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Department of Electrical Engineering, JNTUCEA 185

1. Speed Control of Induction Motor using Optimal Fuzzy Gains


scheduling
Abstract machine, and is proven to be well adapted to all type of
electrical drives associated with induction machines.
In this paper, a optimal fuzzy gain scheduling of PI The most widely used controller in the industrial
controller is adopted to speed control of an induction applications is the PID-type controllers because of their
motor. First, a designed fuzzy gain scheduling of PI simple structures and good performances in a wide range
controller is investigated, in which fuzzy rules are of operating conditions. In control by fuzzy logic, the
utilized on-line to adapt the PI controller parameters linguistic description of human expertise in controlling a
based on the error and its first time derivative. process is represented as fuzzy rules or relations. The
However, the major disadvantage of the fuzzy logic controllers based on fuzzy logic (FLC) can be considered
control is the lack of design techniques, for this as non-linear PID controller where their parameters are
purpose we propose an optimization technique of the determined on-line based on the error and its derivative.
fuzzy logic adapter parameters using genetic However, this standard FL controller cannot react to
algorithm. The effectiveness of the complete proposed change in operating conditions. The FL controller needs
control scheme is verified by numerical simulation. more information to compensate nonlinearities when the
The numerical validation results of the proposed operation conditions change. When the number of the
scheme have presented good performances compared fuzzy logic inputs is increased, the dimension of the rule
to the fuzzy controller which have parameters chosen base increases too. Thus, the maintenance of the rule base
by the human operator. is more time-consuming. Another Disadvantage of the FL
controllers is the lack of systematic, effective and useful
Keywords: fuzzy logic, genetic algorithm, PI design methods, which can use a priori knowledge of the
controller, adaptation, optimization, and vector plant dynamics. In this paper, to overcome the
control. disadvantages of PID controllers and FLC, a combination
between them together. PID parameters controller can be
1. Introduction tuned on-line by an adaptive mechanism based on a fuzzy
logic for induction machine speed control. However, the
The control of the AC electric machines major drawback of fuzzy control is the lack of design
known a considerable development and a technique. Most of the fuzzy rules are human knowledge
possibility of the real time implantation oriented and hence rules will deviate from person to
applications. It is widely recognized that the person in spite of the same performance of the system.
induction motor is going to be the main actuator The selection of suitable fuzzy rules, membership
for industrial purposes. Indeed, as compared to functions and their definitions along the universe of
the DC machine, it provides a better discourse always involve a painstaking trial-and error
power/mass ratio, a simpler maintenance and process. GA most known and is most largely employed in
relatively lower cost. However, it is the technique of global research with a capacity to explore
traditionally for a long time, used in industrial and exploit a given operation space using the
applications that do not require high measurement of the available performance. Recently of
performances, this because its control is a more many applications combining the fuzzy concepts and GA
complex problem, its high nonlinearity and its appeared, particularly, the use of GA for the fuzzy logic
high coupled structure. Furthermore, the motor systems control design. Thus approaches are called
parameters are time-varying during the normal genetic-fuzzy system. In this paper a technique to
operation and most of the state variables are not optimize the parameters of fuzzy adapter of PI controller
measurable. Since Blashke and Hasse have is discussed; the controller resulting from this
developed the new technique known as vector combination is known on the name: adaptive FLC-PI-GA
control, the use of the induction machine in order to apply it to the speed control of the induction
becomes more and more frequent. This control machine.
strategy can provide the same performance as A fuzzy gain scheduling of conventional PI controller is
achieved from a separately excited DC investigated, in which the fuzzy logic system is used on-line to
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generate the PI controller parameters. Then, an The main objective of the vector control of induction
optimal fuzzy gain scheduling of PI controller is motors is, as in DC machines, to independently control the
being designed in which an optimization technique torque and the flux; this is done by using a d-q rotating
using genetic algorithm is developed to optimize the reference frame synchronously with the rotor flux space
fuzzy logic controller. Finally, the combined vector. In ideally field-oriented control, the rotor flux
proposed controller was applied for induction motor linkage axis is forced to align with the d-axes, and it
speed control through a numerical simulation. follows that

2. Indirect field-oriented control of


induction motor =0 (3)

The dynamic model of three-phase, Y-connected (4)


induction motor can be expressed in the d-q
synchronously rotating frame as: Applying the
result of (3) and (4), namely field oriented control, the
torque equation become analogous to the DC
machine and can be described as follows:

(5)

And the slip frequency can be given as follow:

(6)

Consequently, the dynamic equations (1) yield:

(1)
Where σ is the coefficient of dispersion and is given
by:

(2)

Ls, Lr, Lm stator, rotor and mutual Inductances; (7)


Rs , Rr stator and rotor resistances;
ω e , ωr electrical and rotor angular
Frequency;
ω sl slip frequency ( ωe –ωr) ;
τr rotor time constant ( Lr/ Rr) ;

The decoupling control method with compensation is to choose


pole pairs
inverter output voltages such that:

193
3.
The speed control of the IM by an If e is Ai, and Δe is Bi, then ' k p is Ci, and ' ki is Di.(12)
adaptive controller FLC-pi Where Ai, Bi ,Ci and Di are fuzzy sets on
corresponding supporting sets.
In this paper PID parameters controller can be The fuzzy rules in (12) may be extracted from
operator’s expertise or based on the step response of the
adjusted by an adaptive mechanism based on a fuzzy
process.. By using the membership functions, we have
inference (adaptive FLC-PI). the following conditions

3.1. Fuzzy gain scheduling of PI controller

Gain scheduling means a technique where PI


The fuzzy outputs k p’ and ki’ can be calculated by the
controller parameters ( k p and ki gains) are tuned
centre of area defuzzification as:
during control of the system in a predefined way. It
enlarges the operation area of linear controller (PI) to
perform well also with a nonlinear system .The
diagram of this technique is illustrated in fig. 1. The
fuzzy inference mechanism adjusts the PI parameters
and generates new parameters during process control,
so that the FLC adapts the PI parameters to operating
conditions based on the error and its first time
difference.
Fig. 1 PI control system with fuzzy gain adapter.

Fig 2 shows the block diagram of the indirect field


oriented control by an adaptive controller FLCPI.

3.2. Description of the fuzzy scheduler


The parameters of the PI controller used in
the direct chain k p and ki are normalized into the
range between zero and one by using the following
linear transformations :

The inputs of the fuzzy adapter are: The error e and


the derivative of error Δe , the outputs are : the
normalized value of the proportional action ( k ‘p )
4. Speed control of IM with an optimal fuzzy gain
and the normalized value of the integral action ( ki’ ).
scheduler of pi controller
The problem of selecting the suitable fuzzy controller
4.1. Genetic Algorithms
rules remain relying on expert knowledge and try and
error tuning methods. The parameters k p’ and ki ‘are
determined by a set of fuzzy rules of the form:

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GA’s are parallel and global search techniques basic idea is to maintain a population of chromosomes
which take the concepts from evolution theory and (representing candidate solutions to
natural genetics to evolve solutions to problems. The
the concrete problem being solved) that evolves over
time through a process of competition and controlled 4.2.3. Optimization algorithm using GA of the
variation. GA’s is theoretically and empirically Fuzzy adapter
proven to provide robust search in complex spaces,
giving a valid approach to problem requiring efficient The application of the GA in the optimization
and effective searching. process of the FL controllers can be formulated as
• Evaluation of individual fitness; follows:
• Formation of gene pool (intermediate population); 1. Start with an initial population of solutions that
• Recombination and mutation. constitutes the first generation (P (0)).
2. Evaluate P (0):
4.2. Design of fuzzy-genetic system a) Take each chromosome (KB) from the population and
introduce it into the FLC,
4.2.1. Membership parameters optimization b) Apply the FLC to the controlled system for an
adequate evaluation period,
GA is applied to modify the membership c) Evaluate the behavior of the controlled system by
functions. When modifying the membership producing a performance index to the KB.
functions, these functions are parameterized with one 3. While the termination condition is not met, do
to four coefficients (Fig. 3), and each of these
coefficients will constitute a gene of the chromosome
for the GA.

a) Create a new generation (P(t+1)) by applying the


evolution operators (selection, crossover and mutation)
to the individuals in P(t),
b) Evaluate P (t+1)

Fig. 3 Some parameterized membership functions

4.2.2. Fuzzy rule base optimization

GA is used to modify the decision table of an


FLC, which is applied to control a system with two

c) t = t+1.
4. End.
The mechanism of this optimization procedure can be
represented in fig. 4.
input
(trial-and error) and one input (command action)
variables. A chromosome is formed from the decision Fig. 4 Evolutionary learning of an FLC
table by going row-wise and coding each output
fuzzy set as an integer in 0, 1… n, where n is the The fuzzy adapter consists of two inputs (error and its
number of membership functions defined for the derivative) and two outputs ( k p’ ) and ( ki’ ), where each
output variable of the FLC. Value 0 indicates that input has seven membership functions. These subsets are
there is no output, and value k indicates that the labeled by linguistic terms such as: Zero (Z), Negative
output fuzzy set has the k-th membership.
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(N)... etc. GA is used to search the appropriate Fig. 5 Membership Fig. 6 Membership functions
parameters values and to modify the decisions table of functions e of Δe
of the FLC, where the chromosome is formed from
the decision table and to code each membership The resulting rule bases from the optimization procedure
function by a integer number from 0 to 2, number 2 are shown in table I and II. In the tables for example, the
indicates the number of membership function defined first rule for the output kp’ and k is:
for the two outputs. So, we can present the equivalent If e is A11 And e Δ is A21 So kp’ is B12 and ki’ is B21
code by: Small (S): 1, Big (B): 2 and No output: 0. In Where B12 is the second fuzzy set of the first
GA, we only need to select some suitable parameters, Consequent ( k p’ ) and B21 is the first fuzzy set of the
such as generations, population size, crossover rate, second consequent ( ki’ ). We can re-write this rule as:
mutation rate, and coding length of chromosome, If e is NB And e Δ is NB So kp’ B and ki’
then the searching algorithm will search out a is S.
parameter set to satisfy the designer's specification or
the system requirement. In this paper, GA will be
included in the design of fuzzy gains tuner of the PI
controller. The parameters for the GA simulation are
set as follows: The parameters for the GA simulation
are set as follows:
(1) Initial population size: 30;
(2) Maximum number of generation: 100;
(3) Crossover: Uniform crossover with probability
0.8;
(4) Mutation probability: 0.01.
In this paper, the performance is measured using the
following criteria.
(5) Minimum integral of squared which is given as
follows:

Fig. 5 shows the tuning scheme of PI controller


adapted by a fuzzy system where their parameters are Fig. 7 Membership functions of kp’ and ki’
optimized by the genetic algorithm. Table I: rule bases of the output kp’

4.2.4. Results of optimization procedure

The results obtained for the parameters optimization


of the membership functions are represented in fig. 5
to fig. 7.

196
Fig. 10 Simulated results comparison of adaptive PI using
fuzzy inference and adaptive PI using fuzzy inference
optimized by GA of IM
5. Simulation results
6. Conclusion
To prove the rightness and effectiveness of In this work, we proposed a method of
proposed control scheme, we apply the designed combination between the fuzzy controller and
controller to the control of the induction motor. It conventional PI controller in order to overcome the
mainly consists of an induction motor, a ramp disadvantages of PI controllers and FLC, this combination
gave us an adaptive PI controller which presented
comparison current-controlled pulse width modulated
satisfactory performances (no overshoot, minimal rise
(PWM) inverter, a slip angular speed estimator, an time, best disturbance rejection). The major drawback of
inverse park, an outer speed feedback control loop and the fuzzy controller is the insufficient analytical design
a fuzzy gain scheduling of PI controller or fuzzy gain technique (choice of the rules, the membership functions
scheduling of PI controller optimized by GA for the and the scaling factors). That we chose with the use of the
speed control. Fig.8 to Fig.10 show the various genetic algorithm for the optimization of this controller in
order to control IM speed. In the system, GA is used to
simulation results.
design an adaptive PI controller using fuzzy controller
with optimal parameters. The optimal fuzzy gains
scheduling of PI controller is used to achieve robust
performance against parameter variations and external
disturbances. Simulation results have shown that the
proposed optimal controller is robust with regard to
parameter variations and external load disturbance (no
overshoot, minimal rise time, best disturbance rejection).
Finally, the proposed controller provides drive robustness
improvement and assures global stability.
Fig. 8 The IM rotor speed control with adaptive FLC- Appendix:
PI optimized by GA for two different Rr.

References:

[1] R. D. Lorenz and D. B. Lawson: A Simplified


Approach to Continuous On-Line Tuning of Field-
Fig. 9 The IM rotor speed control with adaptive Oriented Induction Machine Drives, IEEE Trans. On
FLC-PI optimized by GA for two different J. Industry application, Vol/26, Issue/3, May/June (1990).

197
2. FAULT DETECTION FOR POWER TRANSFORMERS
USING NEURAL NETWORKS
NAGIREDDY RAVI1 N. Yadaiah2MIEEE
1
Mini Hydel Stations, Pochampad, Andhra Pradesh Power Generation Corporation Limited, POCHAMPAD– 500
082, A. P., INDIA, E-mail: nagireddyravi@rediffmail.com
2
Dept. of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, College of Engineering ( Autonomous), Jawaharlal Nehru
Technological University, ANANTAPUR- 515 002, A. P., INDIA, E-mail: yadaiahn@hotmail.com

Abstract- This paper presents the methodology for The faults that occur within transformer
incipient fault detection in Power transformers using broadly classified into two types, one is an internal
artificial neural networks. An artificial neural incipient faults and other is an internal short circuit
network is used for identifying the practical
faults. The majority of incipient faults occurring in
transformer faults. The conventional Dissolved Gas
Analysis method to detect incipient faults has been power transformer give evidence very early in their
improved using artificial neural networks and is development stages through the transformer oil gas
compared with Rogers ratio method with available analysis. The transformer may function well
samples of field information. externally, it may cause serious problem with some
Key words: Incipient faults, Power Transformers, insulation deterioration. The fault detection
Neural Networks. techniques such as Dissolved Gas Analysis (DGA)
[1-2] and partial discharge analysis [3] are currently
used for detection of incipient faults. In this paper, a
I. INTRODUCTION method based on DGA has been improved using
The transformer is an important component Artificial Neural Networks (ANN) to identify the
in power system network. The failures of the faults. It is an off-line technique and requires DGA
transformer hinder the proper operation of electrical report. In addition to this, it is high in cost and time
system network and its reliable operation is an
important factor. Any fault in the transformer side consuming. The performance of the ANN based
causes power outages and blackouts, thereby hampers method has been compared with the existing method
the power quality. Power quality is one of the main such as Rogers ratio by using the field information of
concerns of the utilities and inferior power quality DGA samples from Andhra Pradesh (India)
causes many problems such as malfunctions, Distribution, Transmission, Generation Companies.
instabilities, short lifetime and so on, hence to
maintain power quality is most important. The
replacement of power transformer is very expensive
and time consuming and therefore it is essential to II. PROBLEM FORMULATION
detect incipient faults as early as possible, which
enable rectification of fault with minimum In this paper, the problem of identification
interruption of service. of internal incipient faults in power transformer has
been considered. Currently, DGA based methods are
198
being used, but these cannot provide accurate results. described below have proposed for identification of
The uncertainty in the process of sampling which is incipient faults in the power transformers.
due to improper collection of oil samples, transport of
An ANN method based DGA has been used
oil samples to laboratory. The errors in measuring
to overcome the limitations of existing methods. To
and analyzing in the laboratory due to leaks in the
implement the proposed method, the DGA data of oil
vacuum system during gas extraction and
samples for different transformers in Andhra Pradesh
contamination of columns used in gas
(India) Generation, Transmission and Distribution
chromatograph. The involvement of group discussion
Companies, which contains no fault and faulty
by experts is necessary to achieve a conclusion and to
samples, has been collected. This data has been used
make decision for disassembly. Due to this time
to train the ANN and the performance of this method
consuming and tedious procedure, automatic methods
has been compared with conventional method.

III. ARTIFICIAL NEURAL NETWORKS shown in Table I. The ratios of these gases are used
for interpretation of faults.
Artficial neural networks composed of
simple elements operating in parallel [7]. These
elements are inspired by biological nervous system.
An artififial neuron with activation function is shown
in Fig.1.

TABLE I
DISSOLVED GASES IN OIL.

Formula of the gas Name of the gas


C2H2 Acetylene
Fig .1 Artificial neuron with activation function C2H4 Ethylene
CH4 Methane
The NET is weighted input of neuron and OUT is the H2 Hydrogen
output of neuron. An activation function is applied C2H6 Ethane
for each neuron in the network. There are different
types af actvation functions such as linear, piecewise,
hardlimiter, unipolar sigmoid, bipolar sigmoid etc. There are two commonly used conventional
ratio analysis methods namely Doernenburg ratios
method and Rogers ratios method [1]. These two
IV. FAULT DIAGNOSIS USING DGA ratio analysis methods have been used for DGA to
DGA is an earliest tool for the detection of detect the incipient faults in power transformer. The
incipient faults in transformers. Hydrocarbon oils are DGA data provides information about the condition
used as insulating fluids in transformers because of of the transformer and advance warning of
their high dielectric strength, heat transfer properties developing faults.
and chemical stability. Insulating material will
decompose under the stresses of thermal and
electrical. These generate gaseous decomposition
products, which dissolve in mineral oil. The nature A. Doernenburg Ratios Method
and the amount of the individual component gases
extracted from the oil may be indicative of the type This method utilizes gas ratios listed in
and degree of abnormality. The gases that are Table II and suggests the existence of three types of
generated and dissolved in oil of the transformer are fault types such as (i) Thermal fault, (ii) Corona and
(iii) Arcing [1]. This table is formulated using

199
dissolved gases of transformer oil. The limitation of Characteristic Fault Type Code of
this method is that, it can detect only three faults and characteristic
is very complex. gases
No Fault 0 0 0
Low temperature fault (<1500C) 0 0 1
Low temperature fault (1500C- 0 2 0
B. Rogers Ratios Method 3000C)
This method has been proposed by Rogers Medium temperature fault 0 2 1
and utilizes gas ratios listed in Table III and it reveals (3000C-7000C)
five different types of faults such as (i) Low High temperature fault (>7000C) 0 2 2
temperature thermal fault, (ii) Medium temperature Low energy partial discharges 0 1 0
thermal fault (iii) High temperature thermal fault, (iv) High energy partial discharges 1 1 0
Partial discharges and (v) High Energy arcing. It is Low energy discharges 1-2 0 1-2
one method most commonly used for diagnosis of the High energy discharges 1 0 2
transformer incipient faults.
TABLE II C. ANN based fault detection
GAS RATIOS FOR DORENENBERG RATIOS An Artificial Neural Network is good tool
METHOD for the applications like pattern classification, fault
Ratio1 (R1) CH4/H2 detection; function approximation due to inherent
Ratio2 (R2) C2H2/C2H4 characteristics of learning, generalization, fault
Ratio3 (R3) C2H2/CH4 tolerance etc. In this paper it has been used for off-
Ratio4 (R4) C2H6/ C2H2 line fault detection of power transformers incipient
fault with knowledge of DGA of transformer oil
samples. The problem of fault detection is a potential
application of ANN [5-6]. A multi-layer feed-forward
TABLE III
artificial neural network has been proposed to
GAS RATIOS FOR ROGERS RATIOS
identify the fault and a generalized delta rule has
METHOD
been used for training of network. Implementation
involves the generating of training data, and design of
Ratio1 (R1) CH4/H2 ANN structure, training of network and testing. In
Ratio2 (R2) C2H2/C2H4 this application, gas ratios become the inputs for
Ratio3 (R3) C2H4/ C2H6 neural network and types of faults become the
outputs of the network. To start with, a three layer
network has been considered, in which size of input
The code generation of each Rogers ratios
layer is equal to number of gas ratios and size of
for classification is described in Table IV and it was
output layer is equal to the number of different faults
defined by Rogers [4]. The coding of each fault type
and the nodes in the hidden layer are selected based
with respect to their characteristics is given in Table
on experience and a schematic diagram of a three
V.
layer network is shown in Fig. 2.
TABLE IV
CLASSIFICATION TABLE BY ROGERS
C2H2/ C2H4 CH4/H2 C2H4/ Range of
C2H6 Gas
Ratios
0 1 0 <0.1
1 0 0 0.1-1.0
1 2 1 1.0-3.0
Fig .2 Multi-layer feed-forward Neural Network.
2 2 2 >3.0
D. Algorithm
TABLE V : TYPES OF FAULTS Step 1: The data of oil samples of dissolved gas
analysis of various normal and faulty transformers

200
are collected. The data collected is used for training 4 Low partial energy 13
the neural network. discharge (LPD)
Step 2: The faulty type samples have been confirmed
by actual faults. The ANNs were trained with 472 training
Step 3: The ANNs are established on these samples samples. The three gas ratios are considered as inputs
using multi-layer back-propagation. and five nodes in output layer to identify five
Step 4: The inputs are the gas ratios of the DGA test different types of faults, in which the nodes are set to
report , the outputs are the fault types for the neural 1 for respective fault and 0 for no fault. After
network. training, the network is tested with typical test
Step 5: The trainining of the network is carried out samples and the results are summarized in Table VII.
with all training pairs from the training set by The performance of both the methods is compared
applying the input vector to the network input. and the results show that the ANN method detects
Step 6: Calucate the output of the network more accurately than Rogers ratio, method as shown
Step 7: Calculate the error between the network in Table VII.
output and the desired output i.e, the target vector Table VII : MPARISON OF ANN METHOD
from the traing set. WITH ROGER’S RATIO METHOD
Step 8: Adjust the weights of the network for Sa C C2 C H2 C2 A Rog Act
minimizing the error. m 2 H4 H H6 N er’s ual
Step 9: Repeat steps 1 through 4 for each vector in ple H 4 N Rati Fau
the training set until the error for the entire set is no 2 Me o lt
acceptably low. tho met
Step 10: The trained network is tested using test data. d hod
D. Simulation Results 1 1. 12 25 27 16 NF NF NF
0 5 .0 .2 9.1
In order to illustrate these methods such as Rogers 9 8 1
ratios method and ANN based method, experimental 2 0 0. 4. 21 11 NF NF NF
results of DGA for various power transformers have 98 86 .5 3
been collected from the Andhra Pradesh Power 4
Distribution, Transmission, and Generation 3 1. 0. 3. 11 12 NF UNI NF
companies. The input vector consists of three gas 9 67 12 .8 0.8 DE
ratios such as (i) C2H2/C2H4, (ii) CH4/H2, and (iii) 8 2 NTI
C2H4/C2H6 and the output vector involves five FIA
elements (i) No fault, (ii) Low Temperature fault BLE
(1500C - 3000C), (iii) Medium Temperature fault 4 0 14 5. 69 23. NF UNI NF
(3000C – 7000C), (iv) High temperature fault 5. 92 .0 09 DE
(>7000C) and (v) Low energy partial discharge. The 6 5 NTI
collected samples are listed in Table VI with FIA
respective fault type and these samples are used to BLE
train ANN. The fault type samples were confirmed 5 0. 2. 74 24 74 LT LTF LT
by the actual faults in the internal examination of the 2 67 .5 .2 F F
transformer. 3 9 8
TABLE VI : COMPOSITION OF THE TRAINING 6 3. 8. 76 34 52. LT UNI LT
DATA 8 74 .9 .8 89 F DE F
6 3 8 NTI
Fault Fault Type Training
FIA
Code Samples
BLE
0 No fault (NF) 400
7 1 16 67 11 96. M MT MT
1 Low temperature fault 25
6 .2 .6 23 TF F F
(150oC-300oC) (LTF)
5
2 Medium temperature fault 14
8 1. 45 90 54 2.1 HT HTF HT
(300 0C-7000C) (MTF)
8 6. .3 .1 9 F F
3 High temperature fault 20 2 2 7
(>7000C) (HTF)

201
9 0. 60 39 45 7.9 HT UNI HT Relations", Electronic Modeling, Vol. 24, No. 3,
3 .3 .3 .4 2 F DE F 2002, pp 48-61.
4 2 1 2 NTI
[7] N. Yadaiah, L.Sivakumar, Nagireddy Ravi
FIA
BLE "Design of Load Frequency Control in Power
10 3. 15 9 29 21 LP LPD LP Systems Using Neural Networks", Electric
9 4. 7 1.6 D D Energy Systems Management Proc. – Indian
7 5 7 Scenario, Roorkee, Sep 4-5, 1998, pp 134 - 138
V. CONCLUSIONS [8] MATLAB Documentation – Wavelet Tool Box,
An ANN method has been developed for Ver. 7, The Mathworks Inc., Natick, MA.
fault detection of power transformers. The
performance of ANN method has been tested and
compared with Rogers ratios method and found that,
ANN detects more accurately.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT
N. Yadaiah received B.E. in Electrical and
The authors would like to thank the
comments from the reviewers. Also would like to Electronics Engineering from College of
thank the authorities of JNTU College of Engineering, Osmania University, Hyderabad, India,
Engineering, Anantapur, India and Power Generation in 1988. M.Tech. in Control systems from IIT
Corporation Limited, Hyderabad, India for providing Kharagpur, India in 1991 and Ph.D. in Electrical and
all infrastructural facilities. Electronics Engineering from Jawaharlal Nehru
REFERENCES Technological University, Hyderabad, India in 2000.
[1] IEEE guide for the Interpretation of Gases He received Young Scientist Fellowship (YSF) of
Generated in Oil-Immersed Transformers, Andhra Pradesh State Council for Science and
ANSI/IEEE std.C57.104, 1991. Technology, in 1999. He is currently a Professor in
[2] C.E. Lin, J.M. Ling and C. L. Huang, “An expert Electrical and Electronics Engineering at Jawaharlal
system for transformer fault diagnosis and Nehru Technological University. He is Fellow of
maintenance using dissolved gas analysis” IEEE Institution of Engineers (India), Institution of
Trans. on Power Delivery, Vol.8, No.1, 1993, pp
Electronics & Telecommunications Engineers
231-238.
(India), Member of IEEE, Life Member of Indian
[3] IEEE trial-use guide for the detection of Acoustic
Society of Technical Education, Life Member of
Emissions from partial discharges in oil-
immersed Power Transformers, IEEE std. Systems Society of India. His research includes in
C57.127-2000. the areas of Artificial Neural Networks, Fuzzy Logic,
[4] Y. C. Huang and Hong-Tzer Yang, “Developing a System identification, fault identification, Adaptive
New transformer fault Diagnosis System through Control, Nonlinear Systems and process control.
Evolutionary fuzzy logic”, IEEE Trans. on
Power Delivery, Vol. 12, No.2, 1997, pp 761- N. Ravi received B.E. in Electrical & Electronics
767. Engineering from College of Engineering, Jawaharlal
[5] R. P. Lippmann, “An Introduction to Computing Nehru Technological University Hyderabad, India, in
with Neural Nets”, IEEE ASSP magazine, Vol. 1998 and M.Tech. in Power Electronics from the
4, No.2, 1987, pp 4-22. same College in 2006. He is currently working as an
[6] N. Yadaiah, L.Sivakumar, B.L.Deekshatulu and Assistant Divisional Engineer in Andhra Pradesh
V.Sri Hari Rao, "Neural Network Architectures Power Generation Corporation Ltd., Andhra Pradesh,
for Describing Nonlinear Input-Output Hyderabad, India.

202
3. Design of Fuzzy Controller for a Robot arm: A systematic
Approach
B.Krishna Madhuri

Abstract— less trail and error effort and produce better control
performance.
Most fuzzy controllers have been treated and In literature analytical structures are derived
used as black-box controllers in the sense that their
mainly for fuzzy controllers using Zadeh AND
analytical structures are unknown. Knowing the
explicit structure information will enable one to operator [1]-[5]. Revealing the analytical structure of
insightfully understand how a fuzzy control works. In a fuzzy controller that uses Zadeh AND operator is
the present paper a novel technique is presented for far more difficult even for triangular input fuzzy sets,
deriving input out put relations for the fuzzy which are simplest fuzzy sets because this operator
controller that uses Zadeh AND operator for requires the comparison of membership functions.
symmetrical triangular input fuzzy sets. The robotic
arm control with and without the gravitational effect Recently that is extended to derive the
is simulated to know the efficacy of the fuzzy relationship between input space divisions needed
controller using symmetrical input membership
due to the use of Zadeh AND operator and input
functions.
fuzzy sets [6][7].

Index Terms-- Fuzzy controller, triangular fuzzy In this paper an analytical structure for
sets, robot arm, gravitational torque. symmetrical class of input fuzzy sets is developed.
The robotic arm control is simulated to know the
I. INTRODUCTION efficacy of the fuzzy controller.
Fuzzy controllers are constructed generally via
heuristic approaches as opposed to the mathematical II. DEVELOPMENT OF A GENERAL
approaches exclusively used in conventional control. TECHNIQUE
The fuzzy controllers have been treated and used as A Mamdani type fuzzy controller, which
black box controllers. With out analytical structure employs two input variables, is taken. The two input
information, precise and effective mathematical variables are e (n) and r (n) and system output is y
analysis and design are very difficult to achieve. (n). The scaled error and change of error of y (n) are
Availability of the structure information may lead to
203
E(n) = Ke e(n) = Ke (SP(n)-y(n))
0 , (− , ∞− 1 2 ]
R(n) = Kr r(n) = Kr (e(n)-e(n-1)) 
 R ( +n1 ) 2
Where Ke and Kr are scaling factors and μ = , [− 1 21 , 2 ]
SP (n) is output command signal. E (n) and R (n) are
R j+ 1
 2 4
fuzzified by triangular fuzzy sets. The membership  1 [ 1 ∞2] ,
functions for E (n) and R (n) are noted by µ E i, µ E i+1,
µ R j and µ R j+1 respectively.
Over all input space divisions of all the four rules due
The rules are: to Zedah AND operator are shown in Fig. 1.

Rule 1: IF E (n) is Ei+1 AND R (n) is RJ+1 THEN u


(n) is H1

Rule 2: IF E (n) is Ei+1 AND R (n) is Rj THEN u (n)


is H2

Rule 3: IF E (n) is Ei AND R (n) is Rj+1 THEN u (n)


is H3
Fig. 1. Over all input space division for all the four
Rule 4: IF E (n) is Ei AND R (n) is Rj THEN rules

u (n) is H4 For each region a unique analytical in equality


relationship can be obtained for each fuzzy rule
Zadeh fuzzy logic AND operator is used to realize between two membership functions being ANDed.
the AND operations in the rules.

The popular centroid defuzzifier is employed which


yields
μ1h1 + μ 2 h 2 + μ 3 h 3 + μ 4 h 4
U(n) = K u .u(n) = K u
μ1 + μ 2 + μ 3 + μ 4

where K u is the scaling factor and U (n) is the Table I: Rule Firing
output of fuzzy controller.
Analytical structure of the fuzzy controller is
obtained by putting these results into the defuzzifier,
III. ANALYTICAL STRUCTURE FOR
TRIANGULAR MEMBERSHIP FUNCTIONS: and it is tabulated in Table II
Mathematical definitions of the fuzzy sets are
IV. CASE STUDY
A system representing the complete modal for
0 , (− , ∞− 1 5 ] Robot arm control is shown in Fig. 2. with fuzzy PD
 controller. The disturbance Tgr is due to gravity.
 E ( +n 1) 5 Simulated results are shown in Fig. 3 to Fig. 5.
μE i + 1 =  , [− 1 51 , 5 ]
 3 0 Fig. 2 Block diagram for the control of robot arm
using fuzzy controller
 1 , [ 1 ∞5 ] ,
204
B. Performance Analysis:
From the graphs it can be observed that the rise
timeand settling time for the fuzzy controller using
symmetrical input fuzzy sets are less compared to
rise time and settling time for the conventional
controller. I.e. fuzzy controller gives the fast
response.
C. When arm is moving down:
The effectiveness of controller when the arm is
moving down is shown in Fig. 5. It is observed that
Table II Analytical Structure fuzzy controller response compared to conventional
controller is better in this case also.

Fig. 5. Response when arm is moving down

V. Conclusions

In this paper analytical structure of fuzzy


controller using symmetric triangular fuzzy sets is
developed. And it is applied to control the robotic
arm. Results are compared with the conventional
controller. Finally from the simulated results it can be
concluded that the system using fuzzy controller is
fast responding irrespective of the presence of
disturbance torques.

V. REFERENCES
[1] H. Ying, W. Siler, and J.J. Buckley,”Fuzzy
control theory: A Non-linear case,” Automatica,
Fig. 3 Step response without disturbance vol.26, pp.513-520, 1990.
[2] A. E. Hajjaji and A. Rachid, “Explicit formulas
A. Effect of gravitational torque: for fuzzy controller,” Fuzzy Sets Syst., vol. 62, pp.
Introducing the gravity torque Tgr = 21 sinθ for the 135-141, 1994.
system considered in fig.4., there are two cases to be [3] W. Li, ”Design of a hybrid fuzzy logic
proportional plus conventional integral-derivative
analyzed.
controller,” IEEE Trans. Syst., vol. 6, no. 4, pp. 449-
463, Nov. 1998.
[4] G.K. Mann, B.G. Hu, and R. G. Gosine,
“Analysis of direct action fuzzy PID controller
structures” IEEE Trans. Syst., Man, Cybern, B.
Cybern., vol. 29, pp.371-388, 1999.
[5] Hao Ying, “ A General Technique for Deriving
Analytical Structure of Fuzzy Controllers Using
Fig. 4 Response with disturbance Arbitrary Trapezoidal Input Fuzzy Sets and Zadeh

205
AND Operator”. Automatica, Vol .39, pp. 1171- Stabilizer” Proceedings of IASTED Modeling,
1184, 2003. simulation, and Optimization MSO2004 August 2004
[6] K.A. Gopala Rao, K.R.Sudha, “Analytical
Structure of Three Input Fuzzy PID Power System VI. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Stabilizer with Decoupled Rules”, WSEAS Trans. on I thank my guide Dr. K.A. Gopala Rao, Professor and
CIRCUITS and SYSTEMS, pp.965-970, June 2004. Head, Department of Electrical Engineering for
[7] K.A. Gopala Rao, K.R.Sudha, “Analytical introducing me to this area of research.
Structure of PID Fuzzy Logic Power System

4. Load Frequency Control Using Fuzzy Gain Scheduling


of PI Controller
A.Sreenath1, Y.R.Atre2.
1
P.G.Student, Electrical Engineering dept, Walchand College of Engg, Sangli.
2
Electrical Engineering dept, Walchand College of Engg, Sangli (M.H-416415).
E-Mail Address: sreenathb4u@gmail.com
anchuris@gmail.com
Abstract Keywords-Two area power system; Load-Frequency
control; Fuzzy logic controller
In this paper, a fuzzy gain scheduled
proportional and integral (FGPI) controller was 1. Introduction.
developed to regulate and to improve the frequency
deviation in a two-area electrical interconnected Large scale power systems are normally composed of
power system. Also, a conventional proportional and control areas or regions representing coherent groups
integral (PI), and a fuzzy logic (FL), controllers were of generators. The various areas are interconnected
used to control the same power system for the through tielines. The tie-lines are utilized for
performance comparison. Two performance criteria contractual energy exchange between areas and
were utilized for the comparison. First, settling times provide inter-area support in case of abnormal
and overshoots of the frequency deviation were conditions. Area load changes and abnormal
compared. Later, the absolute error integral analysis conditions, such as outages of generation, lead to
method was calculated to compare all the controllers. mismatches in frequency and scheduled power
The Simulation results show that the FGPI controller interchanges between areas. These mismatches have
developed in this study performs better than the other to be corrected through supplementary control.
controllers with respect to the settling time and Load Frequency Control (LFC) of interconnected
overshoot, and absolute error integral of the systems is defined as the regulation of power output
frequency deviation. of generators within a prescribed area, in response to
change in system frequency, tie-line loading, or the
relation of these to each other; so as to maintain
206
scheduled system frequency and/or established to control the deviations of frequency and tie-line
interchange with other areas within predetermined power of each control area.
limits [1]. An uncontrolled two-area interconnected power
Many investigations have been reported in the system is shown in Figure 1 where, f is the system
past pertaining to load frequency control of a multi- frequency (Hz), Ri is regulation constant (Hz/per
area interconnected power system. In the literature,
some control strategies have been proposed based on unit), Tg is speed governor time constant (sec), Tt
classical linear control theory .However, because of is turbine time constant (sec) and T p is power
the inherent characteristics of the changing loads, the system time constant (sec).
operating point of a power system changes
continuously during a daily cycle. Thus, a fixed The overall system can be modelled as a multi-
controller may no longer be suitable in all operating variable system in form of
conditions. There are some authors who have applied x =A x (t ) +B u (t ) +L d (t ) , (1)
variable structure control [3] to make the controller
insensitive to system parameters change. However,
Where A is the system matrix, B and L are input and
this method requires information on the system states
disturbance distribution matrices, x(t), u(t) and d(t)
which are very difficult to know completely. In view
are state, control and load changes disturbance
of this, a new area load frequency controller based on
vectors respectively.
fuzzy gain scheduling of PI controller is proposed in
this paper. Gain scheduling is a technique commonly X(t)=[∆f1 ∆Pg1 ∆Pd1 ∆Ptie12 ∆f2 ∆Pg2 ∆Pd2 ]T
used in designing controller for non-linear systems.
Its main advantage is that controller parameters can u (t ) = [ u1 u 2 ] T

be changed very quickly in response to changes in the


system dynamics because no parameter estimation is d (t ) = [ ∆Pd 1 ∆Pd 2 ] T,
required. Besides being an effective method to
compensate for non-linear and other predictable where ∆ denotes deviation from the nominal values.
variations in the system dynamics, it is also simpler
to implement than automatic tuning or adaptation.
u1 and u 2 are the control outputs in
However, the transient response can be unstable Figure1. The system output, which depends on area
because of abruptness in system parameters. Besides, control error (ACE) shown as
it is impossible to obtain accurate linear time
invariant models at variable operating points. Some

y1(t) A 1 C E
fuzzy gain scheduling of PI controllers have been
proposed to solve such problems in power systems
[4] and [5] that developed different fuzzy rules for
the proportional and integral gains separately. Fuzzy
logic control presents a good tool to deal with

y(t)= = =Cx(t)


complicated, non-linear and indefinite and time-
variant systems [6]. In this paper, the rules for the
gains are chosen to be identical in order to improve
the system performance. The comparison of the
proposed FGPI, the conventional PI controllers, and (2)
the fuzzy logic controller suggests that the overshoots

y 2(t) A 2 C E
and settling time with the proposed FGPI controller
are better than the rest.

2. Two area power system.


An interconnected power system can be
considered as being divided into control areas which
are connected by tie lines. In each control area, all
generators are assumed to form a coherent group. The
power system is subjected to local variations of
random magnitude and duration. Hence, it is required

207
ACE i = ∆Ptie ,i + bi ∆f i ,
(3) Gain scheduling is an effective way of controlling
systems whose dynamics change non-linearly with
operating conditions [4]. It is normally used when the
Where bi is the frequency bias constant, ∆ f i is the
relationship between the system dynamics and
frequency deviation and ∆ P tie ,i is the change in operating conditions are known, and for which a
tie-line power for areai and C is the output matrix [4]. single linear time-invariant model is insufficient. In
this paper, we use this technique to schedule the
parameters of the PI controller according to change
of the new area control error ACE, and ∆ACE, as
depicted in Fig. 3.

Fig.1: Two Area Interconnected System


Fig.3. The scheme of fuzzy gain scheduling.
area model parameters of Fig.1 are defined in the
appendix. By taking ACE as the system output, the control
vectors for the conventional PI and I controllers,
3. Fuzzy logic in power systems. respectively can be given in the following forms:
ui = -KPACEi-∫ Ki (ACEi)dt
Fuzzy set theory and fuzzy logic establish
the rules of a nonlinear mapping [6]. The use of fuzzy = - KP(∆Ptie,i+bi∆fi) -∫ Ki(∆Ptie,i+bi∆fi)dt
sets provides a basis for a systematic way for the
application of uncertain and indefinite models [4]. Fuzzy logic shows experience and preference through
Fuzzy control is based on a logical system called membership functions, which have different shapes
fuzzy logic is much closer in spirit to human thinking depending on the experience of system experts. Same
and natural language than classical logical systems inference mechanism is realized by seven rules for
[5,6]. Nowadays fuzzy logic is used in almost all the two FGPI and the FL controllers. The appropriate
sectors of industry and science. One of them is load- rules used in the study are given in Table 1.
frequency control [2]. The main goal of load-
frequency control in interconnected power systems is
to protect the balance between production and
consumption. Because of the complexity and multi-
variable conditions of the power system,
conventional control methods may not give
satisfactory solutions.
The fuzzy controller for the single input, single
output type of systems is shown in Fig. 2 [3].

In this figure, Kp and Ki are the proportional and Fig.5. Membership functions for FL Controller of
integral gains, respectively. The fuzzy controller (a) ACE, (b) ∆ACE, (c) Kp, Ki
input can be the derivative of e together with the
signal E. The fuzzy controller block is formed by
fuzzification of E, the inference mechanism and
defuzzification. Therefore, Y is a crisp value, and u is
a control signal for the system.

Fig.2. The simple fuzzy controller

4. Fuzzy gain scheduled PI controller.


208
∆f1
1

Time(sec)
Fig b. With PI Controller
Fig.6. Membership functions for FGPI Controller Fig 8. e,f shows the responses for Change in
of (a) ACE, (b) ∆ACE, (c) Kp, Ki mechanical power in area1(∆Pm1).(ii)Change in
Membership functions shapes of the error mechanical power in area2(∆Pm2).Change in Tieline
and derivative error and the gains are chosen to be power (∆Ptie).
identical with triangular function for both fuzzy logic
controllers. However, their horizontal axis ranges are
taken different values because of optimizing these
controllers. The membership function sets of FL for
ACE, ∆ACE, Kp and Ki are shown in Fig. 5, while
the ones for FGPI controller are shown in Fig.6.
Defuzzification has also been performed by the
center of gravity method in all studies.
∆f1Simulation study.
5. ∆f11
Simulations
1 were performed using the conventional
PI, Fuzzy Logic (FL) and the proposed FGPI
controllers applied to a two-area interconnected
electrical power system. The same system parameters
given in Tables 2 were used in all controllers for a
comparison. Time(sec)
Two performance criteria were selected in the Fig c. With Fuzzy Logic Controller
Frequency Deviation in area 1
simulation. The frequency deviation graphs were first (∆f1)
plotted with Matlab 7.0-Simulink software. Here, Controller
settling times and overshoots of the frequency Settling Maximum
deviation of the controllers were compared against time(sec) (for Overshoot
each other. The comparison results are provided in 5% band
Table 2 and 3. (HZ)
of the step
change)

FGPI 3.2 -0.013


Fig 7. a, b, c, d shows the responses for frequency
deviation of area1 (∆f1)p.u (∆Pd1=0.01 p.u.). FLC 6.2 -0.022

∆f11 Conventional 4.9 -0.024


PI

Time(sec)
Fig a. Without Controller

209
System performances for all controllers with
steady state error for frequency deviation of area1.

Time(sec)
Fig d. With FGPI Controller 6.Conclusion.

In this paper, a new fuzzy gain scheduling of


PI controller was investigated for automatic load-
frequency control of a two-area interconnected
electrical power system. In the simulations, the
horizontal ranges of membership functions of the FL
and the two FGPI controllers were taken differently
in order to decrease the oscillations of frequency
deviation in all areas. The proposed controller is very
simple and easy to implement, since it does not
require any information about the system parameters.
Time(sec)
According to the experimental results, it performs
Fig e. Without Controller
significantly better than other controllers in the
settling time and absolute error integral while it
performs closer in the overshoot magnitude. In
conclusion, the proposed fuzzy gain scheduling PI
controller is recommended to generate good quality
Table 1
and reliable electric energy.

Frequency Deviation in
area 1 (∆f1)
Controller
Steady state error(ess)
Table 2 FGPI -0.000067

FLC -0.00383

Conventional PI -0.00136

Appendix.

Two-area power system parameters:


Tg=0.08 B1=0.425
R1=2.4 B2=0.425
R2=2.4 T12=0.086
Tp=20 Kp=120
System performances for all controllers on Tt=0.3 a12=1
settling times and overshoots for frequency deviation
of area1.

210
[6]. Tang KS, Man KF, Chen G, Kwong S. “An optimal
fuzzy PID controller”. IEEE Trans Ind Electron 2001;
48(4):757–65.
References. [7]. CC. Lee,” Fuzzy logic in control systems: Fuzzy logic
controller, parts I and II.” IEEE Trans. Sq’st., Man
Cybern... 20 (2) (1990).
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5. Optimal Power Flow by Enhanced Genetic Algorithm


V.B.VIKRAM.D UMME SALMA, ASSISTANT PROFESSER

Abstract—This paper presents an enhanced genetic with normal genetic algorithm and enhanced genetic
algorithm (EGA) for the solution of the optimal algorithm are shown.
power flow (OPF) with both continuous and discrete
control variables. The continuous control variables NOMENCLATURE
modeled are unit active power outputs and
θ Bus voltage angle vector.
generator-bus voltage magnitudes, while the discrete
ones are transformer-tap settings and switchable UL Load (PQ) bus voltage magnitude vector.
shunt devices. A number of functional operating
constraints, such as branch flow limits,load bus PG Unit active power output vector.
voltage magnitude limits, and generator reactive UG Generation (PV) bus voltage magnitude
capabilities, are included as penalties in the GA
fitness function (FF). Numerical results on ieee test vector.
system are presented and comparision of results
t Transformer tap settings vector.
211
bsh Bus shunt admittance vector. can be solved using a Newton-type algorithm. In
Newton OPF [6],the inequality constraints are added
X System state vector. as quadratic penalty terms to the problem objective,
multiplied by appropriate penalty multipliers.
U System control vector. Interior point (IP) methods, convert the inequality
constraints to equalities by the introduction of
A hat above vectors and denotes that the entry nonnegative slack variables. A logarithmic barrier
corresponding to the slack bus is missing. For function of the slack variables is then added to the
objective function, multiplied by a barrier
simplicity of notation, it is assumed that there is parameter, which is gradually reduced to zero
only one generating unit connected on a bus. during the solution process. The unlimited point
algorithm uses a transformation of the slack and
I. INTRODUCTION dual variables of the inequality constraints which
converts the OPF problem KKT conditions to a set
Since its introduction as network constrained
of nonlinear equations, thus avoiding the heuristic
economic dispatch by Carpentier and its definition rules for barrier parameter reduction required by IP
as optimal power flow (OPF) by Dommel and meth ods.
Tinney , the OPF problem has been the subject of
OPF programs based on mathematical
intensive research. The OPF optimizes a power
programming approaches are used daily to solve
system operating objective function (such as the
very large OPF problems.However, they are not
operating cost of thermal resources) while satisfying
guaranteed to converge to the global optimum of the
a set of system operating constraints, including
general nonconvex OPF problem, although there
constraints dictated by the electric network. OPF has
exists some empirical evidence on the uniqueness of
been widely used in power system operation and
the OPF solution within the domain of interest To
planning . After the electricity sector restructuring,
avoid the prohibitive computational requirements of
OPF has been used to assess the spatial variation of
mixed-integer programming, discrete control
electricity prices and as a congestion management
variables are initially treated as continuous, and
and pricing tool .In its most general formulation, the
post-processing discretization logic is subsequently
OPF is a nonlinear, nonconvex, large-scale, static
applied Whereas the effects of discretization on
optimization problem with both continuous and
load tap changing transformers are small and usually
discrete control variables. Even in the absence of
negligible, the rounding of switchable shunt devices
nonconvex unit operating cost functions, unit
may lead to voltage infeasibility, especially when
prohibited operating zones, and discrete control
the discrete VAR steps are large, and requires
variables, the OPF problem is no convex due o the
special logic.The handling of nonconvex OPF
existence of the nonlinear (AC) power flow equality
objective functions, as well as the unit prohibited
constraints. The presence of discrete control
operating zones, also present problems to
variables, such as switchable shunt devices,
mathematical programming OPF approaches.
transformer tap positions, and phase shifters, further
complicates the problem solution. Recent attempts to overcome the limitations
of the mathematical programming approaches and
The literature on OPF is vast, and [1] presents
the major contributions in this area. Mathematical genetic algorithms (GAs) [7], [8].
programming approaches, such as nonlinear
programming (NLP), quadratic programming (QP) In [7], a simple genetic algorithm (SGA) is
[2], [3], and linear programming (LP) [4],[5], have used for OPF solution. The control variables
been used for the solution of the OPF problem. modeled are generator active power outputs and
Some methods, instead of solving the original voltages, shunt devices, and transformer taps.
problem, solve the problem’s Karush–Kuhn–Tucker Branch flow, reactive generation, and voltage
(KKT) optimality conditions. For equality- magnitude constraints are treated as quadratic
constrained optimization problems, the KKT
penalty terms in the GAfitness function (FF).To
conditions are a set of nonlinear equations, which
212
keep the Ga chromosome size small, only a 4- The OPF problem can be formulated as a
bitchromosome area is used for the encoding of each mathematical optimization problem as follows:
control variable. A sequential GA solution scheme
is employed to achieve acceptable control variable Minƒ(x,u) (1)
resolution. Test results on the IEEE 30-bus system,
comprising 25 control variables, are presented. S.t.g(x,u) = 0 (2)

In [8], a GA is used to solve the optimal h(x,u) ≤ 0 (3)


power dispatch problem for a multinode auction
u∈U (4)
market. The GA maximizes the total participants’
welfare, subject to network flow and transport where
limitation constraints. The nodal real and reactive
power injections that clear the market are selected as x=[ θ
Τ
ULT ] T
. (5)
the problem control variables. A GA with two
advanced operators, namely, elitism and hill u=[PGT UGT tT bshT ] (6)
climbing, is used. A 10-bit chromosome area is
devoted to each control variable. Test results on a The equality constraints (2) are the nonlinear power
17-node, 34-control variable system are presented. flow equations. The inequality constraints (3) are
the functional operating constraints, such as
This paper presents an enhanced genetic
algorithm (EGA) for the solution of the OPF. The • Branch flow limits (MVA, MW or A)
control variables and constraints included in the
• load bus voltage magnitude limits;
OPF and the penalty method treatment of the
functional operating constraints are similar to the • Generator reactive capabilities;
ones in [7] with the following improvements:
switchable shunt devices and transformer taps are • Slack bus active power output limits.
modeled as discrete control variables. Variable
binary string length is used for different types of Constraints (4) define the feasibility region of the
control variables, so as to achieve the desired problem
resolution for each type of control variable, without
Control variables such as
unnecessarily increasing the size of the GA
chromosome. In addition to the basic genetic • Unit active power output limits;
operators of the SGA used in [7] and the advanced
ones used in [8], problem-specific operators, • Generation bus voltage magnitude limits;
inspired by the nature of the OPF problem, have
been incorporated in our EGA. With the • Transformer-tap setting limits (discrete values);
incorporation of the problem-specific operators, the
• Bus shunt admittance limits (continuous or
GA can solve larger OPF problems. Test results on
discrete
IEEE 30-buses system with 24 control variables
demonstrates the improvement achieved with the aid Control).
of problem-specific operators.

III. GENETIC ALGORITHMS


II. OPTIMAL POWER FLOW PROBLEM
FORMULATION GAs are general purpose optimization
algorithms based on the mechanics of natural
selection and genetics. They operate on string
213
structures (chromosomes), typically a concatenated chromosomes) and the convergence speed of the GA
list of binary digits representing a coding of the and is usually applied with high probability (0.6–
control parameters (phenotype) of a given problem. 0.9). The chromosomes of the two parents selected
Chromosomes themselves are composed of genes. are combined to form new chromosomes that inherit
The real value of a control parameter, encoded in a segments of information stored in parent
gene, is called an allele.. chromosomes.

Gas are an attractive alternative to other


optimization methods because of their robustness.
There are three major differences between GAs and
conventional optimization algorithms. First, GAs
operate on the encoded string of the problem
parameters rather than the actual parameters of the
problem. Each string can be thought of as a
chromosome that completely describes one
candidate solution to the problem. Second, GAs
use a population of points rather than a single point
in their search. This allows the GA to explore
several areas of the search space simultaneously,
reducing the probability of finding local optima.
Third, GAs do not require any prior knowledge,
space limitations, or special properties of the
function to be optimized, such as convexity,. They
only require the evaluation of smoothness, the so- Fig. 1. Simple genetic algorithm (SGA).
called fitness function (FF) to assign a quality value
to every solution produced.

Assuming an initial random population produced Until now, many crossover schemes, such as single
and evaluated, genetic evolution takes place by point,multipoint, or uniform crossover have been
means of three basic genetic operators:
proposed in the literature. Uniform crossover [9] as
1) Parent selection; been used in our implementation. While crossover is

2) Crossover; the main genetic operator exploiting the information


included in the current generation, it does not
3) mutation.
produce new information. Mutation is the operator

Parent selection is a simple procedure whereby two responsible for the injection of new information.
chromosomes are selected from the parent With a small probability, random bits of the
population based on their fitness value. Solutions offspring chromosomes flip from 0 to 1 and vice
with high fitness values have a high probability
versa and giveconstraints . new characteristics that
Of contributing new offspring to the next do not exist in the parent population . In our
generation. The selection rule used in our approach
approach, the mutation operator is applied with a
is a simple roulette-wheel selection [9]. Crossover is
an extremely important operator for the GA.It is relatively small Probability (0.0001-0.001) to every
responsible for the structure recombination bit of the
(information exchange between mating chromosome.
214
The FF evaluation and genetic evolution take
part in an iterative procedure, which ends when a
maximum number of generations is reached, as 2) discrete controls taking values ui 1, ui 2….., ui m

shown in Fig. 1. When applying GAs to solve a ui = ui m with m=int[Μ/(2Nui).K+1.5]


particular optimization problem (OPF in our case),
two main issues must be addressed: and log2M≤ Nui ≤ log2M + 1
(8)
1) the encoding, i.e., how the problem physical
decision variables are translated to a GA where is the decimal number to which the binary
chromosome and its inverse operator, decoding ;
number in a gene is decoded and is the gene length
2) the definition of the FF to be maximized by the
(number of bits) used for encoding control variable .
GA (the GA FF is formed by an appropriate
transformation of the initial problem objective B. Fitness Function (FF)
function augmented by penalty terms that penalize
the violation of the problem) GAs are usually designed so as to maximize the
FF, which is a measure of the quality of each
candidate solution. The objective of the OPF
problem is to minimize the total operating cost (1).

Therefore, a transformation is needed to convert


the cost objective of the OPF problem to an
appropriate FF to be maximized by the GA. The
OPF functional operating constraints(3) are included
in the GA solution by augmenting the GA FF by
Fig. 2. GA chromosome structure. appropriate penalty terms for each violated
functional constraint. Constraints on the control
variables (4) are automatically satisfied by the
selected GA encoding/decoding scheme (7) and (8).
IV. GENETIC ALGORITHM SOLUTION TO
Therefore, the GA FF is formed as follows:
OPTIMAL POWER FLOW
NG NG
A. Encoding
FF= A /( ∑ Fi( PGi ) + ∑ wj.Penj) (9)
The chromosome is formed as shown in Fig. 2. i=1 i=1
There are four chromosome regions (one for each
set of control variables),namely, 1) PG ;2) UG ; 3)t
and 4) bsh . Encoding is performed using different Pen j=| hj(x,u)|. H (hj(x,u) ) (10)
gene-lengths for each set of control variables, where
depending on the desired accuracy. The decoding of
FF fitness function;
a chromosome to the problem physical variables is
performed as follows: A constant;

1) continuous controls taking values in the Fi( PGi ) fuel cost function of unit (in our case, a
interval [u ,u
i
min
i ]
max

ui = uimin +( u i
max
_− uimin).K/(2Nui -1) (7) quadratic function);

wj weighting factor of functional operating


215
constraint; neglected. In case that, due to the random (yet
within limits) initial selection of the control
Penj penalty function for functional operating variables, the load flow does not converge within a
predefined number of iterations (set to 8), large
Constraint; j(x,u) violation of jth penalty terms, proportional to the maximum
functional operating
power mismatch, are added to the FF.
constraint, if positive;
VII. C. ADVANCED AND PROBLEM-SPECIFIC GENETIC
H(.) Heaviside (step) function; A. Operators
One of the most important issues in the genetic
NG number of units;
evolution is the effective rearrangement of the
NC number of functional operation genotype information. In the SGA crossover is the
constraints. main genetic operator responsible for the
exploitation of information while mutation brings
Given a candidate solution to the problem, new nonexistent bit structures. It is widely
represented by a chromosome, the FF is computed recognized that the SGA scheme is capable of
as follows. locating the neighborhood of the optimal or near-
optimal solutions, but, in general, requires a large
Step 1) Decode the chromosome to determine the number of generations to converge. This problem
becomes more intense for large-scale optimization
actual control variables, , using (7) and (8).
problems with difficult search spaces and lengthy
The computed control vector satisfies, by chromosomes, where the possibility for the SGA to
get trapped in local optima increases and the
design, constraints (4). convergence speed of the SGA decreases. At this
point, a suitable combination of the basic,
Step 2) Solve the power flow (2) to compute the advanced,and problem-specific genetic operators
must be introduced in order to enhance the
state vector,
performance of the GA. Advanced
Step3) Determine the violated functional constraints

(3) and compute associated penalty functions

Fig. 3. Gene swap operator.


Step 4) Compute the FF using (9). & (10) and problem-specific genetic operators usually
combine local search techniques and expertise
In Step 2, a simple fast decoupled load flow (FDLF)
is used with no PV-PQ bus-type switching, since derived from the nature of the problem.
generator reactive capabilities are incorporated in
the functional operating constraints and no local A set of advanced and problem-specific
control adjustments, such as tap and switchable genetic operators has been added to the SGA in
shunts , since the settings of these controls are order to increase its convergence speed and improve
the quality of solutions. Our interest was focused on
determined by the GA. Therefore, only a few load constructing simple yet powerful enhanced genetic
flow iterations are required for convergence. The
FDLF Β ’ and Β ” matrices are formed and operators that effectively explore the problem search
actorized only once in the beginning—the effect of space. The advanced features included in our GA
the changes of shunt admittances on the matrix is
implementation are as follows.
216
1) Fitness Scaling: In order to avoid early
domination of extraordinary strings and to
encourage a healthy competition among
equals, a scaling of the fitness of the
population is necessary [9]. In our
approach, the fitness is scaled by a linear
transformation.
2) Elitism: Elitism ensures that the best solution Fig. 4. Gene copy operator.
found thus far is never lost when moving
from one generation to another.The best
solution of each generation replaces a
randomly selected chromosome in the new
generation [10].
Fig. 5. Gene inverse operator.
2) Hill Climbing: In order to increase the GA
search speed at smooth areas of the search

space a hill-climbing operator is introduced,


which perturbs a randomly selected control
variable. The modified chromosome is accepted if
there is an increase in FF value;otherwise, the old
chromosome remains unchanged

This operator is applied only to the best Fig. 6. Gene max-min operator.
chromosome (elite) of every generation [8].In
2) Gene Copy Operator (GCO): This operator
addition to the above advanced features, which are
randomly selects one gene in a chromosome and
called “advanced” despite their wide use in most
with equal probability copies its value to the
recent GA implementations to distinguish between
predecessor or the successor gene of the same
the SGA and our EGA, operators specific to the
control type, as shown in Fig. 4. This operator
OPF problem have been added.
has been introduced in order to force consecutive
All problem-specific operators introduce
random modification to all chromosomes of a new controls (e.g., identical units on the same bus) to
generation. If the modified chromosome proves to operate at the same output level.
have better fitness, it replaces the original one in the
new population. Otherwise, the original 3) Gene Inverse Operator (GIO): This operator
chromosome is retained in the new population. All acts like a sophisticated mutation operator. It
problem-specific operators are applied with a randomly selects one gene in a chromosome and
probability of 0.2. The following problem-specific inverses its bit-values from one to zero and vice
operators have been used. versa, as shown in Fig. 5. The GIO searches for bit-
structures of improved performance, exploits
1) Gene Swap Operator (GSO): This operator newareas of the search space far away from the
randomly selects two genes in a chromosome and current solution, and retains the diversity of the
swaps their values, as shown in Fig. 3. This operator population.
swaps the active power output of two units, the
voltage magnitude of two generation buses, etc. 4) Gene Max-Min Operator (GMMO): The
Swapping among different types of control variables GMMO tries to identify binding control variable
is not allowed. upper/lower limit constraints.It selects a random
gene in a chromosome and, with the same
217
probability (0.5), fills its area with 1 s or 0 s, as transformer-tap settings, and nine bus shunt
shown in Fig. 6. admittances. The input data for IEEE 30-Bus
System are given in appendix ‘A’ .The gene length
D. Enhanced Genetic Algorithm (EGA) for unit power outputs is 12 bits and for generator
voltage magnitudes is 8 bits. They are both treated
In the EGA, shown in Fig. 7, after the application of
as continuous controls. The transformer-tap settings
the basic genetic operators (parent selection,
can take 17 discrete values (each one is encoded
crossover, and mutation) the advanced and problem-
using 5 bits): the lower and Fig. 8. FF comparison
specific operators are applied to produce the new
for IEEE 30-bus system. upper limits are 0.9 p.u.
generation. All chromosomes in the initial
and 1.1 p.u., respectively, and the step size is 0.0125
population are created at random (every bit in the
p.u. The bus shunt admittances can take six discrete
chromosome has equal probability of being
values (each one is encoded using 3 bits): the lower
switched ON or OFF). Due to the decoding process
and upper limits are 0.0 p.u. and 0.05 p.u.,
selected [(7) and (8)], the corresponding control
respectively, and the step is 0.01 p.u. (on system
variables of the initial population satisfy their
MVA basis). The GA population size is taken equal
upper–lower bound or discrete value constraints (4).
to 60, the maximum number of generations is 200,
However, the initial population candidate and crossover and mutation are applied with initial
solutionsmay not satisfy the functional operating probability 0.9 and 0.001, respectively. Two sets of
constraints(3) or even the load flow constraints (2) 20 test runs were performed; the first (SGA) with
since the random,within limits, selection of the only the basic GA operators and the second (EGA)
control variables may lead to load flow divergence with all operators, including advanced and problem-
(as already discussed in Section I V-B). Population specific operators. The FF evolution of the best of
statistics computed for the new generation include these runs is shown in
maximum, minimum, and average fitness values and
the 90% percentile.

Fig. 8. FF comparison for IEEE 30-bus

system
Fig. 7. Enhanced genetic algorithm (EGA). The best and worst solutions of the second set of 20
runs (EGA) are shown in Table I. The operating
V. TEST RESULTS
costs of the best and worst solutions are 802.73$/h
In this section, the proposed EGA solution of the and 802.34 $/h, respectively, The differences
OPF is evaluated using A. IEEE 30-Bus System between the values of the control variables in the
best and worst solutions are significant. The
It has 41-branch system . It has a total of 24 control operating cost of all EGA-OPF solutions is slightly
variables as follows: five unit active power outputs,
six generator-bus voltage magnitudes, four
218
less as shown in Table below [1] J. A. Momoh, M. E. El-Hawary, and R. Adapa,
“A review of selected optimal power flow literature
to 1993,” IEEE Trans. Power Syst., pt. I and II, vol.
14, pp. 96–111, Feb. 1999.

[2] G. F. Reid and L. Hasdorf, “Economic dispatch


using quadratic programming,” IEEE Trans. Power
Apparat. Syst., vol. PAS-92, pp. 2015–2023,

[4] R. C. Burchett, H. H. Happ, and K. A. Wirgau,


“Large-scale optimal power flow,” IEEE Trans.
Power Apparat. Syst., vol. PAS-101, pp. 3722–
3732, Oct. 1982.

[5] B. Stott and E. Hobson, “Power system security


control calculation using linear programming,”
IEEE Trans. Power Apparat. Syst., pt. I and II, vol.
PAS-97, Sept./Oct. 1978.

VII. CONCLUSIONS [6] R. Mota-Palomino and V. H. Quintana, “A


penalty function- method for solving power system
A GA solution to the OPF problem has been constrained economic operation problems,” IEEE
presented and applied to small and medium size Trans. Power Apparat. Syst., vol.,June 1984.
power systems. The main advantage of the GA
solution to the OPF problem is its modeling [7] D. I. Sun, B. Ashley, B. Brewer, A. Hughes,
andW. F. Tinney, “Optimal power flow by Newton
flexibility: nonconvex unit cost functions, prohibited approach,” IEEE Trans. Power Apparat. Syst., vol.
unit operating zones, discrete control variables, and PAS-103, pp. 2864–2880, 1984..
complex, nonlinear constraints can be easily
modeled. Another advantage is that it can be easily [8] L. L. Lai, J. T. Ma, R. Yokoyama, and M. Zhao,
coded to work on parallel computers. The main “Improved genetic algorithms for optimal power
disadvantage of GAs is that they are stochastic flow under both normal and contingent operation
states,” Elec. Power Energy Syst., no. 5,1997.
algorithms and the solution they provide to the OPF
problem is not guaranteed to be the optimum.
Another disadvantage is that the execution time and [9] D. E. Goldberg, Genetic Algorithms in Search:
the quality of the provided solution deteriorate with Addison-Wesley, 1989. crossover landscape,” in
the increase of the chromosome length, i.e., the OPF Proc. 3rd Int. Conf. Genetic Algorithms, 1989,
problem size. The applicability of the GA solution
[10] L. Davis, Handbook of Genetic Algorithms. New
to large-scale OPF problems of systems with several York: Van Nostrand, 1991.
thousands of nodes, utilizing the strength of parallel
computers, has yet to be demonstrated.

REFERENCES

[3] T. Numnonda and U. D. Annakkage, “Optimal


power dispatch in multinode electricity market

219
using genetic algorithm,” Elec. Power Syst. Res.,

vol. 49, pp. 211–220, 1999.

APPENDIX ‘A’

IEEE 30 BUS SYSTEM

No.of buses : 30

No.of lines :41

No.of generators : 6

Bus data:

Bus Type Pgen Qgen Pload Qload Vspecified Qmin Qmax Yshunt

1 Slack 1.384 - 0 0 1.05 0 0


8 0.0279 0

2 P-V 0.575 0.0247 0.21 0.12 1.0338 -0.2 0.6


6 7 7 0

3 P-Q 0 0 0.02 0.01 1 0 0


4 2 0

4 P-Q 0 0 0.07 0.01 1 0 0


6 6 0

5 P-V 0.245 0.2257 0.94 0.19 1.0058 - 0.62 0

220
6 2 0.15 5

6 P-Q 0 0 0 0.3 1 0 0 0

7 P-Q 0 0 0.22 0 1 0 0
8 0

8 P-V 0.35 0.3484 0.3 0.2 1.023 - 0.5


0.15 0

9 P-Q 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0

10 P-Q 0 0 0.05 0.75 1 0 0


8 0.19

11 P-V 0.179 0.3078 0 0 1.0913 -0.1 0.4


3 0

12 P-Q 0 0 0.11 0.01 1 0 0


2 6 0

13 P-V 0.169 0.3783 0 0.02 1.0883 - 0.45


1 5 0.15 0

14 P-Q 0 0 0.06 0.01 1 0 0


2 8 0

15 P-Q 0 0 0.08 0.05 1 0 0


2 8 0

16 P-Q 0 0 0.03 0.00 1 0 0


5 9 0

17 P-Q 0 0 0.09 0.03 1 0 0


4 0

18 P-Q 0 0 0.03 0.00 1 0 0


2 7 0

19 P-Q 0 0 0.09 0.11 1 0 0


5 2 0

20 P-Q 0 0 0.02 0 1 0 0
2 0

21 P-Q 0 0 0.17 0.01 1 0 0


5 6 0

22 P-Q 0 0 0 0.06 1 0 0
7 0

23 P-Q 0 0 0.03 0 1 0 0
2 0

221
24 P-Q 0 0 0.08 0.02 1 0 0
7 3 0.04

25 P-Q 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0

26 P-Q 0 0 0.03 0 1 0 0
5 0

27 P-Q 0 0 0 0.00 1 0 0
9 0

28 P-Q 0 0 0 0.01 1 0 0
9 0

29 P-Q 0 0 0.02 1 0 0
4 0

30 P-Q 0 0 0.10 1 0 0
6 0

Pgmax and Pgmin for generators :

Generator Pgmin Pgmax


bus no

1 0.5 2.0

2 0.2 0.8

5 0.15 0.5

8 0.1 0.35

11 0.1 0.3

3 0.2 0.8

a, b, c constants for generators :

222
Generator a b c
No

1 0 2 0.00375

2 0 1.75 0.0175

3 0 1 0.0625

4 0 3.25 0.002075

5 0 3 0.025

6 0 3 0.025

Line Data :

Line From bus To bus R X Half line Tap ratio Max


charging
Suscepta Power (pu)
nce

1 1 2 0.0192 0.0575 0.0264 1 1.3

2 1 3 0.0452 0.1852 0.0204 1 1.3

3 2 4 0.057 0.1737 0.0184 1 0.65

4 3 4 0.0132 0.0379 0.0042 1 1.3

5 2 5 0.0472 0.1983 0.0209 1 1.3

6 2 6 0.0581 0.1763 0.0187 1 0.65

7 4 6 0.0119 0.0414 0.0045 1 0.9

8 5 7 0.046 0.116 0.0102 1 0.7

9 6 7 0.0267 0.082 0.0085 1 1.3

10 6 8 0.012 0.042 0.0045 1 0.32

11 6 9 0 0.208 0 1.0155 0.65

12 6 10 0 0.556 0 0.9629 0.32

13 9 11 0 0.208 0 1 0.65

14 9 10 0 0.11 0 1 0.65

15 4 12 0 0.2560 0 1.0129 0.65

16 12 13 0 0.1400 0 1 0.65

17 12 14 0.1231 0.2559 0 1 0.32

18 12 15 0.0662 0.1304 0 1 0.32


223
19 12 16 0.0945 0.1987 0 1 0.32

20 14 15 0.2210 0.1997 0 1 0.16

21 16 17 0.0824 0.1923 0 1 0.16

22 15 18 0.1070 0.2185 0 1 0.16

23 18 19 0.0639 0.1292 0 1 0.16

24 19 29 0.0340 0.0680 0 1 0.32

25 10 20 0.0936 0.2090 0 1 0.32

26 10 17 0.0324 0.0845 0 1 0.32

27 10 21 0.0348 0.0749 0 1 0.32

28 10 22 0.0727 0.1499 0 1 0.32

29 21 22 0.0116 0.0236 0 1 0.32

30 15 23 0.1000 0.2020 0 1 0.16

31 22 24 0.1150 0.1790 0 1 0.16

32 23 24 0.1320 0.2700 0 1 0.16

33 24 25 0.1885 0.3292 0 1 0.16

34 25 26 0.2544 0.3800 0 1 0.16

35 25 27 0.1093 0.2087 0 1 0.16

36 27 28 0 0.3960 0 0.9581 0.65

37 27 29 0.2198 0.4153 0 1 0.16

38 27 30 0.3202 0.6027 0 1 0.16

39 29 30 0.2399 0.4533 0 1 0.16

40 8 28 0.0636 0.2000 0.0214 1 0.32

41 6 28 0.0169 0.0599 0.0650 1 0.32

224

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