K.S.R.M.

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING,
KADAPA.

B. VENKATA RAMUDU G. RAVI CHANDRA PAL

E-Mail : ramu_305398@yahoo.com E-mail : gandhamravi_g@ yahoo.co.in
III B.Tech. (E.E.E III B.Tech. (E.E.E.)
K.S.R.M.C.E, Kadapa K.S.R.M.C.E, Kadapa

TOPIC

DIGITAL LOAD FREQUENCY CONTROL FOR

INTERCONNECTED POWER SYSTEMS

ABSTRACT
This paper reports on the advanced techniques of digital load frequency
control (LFC) for an interconnected power system under unknown deterministic
power demand. The authors observe that the predominant problem of LFC is
resident in the low frequency domain associated with bulk generation change.
This problem is highly influenced by limited generation response capability.
Moreover, the load supplied by an interconnected power system is much
dependent on consumers and hence the amount of load to be served
interconnected power system is much dependent on consumers and hence the
amount of load to be served at a particulars time instant remains unknown to
the system. Therefore, the LFC is to be formulated as a tracking problem
where the central role is played by energy source dynamics and the system
load following. This paper describe how the regulation of inter-area power flows
can effectively be improved by proper a user-friendly digital simulator which
simulates the operation of load frequency controller of a three are closed and
open delta connected power system.

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INTRODUCTION:

In recent years, rapid technological advancement has immensely increased the

use of electricity in agricultural, industrial, domestic and many other areas, not
only in the developed countries but in the developing countries of the world as
well. The raising demand for electricity has led to the formation of large and
complicated interconnected power systems where various utilities or area s are
connected over long distance transmission lines, such that they can share
among themselves their spinning reserve capacities during emergencies and
can take advantage of load diversity for economy of operation. It has been
found in recent times as power demand is increasing rapidly, the generating
capacities of the power stations are becoming inadequate for meeting the
demand. Under these circumstances, interconnection of the utilities becomes
the only solution as this, at first, helps to cater for the rising load demand
without going for enhancement of generating capacities of the power stations
and secondly improves system reliability.

However, interconnected power systems face several operational

problems as far as sudden load disturbances and faults are concerned. The
interconnection of neighboring utilities increases the possibility of a healthy area
getting affected by the faults or disturbances taking place in another remote are
and disturbance occurring in one area may endanger the stability of the other
areas if the source of disturbance is not quickly located and isolated from the
rest of the system. Keeping this in view, the power system engineers have
focused their attention on load frequency control (LFC) problem of the
interconnected power systems. During large disturbances or generation shifts,
the security constraints or tie-line schedule changes are accommodated giving
due importance to the bulk power flows across potential separation boundaries
within the network and it is the main purpose of LFC to restore the original
frequency boundaries within the network and it is the main purpose of LFC to
restore the original frequency and tie-line power flows in the system following
the disturbance by effectively changing the generation of the affected area. In
order to make the economic dispatch effective, the area generation requirement
must be established by quick execution of the essential function of LFC,. The
LFC is also to provide load tracking capability for the security of power supply
to the load, with persistent changes with the rapid and sustained variations
which occur during certain periods of normal operation.

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 Linear optimal theory to the LFC has been widely applied to tackle the
damping of inter- area synchronizing swings. But in large interconnected power
systems the predominant problem of LFC resides in lower frequency domain
associated with very large generation change having limited generation
response capability. In this paper, the authors describe the advance techniques
of digital load frequency control for multiple area interconnected power system
using PI controllers with giving importance to optimal load tracking approach to
LFC with dynamic limitations of thermal power plants including power flow
reputation in the presence of immeasurable, sustained load changes.

LOAD FREQUENCY CONTROL PROBLEM

Classical Approach of LFC

The classical approach of regulation function is the concept of tie-line basis

control and this is applied for most modern interconnected systems. The tie-line
bias control attempts to minimize its area control error (ACE) defined as
follows.

ACE1 = Pied +Bi Fi

The execution of tie- line bias control has the following aspects.

(i) each area regularities its own ACE leading to the overall objective
of the regulation of the interconnected system, and
(ii) each area can achieve its assigned subtotal of regulating its ACE
without some sort of inter-area coordination.

It is clear from this point of view that the first aspect can establish the
desired steady-state frequency and tie-line power flows whereas in the
second aspect the integral control of ACE within each area leads to a
stable structure with the desired system equilibrium.

Linear Optimal Approach of LFC

The modern control techniques of linear optimal approach to this

problem incorporate the dynamic aspects LFC. This linear optimal theory

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is applied to obtain the desired operating state from any perturbed state
under contingencies. In this formulation, several assumptions become
implicit leading to significant effects on the resultant controller.

(i) in the steady-state the system is quite capable to reduce the

frequency errors and the tie-line power flow errors to zero.

(ii) The power demand can be measured directly and

(iii) No constraint is imposed on the power plant other than the

government – turbine dynamics.

The aforesaid assumptions indicate that each area is quite capable of

meeting a specific generation requirement. It is clear that an adequate
range of automatically controlled generation is available in each area for
satisfying the above requirement. Several contingencies, for example,
loss of generation tie-line outage, failure in telemetering etc, may
prevent an area to meet its generation obligation. Mention must be
made that the desired steady-state with zero frequency error and zero
tie-line flow error cannot be obtained unless each area can meet its
generation obligation. It leads to the persistence of abnormal steady-
state which is deviated from the normal steady-state. The Fosha –
Legend controller can take care of such abnormal situations with the
help relative weighting parameters in the cost functional.

Since the power demand is not directly measurable, it has significant

impact on the results. The frequency error integrals and tie-lien power
error integrals are outputs and hence they must be driven to zero to
achieve the appropriate steady state. Moreover, there is a constraint on
the rate of change of generation for large sustained changes irrespective
of the type of generation. Sometimes these constraints can dominate the
problem of regulation. Even during normal operation. Manual generation
rescheduling may be necessary by system operators during the period of
rapid load-change. This will lead to performance degradation due to the
inability of direct measurement of power. Therefore, the power demand
estimation is necessary to be incorporated into the controller as a
primary aspect of regulation.

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The recent application of the optimal regulator theory of LFC has given
prime importance to the dynamic of power system regulation. The
potentialistic of the approach have been investigated in earlier works but
the following two aspects of LFC should be properly addressed:

POWER SYSTEM INTERCONNECTION

Interconnection between power utilities or areas fro an important

part of the overall power system and they contribute greatly to increase
reliability of supply and economy of power production. In order to study
power production. In order to study power system dynamic under various
disturbance conditions, it is desirable to model an interconnected power
system as the importance and application of microcomputers have been
growing continuously. In this paper, the authors have developed a digital
a digital simulator for load frequency controller in order to study the
behaviour of a three area closed and open delta connected systems
under different contingency conditions.

As area is a power system utility consisting of coherent genitors, whose

generation must absorb its own load changes. An area is characterized
its combined governing characteristic shown in Fig. 1.

GENERATION (G) IN MW ---------- >

Fig 1 Area combined governing characteristic

Steady –state curve that relate area frequency and total generation for
changes in area load. Each charastristics includes variation of area load
with frequency as well as droop introduced by the combined effects of

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all the governors on the prime movers for any change in frequency in
the area can be restored with the help of supplementary regulation. I.e.,
the curve can be shifted vertically upwards with the same slope which
represents the combined effects of pulsing the speed changers of the
prime movers within the area. The inverse slope changers of the prime
movers within the area. The inverse slope of this curve is called
governor regulation and designated R (MW/Hz) and this slope plays an
important role in the steady state and dynamic behaviour o the tie-line
controllers.

The area connections are shown in Fig. 2 Area # 1 is connected to Area

#2 , Area #2 to Area # 3 and Area #3 to area #1 via tile lines. The
outside arrows along with the tie-lines in Fig. 2. represent scheduled
power interchange at normal frequency. This rigid schedule is disturbed.
However ,when a sudden increase in local occurs, for example, in Area
#3. since alternator speed cannot change instantly, the load increase is
initially supplied out of the stored kinetic energy of the rotors of all the
turbolternators in the three areas resulting in a droop of speed with
corresponding reduction in the system frequency. The governors in each
are them increase are generation of this lower frequency by shifting the
area combined characteristic GC1 to GC 2 as shown shares the
increased load in Area # 3 but at al lower system frequency. To restore
the normal system frequency and to increase the generation only in Area
# 3 for accommodating its rise in load, a tie-line bias controller which
respond to a typical tie-line bias characteristic is shown Fig 3.

The steady – state, linear tie-line bias characteristic of Fig3 relates are
frequency to area net tie-line interchange. P. Net tie-line power
interchange into the area is considered negative and out of the area,
positive. The bias B(MH/Hz) is defined is the inverse slope of this curve
and t is and it is arbitrary ie., it can be made equal to smaller or longer
than the area governing regulation R. Each area controller must avail the
data leading to prevailing frequency (F1 ) and prevailing net interchange
(PP) . These data are monitored and transmitted to each controller from
the area tie-lines. Therefore, all three area

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Controller know the scheduled net interchange at normal frequency for
each area as shown in Fig 2.
AREA #1 AREA#2 AREA#3

P02
P01

L2
L3
L1 P23
P12 P31

P03
Po ( Area #1) = Po1 – Po3
Po (Area #2) = Po2 – Po1
Po (Area #3) = Po3 – Po2

At prevailing frequency (F1 Hz) each controller can calculate prevailing

net interchange for each area as shown in Fig. 2.

PP 1 (Area #1) = P12 – P31

PP1 (Area#2) = P23 –P12
PP1 (Area #3) = P31– {23

With a bias value as per Fig. 3 each area can then calculate its own
area requirement or the ACE as given below:

ACE = (Po– PP1) + (P1-P0) + (P1- P0) = P+B

F

Where

B = [B]
P = P0 – PP1

F = FB – F1

in the above equation, P is the deviation of net interchange from the

normal frequency schedule and B F is the automatic shift of the
interchange schedule with frequency. If the area requirement is positive

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or negative, the area controller with the help of supplementary regulation
command will increase or decrease, respectively, the generation in its
area by an amount of ACE megawatts.

When the system is operating at a normal frequency (F0), regardless, f

the value of the controller bias, the net interchange of tie-line power of
each area remains on schedule, P0. each area requirement remains
zero and each controller remains inoperative. If the value of each area
controller bias (B) of Fig 2 is made equal to the value of its area
governing regulation ® for a load increase in Area #2 becomes equal to
the biased scheduled interchange P1. the controllers for all of these area
do not change area generations since their area requirements remain
zero. However, the net interchange requirement remain(PP1) of Area #3
as shown in Fig3, deviates from the bias schedule (P1). Therefore, the
corresponding tie-line bias controller increase generation in Area #3 ,
with supplementary regulation command, by ACE mega walls which
equals the load increase the thus the system restores its normal
scheduled frequency.

If the value of each controller bias his made greater or smaller than the
value of its area regulation, then the Areas #1 and #2 initially contribute
more or less than their normal share of the load increase in Area #3 and
the system frequency drop less or more severely than the of the
previous case. The end result in steady-state. However , is that Area #3
absorbs its own increase of loads at normal frequency by increasing the
area generation.

In case of any contingency , the operation of the load frequency

controller should be such that the power system must regain its stable
condition with respect to the quality of power within a few seconds.

DEVEOPMENT OF DIGITAL SIMULLATOR

Block Diagram Representation of Three Area interconnected power

system.

The digital simulator of the typical three area closed delta connected
power system is represented by a block diagram as shown in the Fig. 4,
it is clear from the figure that each area has its own control on its

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operation there are three main blocks, namely, speed governor , turbine
and power system. In this respect, each area s assumed to be similar
and hence the time constants of the aforesaid blocks for all the areas
fare taken to be 0.88 sec. 0.3 sec, respectively. Rigorous study has
been done with different areas having different time constants of these
blocks. A P1 controller is incorporated in each block for obtaining zero
steady – state error for the deviations of both the system frequency and
tie-line power. The constants (i) frequency bias constant and (ii) area
governing regulation are kept different for different areas. Thus the areas
become different in their performances. The implementation of the
calculation of tie-line powers is done with several blocks as shown in the
figure, Provision has also been make for the display of the following
characteristic of all the areas (i) tie-line power flow deviation and (ii) area
frequency with one tie-line delinked as shown in the block diagrammatic
representation of Fig. 5. The performance of this open delta power
system is a bit worse than the delta-connected one, Bu in case of any
contingency the steady state of the system can be regained without
entering into emergency zone. The deviations in that case are a bit more
than the previous one resulting in the requirement of more time to
restore the original steady – state.

Algorithm For Simulator

The simulator package has been implemented for simulating the

operation of four multi-area power systems with different configurations,

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both with and without the load frequency controller. The programs have
been developed through M-files in MATLAB version 4.2 c1 in the
envorinment of Microsoft Windows 95. the simulator has been made
extensively interactive, graphic – oriented and user friendly. The
algorithm is as follows.

(i) initialize the graphic window on the VDU screen,

(ii) set the parameters start time, stop time, minimum and maximum
time step sizes and relative error for solving the system
differential equations using Runge- Kutta method.
(iii) Draw ‘power system’ transfer function block for Area # 1 with
transfer function form Gp1 (s) ,
(iv) Set the default values of the coefficients of the numerator and
denominator polynomials of GP1(s).
(v) Draw ‘turbine ‘ transfer function block for Area # 1 with transfer
function of the form GT1 (s) = kn /(1+stn) .
(vi) set the default values of the coefficients of the numerator and
denominator polynomials of G T1(s),
(vii) draw 'Speed Governor' transfer function block [or Area #1 with transfer
function of the form GG 1 (s) =, K G1/(1 + sT(G1 ),
(viii) set the default values of the coefficients of the numerator and
denominator polynomials of GG1(s).
(ix) connect the output o[ the' Speed Governor' block 10 (he input of the
'Turbine' block to realise the combined transfer function GUT! (s) as
shown in Fig 4-7,

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(x) draw 'PI Controller' transfer function block for Area ill with transfer
function of the form (k1 + k2/s) = (sk1 + k2)/s.. The values of k1 and k2
should be with in 0 and 1.0,
(xi) set the default values of the coefficients of the numerator and
denominator polynomials of the transfer function of 'PI Controller',
(xii) draw the gain block B1 for representing frequency bias constant
parameter for Area #1 and set its default value, The value of frequency
bias constant should be within 0 and 1.0,
(xiii) draw the gain block '1/Rl' for representing the reciprocal of area
governing regulation for Area #1 and set its default value,
(xiv) draw the step function block PD1' for representing step load input 10
Area It I. the value of PD1should preferably be within 0 and 1.0 pu,
(xv) provide option for pointing any block by moving the cursor with the help
of the mouse in order to change the default system and control
parameters through keyboard and/or mouse. It should be I noted that
:my parameter can be assigned the realistic values as per any (lower
plant as obtained. There is no limit for setting the values of the
parameters, but in order to get actual responses, values arc to be
assigned to the parameters around the realistic ones, repeat steps (iii),to
(x v) for Area #2,
(xvii) repeat steps (iii) to (xv) for Area ft3,
(xviii) draw the gain blocks for representing the '2p T ijo parameter for the
transmission lines connecting the j-th area,
(xix) draw the required summer and integrator blocks for realizing the block
diagram of Fig 4-7,
(xx) connect all the blocks with straight line connectors as per the block
interconnect shown in Fig 4-7.
(xxi) set the names of (he output data files for storing a1l , the time
rc.sJ1CJOses for the deviations of area
frequencies, area tic powers and tie -line power flows,
(xxii) input the step load change magnitude(s) for one or more area(s),
(xxiii) calculate the aforesaid time responses in the form of output parameters,
and
(xxiv) store the output parameters in the corresponding output data files.
Main Features of Simulator Package
The main features of all the aforesaid four programs arc discussed thus.
In the program, the system configuration is represented as a block diagram.
Each of the power system modules like speed governor, turbine, the
controller and the control area designated as power system in the

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 programs, are mathematically represented by simple algebraic first order
transfer functions consisting of a single gain factor and a single time
constant.

The controller for each control area has been modeled for proportional plus
integral control using transfer functions of the form (k1+k2/s) with a negative
feedback. The individual blocks are interconnected using other blocks like
summer, integrator, sample gain factors and line connectors for realizing the
block diagrams.

All the three control strategies, for example (a) flat frequency control (b)
flat tie-line control and (c) tie-line bias control can be accomplished by minor
modifications in the programs.

Display of Output parameters

The program calculates the output parameters, namely, the time responses of
the following:

(i) system frequency deviations f1. f2 and f3 (in Hz)

(ii) area tie- power deviations P tie, 1, P tie, 2 and Ptie 3 ( in pu

MW with respect to area capacity) for the three areas, Area#1,

Area#2 and Area#3 , respectively,

(iii) power flow deviation P tie1,2 ( in pu MW) in the tie-line between

Area #1 and Area#2.

(iv) Power flow deviation P tie23 (pu MW) in the tie-line between

Area #2 and Area #3. and

(v) Power flow deviation P tie 31 (in pu MW) in the tie-line between

Area #3 and Area#1 (only in case of closed delta connected

system )

As per convention, the tie- power flowing out from an area is considered

positive and that flowing into an area is taken to be negative. Tie – line powers

flowing from Area #1 to Area #2 from Area#2 to Area #3 and from Area #3 to

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Area #1 are taken to be positive and the opposite directions are considered

negative

ANALYSIS OF RESULT OF SIMULATOR

All the studies have been performed on both the closed delta and open

delta configurations of the interconnected power system. The performance of

both the systems are almost similarly except the fact that in the open delta

configuration, the system takes a bit more time to restore its steady state

condition after the incidence of any contingency in the system. The cases are

as follows:

(i) any area loaded by a step load of 0.52 pu.

(ii) Any two areas loaded by a step load of 0.25 pu each,

(iii) All the three areas loaded by a step load of 0.25 pu each

(iv) Any two areas unloaded by an amount of 0.25 pu in one step and

All the three areas unloaded by an amount of 0.25 pu in one step.

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Fig 6 (a) shows the deviation of frequency of each area and restoration
of the original system frequency during a step loading of 0.25 pu to Area
# 2 it indicates that the frequency of the concerned area is affected
more than the others in the transient period. In this case the deviation of
tie-powers of each area is shown in Fig 6 (b). Here also the tie-power of
the concerned area is affected a bit more. Moreover, the deviation of tie-
powers of the other areas are in the opposite direction to that of the
Area #2 it is clear from both the figures that the system set point is
regained within 10 min after the step loading.

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Similar observations are made in Figs 7 (a) and (b) with the second
case when Area #1 and #3 are loaded by a step load of 0.25 pu each.
Here also, the concerned areas are affected in a similar manner unlike
the unloaded one. But the amount of deviations is more in this case than
the previous one.

In case (iii) all the areas are simultaneously loaded with a step load of
0.25 pu each. The deviation of frequency and tie-power characteristics
are shown in Figs 8 (a) and (b) , respectively. In this case the tie-power
of Area #1 is least deviated lively. In this case the tie-power of Area #2
and Area #3 are deviated in the directions opposite to each other.
Moreover, the setting time is around 14 sec.

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Since the characteristic of all the cases for open delta configuration are
similar to that of closed delta system, the characteristics of its typical
case of loading of all the three areas by a step load of 0.25 pu each are
shown in Figs 10 (a) and (b) . here the system restoration is bit sluggish.

CONSCLUSION

This paper reports in detail the advanced digital control of

interconnected power system having performed rigours testing on a
typical interconnected power system with the aid of digital simulator. In
the mathematical modeling part of the digital simulator, the authors have
used both classical and state variable approach of digital simulation. The
results obtained from this simulator bear a close similarity to a practical

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interconnected power system. In the view of the authors, though the
performance of open delta connected power system is slightly sluggish
still its performance is satisfactory subject to the reliability and quality of
power supplied to the consumer’s premises. Mention must be make that
the closed delta configuration always better than the open delta one
though the open delta configuration is much stable in its performance.
Since the state variable approach is appropriate to the state – of – the
– art requirement of interconnected power system. The author suggest
this approach to be more acceptable. This simulator is advantageous in
the implementation of any kind of modern control strategy with slightest
effort. The software developed for this simulator is flexible and user
friendly with sufficient interactive graphical interface. Hence it does not
impose any hindrance to the non-experts of this software for its
immense application in the simulation study of any interconnected power
system.

REFERENCES:
1. C.E. Fosha and O.I. Elgend. “ The Megawatt Frequency Control
problem Anew Approach via Optimal control Theory ‘ IEEE
Transactions, via PAS – 89 no 4, 1970 p 563.
2. M.S. Calovic’ Linear Regulator Design for a Load and Frequency
Control’ ibid vol PAS –91 no 6,m1972 p 2271.
3. S.M. Miniesy and E.V. Bohn ‘ Optimal Load Frequency Continuous
control with Unknown Determinstic power Demand ibid no. 5,1972 p
1910.
4. N.N. Benjamin and W.C. Chan ‘ Multilevel Load- Frequency Control
of Interconnected Power System ibid no 3, 1978 p 521.
5. A. Bose and 1 Atiyyah ‘ Regulation Error in Load Frequency Control
ibid, vol PAS 99, March/April 1989, p 650.

END

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