targets associated to a cluster. This averaging process
increases the robustness against outlying or falsely
identified targets.
Irrespective of the algorithm used, whether adap-
tive thresholding or CLEAN and clustering, the
result of a supporting point detection is a collec-
tion of discrete points of reconstructed dominant
sources. The computational burden for these algo-
rithms strongly depends on the defined parameter
and stopping criteria. Thus, a compromise between
performance and computational complexity must
be found. However, because parts of the algorithms
can be treated individually, the iteration processes
involved can be well parallelized, leading to com-
putationally fast implementations.
Surface Reconstruction
A surface reconstruction (or smoother) performs the
final step in the signal-processing chain and can be
executed irrespective of the supporting point-detec-
tion algorithm used. Based on the discrete scatter-
ing supporting points, an algorithm that recovers an
approximation of the unknown material distribution
inside a blast furnace must be derived. This recon-
struction process efficiently solves a so-called inverse
problem, with the number of unknowns being greater
than the number of measurements. For this type of
application, a discrete, finite dimensional problem is
particularly suitable. For further information, [39] and
[40] provide an excellent overview of discrete recon-
struction problems.
Simplifying the Algorithm Implementation
Further knowledge regarding the target scenario sim-
plifies the implementation of an algorithm a bit. In
particular, a surface of bulk material, i.e., a burden
surface, is smooth (twice differentiable) and, thus,
free of discontinuities; and the gradient of the surface
is limited by the dump angle, which is well docu-
mented in the literature for different materials. Also,
the extent of the surface is limited in two dimensions
by the blast furnace’s walls. Although the methods
presented in the previous section succeed in produc-
ing a set of good, reasonable supporting points, some
outlying points may remain. Detected points not
belonging to the burden surface (for example, points
with coordinates outside the blast furnace or with
range information that does not meet the specified
parameters) are simply ignored for further calcula-
tions. These points do not make any meaningful con-
tribution to the surface estimation, and their existence
September/October 2017 59
Rather than thresholding the whole
image with the same level, different
versions of mixed thresholding, or
adaptive/local varying thresholds, can
be used to, at least partly, overcome
the global thresholding problem.
can be explained by multipath, leakage effects, and
imperfect calibration.
Regularized LS Problem Formulation
Assume that the evaluation of the 3-D cost func-
tion results in a finite number of P power maxima,
with the corresponding z-component being results
of radar measurements. The vector of z-components
z = [z 1 z 2 ... z Nx N y] T includes P nonzero entries stem-
ming from previously obtained calculation results
mapped onto a chosen fine regular n x # n y grid, with
N x, N y being the number of grid points in the respective
dimensions. The task of a smoother is now to find solu-
tions for the vector of unknowns H = [H 1 H 2 f H Nx N y] T
for the true z-components of all n x, n y grid points.
To derive a smoother/reconstruction, the method of
linear LS is applied. Inverse problems are generally ill-
posed problems with trivial solutions leading to insuf-
ficient and useless reconstruction results. To improve
the numerical stability of solutions and receive less
sensitive approximation results, stabilization or regu-
larization methods are used.
One possible form of regularization used here is
known as Tikhonov regularization [39]. With
z = HH + w (3)
being the result of measurements disturbed by addi-
tive noise w, assumed to be AWGN with w~N (0, v 2 I),
and H being a large, sparse observation matrix, the
regularized LS cost function is given by
2
z H
J LS,reg ^H h = >0H - >mTH H , (4)
0 dC 2
where H is a sparse matrix, with P % N x N y nonzero
entries having value one on the main diagonal posi-
tions corresponding to coordinates where a dominant
source has been detected. T and C are regularization
matrices, and the positive constants m and d enable a
balance between the minimization of the individual
terms of the cost function.
Regularization terms must be chosen carefully; a
meaningful choice in the case of smooth surfaces is to use
discrete approximations to the partial derivative operator
of order one ^T h and two ^C h, respectively, on the regular
 n x n y grid (see, e.g., [39] and [40]). Setting the gradient of System Design and System Verification
J LS, reg ^H h equal to zero to find the global minimum of
the optimality criterion H t = argmin J LS,reg ^H h leads to RF Front End
H
the unique minimum norm solution of (4) as An RF front end was designed based on the theoretical
foundations and optimizations of the antenna array.
Ht = ( H T
H + m
2 T
T T + d
2 T
C C) -1
H T
z, (5) The RF front end itself consists of a single RF layer
in microstrip technology. Thus, antennas and all RF
which gives smoothed solutions for the z-components of devices are placed on the same side of the substrate
all n x, n y grid points and, thus, allows the visualization of to avoid lossy via connections between the top and
the final reconstructed blast furnace burden surface. bottom layer and keep the manufacturing costs as low
as possible. Further require-
ments include crossing-free
Segment 4 RF feed lines, compact size, and
Segment 3 RF sufficient bandwidth. In addi-
Segment 2 RF tion, space for the RF compo-

4xTX
Reference Segment 1 RF nent placement must be taken

4xTX
Clock Switches into account.
Vtune sout1

4xTX
PLL Tx All these manufacturing

4xTx
Chip ′
sout Chip sout2
fref constraints have already been
considered in the design, opti-
mization, and selection of pos-

4xRX
sLO

4xRX
Rx 4
sible antenna array geometries.

4xRX
Rx 3 Conventional patch antennas

4xRx
Rx 2 are used as array elements, and

4xRx
sIF1 sin1 Rx 1
4xRx the distribution of the RF signals
sIF2 sin2 is realized in microstrip tech-
4xRx

sIF3 Rx sin3
sIF4 f IF1
Chip sin4
nology. A conversion between
differential and single-ended
signals is performed using rat-
(a) race–based microstrip couplers
with or without tapered trans-
160 mm
mission lines.
Figure 6 shows the realized
n t1
e RF front end using commer-
Rx MMIC e gm cially available, automotive-
Se

S
gm

qualified 77-GHz RF devices.

en
t2

The frequency control circuit

is realized as a phase-locked
loop (PLL). A single Rx chip
Reference Clock

features four Rx channels

with single-ended connec-
160 mm

tions to the Rx antennas. The

output power of the three dif-
ferential outputs of the Tx chip
is freely adjustable within a
certain range. Two of the Tx
output ports are responsible
t 3 for transmitting the FMCW
en
Se
gm

g m signals, and the remaining

Se
en

port is used for distributing

t4

PLL
Rx Antenna Tx Chip the receiver’s local oscillator
Tx Antenna Rx Chips (LO) signal. Special Tx and LO
RF Switches distribution networks are nec-
(b) essary to transfer the respec-
tive signals to the associated
Figure 6. (a) A block diagram of the RF system architecture and (b) a photograph of the RF components and realize
designed RF front end using bare-die RF chips. the proposed MIMO TDMA

60 September/October 2017
scheme. Every Tx channel can be activated indepen- Table 1. The parameters and associated values
dently and consecutively. achieved with the proposed sensor array system.
Figure 6 also shows the optimized physical antenna
placement, which results from the beampattern simu- Parameter System Value
lator. Such a nonuniform array arrangement is suitable Sweep bandwidth B 2 GHz
for this project, fulfilling all defined requirements. A
Start frequency f0 76 GHz
separation into four self-contained subarrays is advan-
tageous for evaluating the array because each segment Sweep duration Tr 1 ms
can be operated separately; it also simplifies the LO Sampling period Ts 1 ns
distribution and thus shortens the line lengths. Each of
Number of temporal samples 1,000
these segments combines 16 Rx and four Tx antennas per Rx channel N
and has its own frequency control circuit. Furthermore,
ADC resolution 14 b
the number of realized Tx/Rx channels is the maxi-
mum number that fulfills manufacturing constraints Virtual antenna positions Mv 256
and board size restrictions. Virtual array aperture av(x, y) 50 # 50 mm 2
The configuration ensures a completely seam-
Range resolution Tr 15 cm
less virtual antenna array in every direction. By plac-
ing the antennas not on a regular grid but with Half-power angular resolution .3.1c
nonuniform spacing, a virtual aperture a V (x, y) of Di HPBW
about 50 # 50 mm 2 has been realized with a total of Null-to-null angular resolution .6.9c
M V = 256 synthesized virtual elements. See [20] and Di BWNN
[21] for further explanations. RF front-end dimension 160 # 160 mm 2

Prototype System Design System dimensions Height: .0.7 m,

Diameter: .0.19 m
Realizing a standalone FMCW MIMO radar sensor
system requires both an RF front end and a baseband Measurement period Tmeas .200 ms
system. One of the main tasks of the baseband board
is to configure and control the RF front end and
the analog baseband board components [analog-to-
digital converter (ADC), multiplexer, etc.]. Further, a Analog Baseband
baseband unit provides access to the captured raw Board
Digital
data measurement sets. Whereas the analog parts of (ADC, Power Supply,
Baseband Board
the system are linked together with standard cable Multiplexer)
connections, the digital baseband section is com-
posed of an embedded personal computer (PC) with
a high-speed data link between a field-programma-
ble gate array integrated circuit and an x86 compat-
ible processor, with software parts tailored to the RF Front End
Power-Supply Connector
Network Connector
problem at hand.
Table 1 summarizes the operating parameters for the
baseband boards and for the RF front end, as well as the
key parameters of the designed antenna array. Achieved
resolution values are confirmed with simulations and
several verification measurements in an anechoic cham-
ber. The range resolution value Dr is given for a Hann
window applied to the temporal data samples, and the
angular resolutions Di HPBW (half-power beamwidth) and Figure 7. Sketches of the designed 3-D-printed plastic
Di BWNN (null-to-null beamwidth), respectively, are given inner housing, containing the whole radar system, with an
approximated height of 0.7 m and a diameter of 0.19 m.
for a maximum target angle of i = 40°.
Figure 7 shows the entire radar sensor system
mounted into a 3-D-printed plastic inner housing, The material withstands blast furnace stresses with
resulting in a system with a height of . 0.7 m and a negligible influence on the radar performance. A fur-
diameter of . 0.19 m. For reliable radar system pro- ther strength of the developed sensor system is that
tection against the harsh environment inside a fully neither the antenna array nor its associated electron-
operative blast furnace with an ambient temperature ics are directly exposed to the hostile environment of
up to 400 °C, a water-cooled metal enclosure with a the blast furnace. An additional quality feature of the
cover composed of firebrick material was developed. firebrick material is its low temperature coefficient,

September/October 2017 61
For reliable radar system protection
against the harsh environment inside
a fully operative blast furnace with an
ambient temperature up to 400 °C, a
water-cooled metal enclosure with a
cover composed of firebrick material
was developed.
which effectively shields the RF front end from the
thermal exposure of the blast furnace.
System Verification
First, system verifications for single point-like targets
were performed during the offline system calibration
procedure in an anechoic chamber. To conduct fur-
ther verifications closely related to the real-world
scenario, measurements at a blast furnace test assem-
bly with an installed laser system were carried out.
The size of this test assembly is equal to that of the
fully operative blast furnace. A photograph of this
test assembly is depicted in Figure 8, which also
shows the burden surface overlaid by the result of
radar measurements.
A comparison between the 2-D laser system ref-
erence measurement and the reconstructed surface
resulting from a single radar system measurement
shows a maximum deviation for the surface depth
of approximately Dz (m) 1 0.08 m [see Figure 8(b)
and (c)]. Of course, the laser system has a higher reso-
lution, but the resolution and the accuracy of the radar
Radar Sensor Installed Laser System
Chute
Blast Furnace
Housing
Blast Furnace Burden Surface
and Reconstructed Surface
(a)
Figure 8. (a) A photo of the blast furnace test assembly, illustrating the installed measurement systems, the burden surface,
and (overlaid) the result of the reconstructed surface from a radar measurement. (b) A vertical cross section through the
surface: the surface depth resulting from a laser measurement (the blue curve) versus a radar measurement (the red curve).
(c) The difference of the surface depth Dz (m) between the laser and radar measurements. Great consistency in both
measurements is apparent.
62 September/October 2017
sensor absolutely fulfill the requirements. Laser-based
measurement systems are applicable at the test stand
due to the absence of heat, dust, and so forth. How-
ever, because of the difficult environmental conditions
inside a fully operative blast furnace, laser system mea-
surements do not provide reliable results; thus, laser
systems cannot be used in real-world blast furnace
measurement scenarios.
Further verification measurements are depicted in
Figure 9, which shows multiple surface-gauging
measurement results for two different target scenarios
established at the blast furnace test assembly. The radar
system results depicted in Figure 9 make clear that the
developed radar system delivers correct burden sur-
face imaging results. The accuracy is shown for only
two similar target scenarios (i.e., hills of coke material).
However, a large number of different surface shapes
(flat surface, cone-shaped surface, and so forth) were
investigated and have shown the faultless operation of
the radar sensor system for any occurring surface shape.
Online Calibration and Imaging with
Application to Bulk Material Gauging
Common algorithms for radar array imaging and related
disciplines rely on sufficiently precise calibration before
evaluation. Most of the calibration methods presented in
the literature, e.g., [41], are based on a priori offline mea-
surements with a well-defined target scenario. However,
to ensure a good calibration set, the target’s position
needs to be known with sufficient accuracy in respect
to the wavelength—something that is hard to fulfill in
practice. Additional error sources are temperature- and
aging-dependent. Thus, it cannot be guaranteed that the
calibration set found is ideal for every environmental
3.8
z (m)
4.0
4.2
–3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3
x (m)
(b)
0.08
0.06
|∆z (m)|
0.04
0.02
0.00
–3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3
x (m)
(c)
 (a) (b)

Depth (m) Depth (m)

5.0

4.9

4.8

4.7

4.6

4.5

4.4

4.3

4.2

4.1

4.0

5.0

4.9

4.8

4.7

4.6

4.5

4.4

4.3

4.2

4.1

4.0
3.5 3.5
z (m)
z (m)

4.5 4.5
3 3
5.5 2 5.5 2
1 1
–3 0 –3 0
–2 –2
–1 –1 –1
0 0 –1
x (m) 1 –2 y (m) x (m) 1 –2 y (m)
2 –3 2
3 3 –3

(c) (d)

(e) (f)

Figure 9. The measurement results of two different target scenarios established at a blast furnace test assembly. Photographs
of (a) a scenario with a single hill at the edge of the blast furnace composed of coke material and (b) a scenario with two hills of
coke material. (c) and (d) show the surface plots of the reconstructed image results for (a) and (b), respectively, based on radar
system measurements. (e) shows (c) overlaid on (a); (f) shows (d) overlaid on (b). The excellent match, suggesting the correct
functionality of the radar sensor and the applied advanced signal-processing algorithms, is clearly visible.

September/October 2017 63
A surface reconstruction (or
smoother) performs the final step
in the signal-processing chain and
can be executed irrespective of
the supporting point-detection
algorithm used.
condition, especially during long-term measurements.
This fact applies, in particular, to radar arrays, in which
a disassembly of the sensor during operation is impos-
sible or dangerous—most definitely the case for burden
surface imaging inside a fully operative blast furnace.
All these restrictions motivate the development and use
of an online self-calibration algorithm. See, e.g., [42] for
a method related to self-calibration and, e.g., [43] for a
contrast-based calibration method.
Here, we consider the basic idea and the results
of an algorithm capable of executing online self-cal-
ibration and image formulation for the special case
of a target scenario with an arbitrary but continuous
surface, i.e., the blast furnace burden surface [44]. The
two individual tasks (offline system calibration fol-
lowed by image formation) are combined in a single
formulation that efficiently solves a minimization
problem, set up as a LS problem. Thus, the need for
a priori measurements is avoided. Based on the well-
known FMCW signal model, a discretized system
model for interrogating one distinct surface spread
over the defined area u (i, z) and r (r, u x, u y) is given by
s IF [m v, n] =
N ux -1 N u y -1
A [q, p] e jc kw u
const. # / / T
[q, p] p V [m v] +2r B
q =0 p =0
(6)
A convenient choice of a discretization is the use of
a 2-D N u x # N u y regular grid that is fixed and fine (to
minimize the discretization errors). N u x denotes the
number of grid points for the u x -direction, and N u y
denotes the grid points for the u y -direction, respec-
tively. In (6), u T [q, p] contains all possible and known
target search grid points within the defined area.
Because the design of this algorithm is based on the
assumption of a radar array illuminating a smooth
surface of bulk material, smoothing terms that regu-
larize the nonlinear LS problem are added.
The LS estimation problem can be set up as
J SC ^H h = x IF - ^C 7 I h s IF 2
2 + m 2 Tr
where x IF = Cs IF + w and s IF are column vectors, cre-
ated by stacking M V N samples; I denotes an identity
matrix of appropriate dimension; and C contains the
sought calibration entries (unavoidable complex error
64 September/October 2017
sources of each antenna element) c [m v] = A c [m v] e jzc [mv]
placed along the main diagonal of C. In (7), 7 denotes
the Kronecker product. The LS problem’s vector of
unknowns is given by
H = 6A U r c@ = 6A U r A c z c@ . (8)
Each model vector associated with the grid points
is arranged into a row vector of length N u x N u y , and
H (8) consists of 3N u x N u y + 2M V unknowns. Roughly
speaking, values for H should be found that repro-
duce the measured signal x IF in an optimum manner
in the LS sense but include knowledge of surface gra-
dient and curvature constraints through regulariza-
tion T and C.
From (8), it can be seen that H contains linear and
nonlinear parameters. For such estimation problems,
the method of separable LS can be used, reducing the
problem’s computational complexity [23]. Substituting
the solutions for the transformed linear parameters
into (7) and minimizing the LS cost function again
provides a system of equations to find solutions for the
nonlinear parameters r and c.
Several approaches for calculating solutions to non-
linear parameters are available. One very effective and
convenient calculation can be found by the use of proper
numerical methods. The nonlinear LS problem will be
linearized with a first-order Taylor series approxima-
tion, and then a linear LS procedure is applied. These
algorithms are based on the well-known Gauss-Newton
(GN) algorithm. See [44] for extensive derivations and
a compact summary of all calculation steps of the pro-
posed algorithm.
Applying the proposed algorithm to radar system
measurements inside a fully operative blast furnace
n +U [q, p] m
2r [q, p]
N c0 .
shows the correct functionality of the algorithm. For
the measurement results depicted in Figure 10, sam-
ples of a burden surface were taken. The standard
digital beamformer output according to (1) is calcu-
lated with a perfectly calibrated system, and a global
threshold level of -9 dB is used for smoother calcu-
lations. In the case of the developed online calibra-
tion and imaging algorithm, the parameters are set
to deliver results for N u x # N u y = 20 # 20 grid points.
GN starting values are set to C 0 = I, and values for
r0 are obtained from a standard beamformer result
calculated with the same sampled signals but with
an artificial nonperfect calibration set applied.
Clearly visible in Figure 10 is the similarity of the
surface shapes. Whereas the result of the online calibra-
tion and imaging algorithm is composed of points with a
2
2 + d 2 Cr 22 , (7) number that equals the size of the chosen discretization
grid, i.e., 400, a standard digital beamformer without
further advanced thresholding algorithms leads to a
much lower number of supporting points, i.e., 38. It is
obvious that an increased number of supporting points
is beneficial for precise surface reconstruction results.
Furthermore, calcu­lations with an online calibration
procedure take changes or aging calibration param-
eters into account inherently. This is not the case with a
standard beamformer calculation, leading to a down-
graded ratio between outlier and supporting points
during the sensor’s lifetime.
Measurement Results and System Benefits
With the prototype system presented in this article,
several measurements in the real-world application
(i.e., inside a fully operative blast furnace) were carried
out and show the applicability of the proposed system
and the algorithms developed. The system’s long-term
functionality inside a fully operative blast furnace
has been demonstrated with an installed system in
continuous operation over several years. Measure-
ment results confirm the expected and theoretically
obtained behavior (also with real-world measurement
examples), showing an excellent performance of the
chosen system configuration.
A 3-D real-time evaluation with the desired angu-
lar and range resolution of better than 2° and of ap­­
proximately 15 cm, respectively, is achieved. Any of
the numerous received measurement results shown in
Figure  11 validates the correct operation of the blast
furnace burden surface radar. Figure 11 shows a plot
of the normalized calibrated 3-D cost function (1) in
Cartesian coordinates, with a global threshold level
of –13 dB and the final, reconstructed burden surface.
The smoothed surface is obtained with the presented
The two individual tasks (offline
system calibration followed by image
formation) are combined in a single
formulation that efficiently solves a
minimization problem, set up as a
LS problem.
prototype system and the advanced signal-processing
chain applied to the measurement data.
Blast Furnace Online Inspection
To allow continuous online, real-time monitoring of the
burden surface inside a fully operative blast furnace, the
presented radar system is integrated in a graphical user
interface (GUI). Samples of the received RF signals are
preprocessed within the radar’s baseband system and
transferred via a point-to-point connection to a host
PC. This host PC fulfills all signal-processing tasks. A
web browser-based framework, accessible from any
computer site within the company’s internal local area
network, provides access to the measurement results.
Further, this framework allows users to set essential sys-
tem parameters and even adjust parameters for the RF
front end and the analog and digital baseband system.
Figure 12 shows screenshots of the measurement
result section of the GUI, providing an online 3-D
image of the reconstructed surface. Two different

Depth (m)
7.4

7.3

7.2

7.1

7.0

6.9

6.8

6.7

6.6

6.5

6.4

6.3

6.2

6 6
z (m)

z (m)

7 7
8 8

–3 3 3
–3 3
–2 2 –2 2
–1 1 –1 1
0 0 0 0
x (m) 1 –1 y (m) x (m) 1 –1 y (m)
2 –2 2 –2
3 –3 3 –3
(a) (b)

Figure 10. The results of the proposed method for a 3-D burden surface measurement inside a blast furnace. (a) The result
of a standard digital beamformer approach with a global threshold level of –9 dB, resulting into 38 supporting points. (b)
The surface plot showing the result obtained with an online calibration and imaging algorithm composed of 400 supporting
points for every N u x = N u y = 20 grid points. The GN starting points are set to C 0 = I, and values for r0 are obtained from a
standard beamformer with a nonperfect calibration data set applied to the samples.

September/October 2017 65
 5.2
−13 dB
5.0

4.8

Depth (m)
4.6
3.5 3.5
z (m)

z (m)
4.5 4.5 4.4
5.5 3 5.5 3
2 2
–3 1 –3 1 4.2
–2 0 –2 0
–1 –1
0 –1 y (m) 0 –1 y (m) 4.0
x (m) 1 –2 1 –2
2 x (m) 2
3 –3 3 –3 3.8

(a) (b)

Figure 11. The results from a measurement taken inside a fully operative blast furnace. (a) An isosurface plot of the 3-D cost
function (1) in Cartesian coordinates for a threshold level of –13 dB. (b) The reconstructed blast furnace burden surface result.
The smoothed surface is calculated with the signal-processing chain presented in Figure 5.

Reconstructed surfaces can

be inspected at any time, and
outputs of further parameters
(e.g. contour plots, height
differences, and progress of
the burden surface over time)
are provided.
For the requested time period,
figures of several measurement
results are merged to allow an
investigation in the form of a
video. In particular, the progress
of the surface heights for chosen
coordinate points inside of a
blast furnace is of great impor-
tance and interest, in addition to
the numerous provided burden
Figure 12. Screenshots of the implemented GUI accessible at any computer site within
parameters. Figure 14 shows an
the industrial network. Shown are the online 3-D images of the measurement results (the
evaluation of the surface depth
reconstructed surface) at two different blast furnaces.
for some selected points derived
from the reconstructed surface
scenarios at two different blast furnaces are shown. for continuous measurements over a long time period,
Additionally, several freely adjustable 2-D results scaled to the top edge of the throat armor. This plot
can be plotted in real-time, and the framework is clearly shows the slow height variation during the opera-
linked to the states of the process parameters, i.e., the tion and fast decreasing measurement depths at blast
rotation angle of the chute and so forth. The recon- furnace charging intervals. Note that decreasing distance
structed surface with a cavity is a typical and a char- values correspond to a blast furnace charge process.
acteristic burden surface scenario for standard blast Matching measurement results with the known process
furnace operating conditions. parameters, related to the charging program, demonstrate
a clear consensus.
Extensive Offline Surface Analysis
However, to provide later access to the measured sig- Initial Filling After Blast Furnace Relining
nals, i.e., to retrace unexpected blast furnace behavior, One of the first processes performed after relining a
an offline analysis tool has been developed in MAT- new blast furnace is to fill the furnace with different
LAB. Based on dumped raw data measurement files, materials, layer by layer. To minimize undesirable
extensive inspection of the blast furnace burden sur- mixing of different materials and improve the gas
face can be executed at any time. Figure 13 shows the flow, surfaces at each layer should be as flat as possible.
output of the offline video tool over a specified period. An uneven distribution of the particular materials has

66 September/October 2017
 Depth of Some Average Position and Velocity in
Chosen Surface Points Radial Direction
0.5
1.6 Max 1
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
(0/0) 1.5
1.4 (2/0) 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5
3-D Reconstructed Suface 0.6
(–2/0)
1.2

September/October 2017
(0/2) 0.8
1 (0/–2)

Teufe (m)
1

Velocity (mm/s) Depth (m)

0.5 0.8 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5
1 Radius (m)
0.6
Surface Slices

Depth (m)
0 500 1,000 1,500 2,000 –0.1
2
2 Measurement Time (s) 0
0
0 Difference in Volume over Time 0.1
–2 –4 –2 0 2 4
y (m) –2 and Volume over Time
x (m)
10
0.5
0 1
1.5

Difference (m) Depth (m)

–10 –4 –2 0 2 4
0 500 1,000 1,500 2,000
x (m)
Measurement Time (s)

Difference in Volume (m3)

Contour Plot Reconstructed Surface Velocity Profile of Surface (mm/s) Gradient Profile of Surface (°)

3 0.6
3 3 8 12 10 8

6
0.6
0.6
0.6

0.
0.7 0.8 10 14 1
0.7 4 16 18 16 14 2
2 6 0.8 0. 0.6 2 0. 2 20

8
0. 20
8

0.8 0.9 0.8 7 12

0.
0.2
8

0.8
0.9
10

6
0.7 1 18 20

0.
1 14
0.6

8
18

10

0.9 1.1 1.1 4

0.
1 1 1

.7
1 0. 22 16 18

0.
0.
16

9
1.2
8

0 8
1.2 0.8 1
16

6
0.

1
0.8 2018

1
12 4
1

0.2
22

0.7
0.
1.3
124

1.
1 10 20
16
8

0.9
1.1
0 0 0 14
0.4 1 2 4

1.2
0.8

y (m)
1.3
0.8
10

8.0
6

0.7

1.
1
12

1
1.2

3
1.2
1

0.6
6

0.9
12
8

0.8
20 18 4

1 8 16 18
0.

0.7
1.1
–1 –1 0.8
–1
10
14

1.2
12 10

16

1.2

1.1
20

14

7
1.2 0.8

0.
6

1 16

0.

0.9 8
1 1.1 9 16 22
14 16 18

–2 0. 0.8 –2 –2
8

0.9 1 20
1
18 12

18
10

7
0.9 1.2 14
18

0.
0.8
0.8
–3 0.8 –3 –3 10 12 16
1.2

–3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3
x (m) x (m) x (m)

Figure 13. Screenshots of the implemented offline video tool, providing plots of several surface parameters, i.e., 3-D shape, contour plots, etc. All parameters are processed based on the
surface reconstruction results obtained from radar system measurements.

67
 laser-based measurements provide inaccurate results.
Charging Intervals Thus, equipping a blast furnace with the proposed
5.1 radar sensor enables control of the progress at any
4.9 time and greatly simplifies the first fill. A perma-
nent evaluation of the surface shape after each fill-
4.7 ing allows users to define the upcoming charging
Depth (m)

4.5 program. Based on the reconstruction results and

their interpretations, the initial filling program was
4.3
guided to the end.
4.1 Figure  15 shows only some of the received surface
reconstruction results obtained during the initial fill-
3.9
ing, which constituted approximately 20 h of a continu-
0

200

400

600

800

1,000

1,200

1,400

1,600

1,800
ous process. While just the final surface (the uppermost
Time (s) plot) can be verified with conventional measurement
Max (0, 0) (2, 0)
methods (note that it is possible only at this stage to use
(0, 2) (–2, 0) (0, –2) alternative methods), the overall progress completely
fulfilled the desired results. The proposed system is
capable of successfully reconstructing surfaces even to
Figure 14. The progress of the burden surface height burden distances of 30 m, i.e., down to the tuyere level,
derived from the reconstructed surface based on several as shown in Figure 15.
measurements over time. The height is scaled to the top edge
of the throat armor and depicted for different spatial points
Conclusions
(x, y) of the blast furnace.
In this article, we presented several radar system mea-
surement results and a comparison to an installed laser
system at a blast furnace test assembly that validate
the accurate functionality of the developed system.
Radar Sensor Blast Furnace Charging Thus, using radar sensor systems inside of a fully
Blast Furnace Rotating Chute
Top Gas
+ Housing operative blast furnace allows the generation of accu-
Blast Furnace Top Gas
rate images of the burden surface. This technology
enables perfect control of the burden distribution,
Transmit
Signals with the potential to detect inconsistencies of the
Reflected Throat Armor material distribution and, therefore, to charge pre-
Signals Burden cise volumes of material at these particular places
Surface
[16]. As a consequence, increased productivity, reduced
fuel consumption, and other blast furnace functional
≈ 30 m

improvements are made possible. The presented sys-

tem and algorithms, tailored to the burden surface
image problem, are suited for a much wider range of
industrial ­applications.

Hot-Air
Blast
Molten
Iron
Figure 15. Different measurement results obtained
during an initial filling after a blast furnace’s relining.
Chronological individual measurements are composed
into a single picture showing that the system is able to
reconstruct burden surfaces down to . 30 m.
Hot-Air
Blast Acknowledgments
Molten This work was supported in part by the Austrian
Slag
COMET-K2 program through the Linz Center of Mecha-
tronics, in part by the Austrian federal government,
and in part by the Federal State of Upper Austria. We
acknowledge the cooperation of Infineon Technologies
AG, which supported the project with RF devices; and
of indurad GmbH, for the embedded hardware and the
software framework integration.

a detrimental effect on the efficiency of the blast fur-
nace process and should be avoided at any time.
Previously, a controlled initial filling process was
based on several assumptions and approximations of
the surface height and surface shape. Due to very dusty
environmental conditions during filling, optical or
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