Daf Ditty Pesachim 94: Bein Hashmashos

It is a beauteous evening, calm and free,

The holy time is quiet as a Nun
Breathless with adoration; the broad sun
Is sinking down in its tranquillity;
The gentleness of heaven broods o’er the Sea;
Listen! the mighty Being is awake,
And doth with his eternal motion make
A sound like thunder—everlastingly.
Dear child! dear Girl! that walkest with me here,
If thou appear untouched by solemn thought,
Thy nature is not therefore less divine:
Thou liest in Abraham’s bosom all the year;
And worshipp’st at the Temple’s inner shrine,
God being with thee when we know it not.

‘It is a beauteous evening, calm and free’ William Wordsworth (1770-1850)

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The Sages taught: If one was standing outside the city of Modi’in and was able to enter
Jerusalem on horses or mules but not by walking, I might have thought he would be liable to
receive karet for failing to come to Jerusalem and offer the Paschal lamb; therefore, the verse
states:

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 -‫ ל ֹא‬V‫הוּא ָטהוֹר וְּבֶד ֶר‬-‫יג ְוָהִאישׁ ֲאֶשׁר‬ 13 But the man that is clean, and is not on a journey,
‫ ְו ִנְכ ְרָתה‬--‫ ְוָחַדל ַלֲﬠשׂוֹת ַהֶפַּסח‬,‫ָהָיה‬ and forbeareth to keep the Passover, that soul shall be
‫ ל ֹא‬,‫ ִכּי ָק ְרַבּן ְיהָוה‬:‫ ֵמַﬠֶמּיָה‬,‫ַהֶנֶּפשׁ ַהִהוא‬ cut off from his people; because he brought not the
‫ ָהִאישׁ‬,‫ֶחְטאוֹ ִיָשּׂא‬--‫ִהְק ִריב ְבֹּמֲﬠדוֹ‬ offering of the LORD in its appointed season, that man
.‫ַההוּא‬ shall bear his sin.
Num 9:13

“And is not on a journey” This person was on a distant journey and is therefore exempt.

On the other hand, if one was standing closer to Jerusalem than Modi’in but was not able to
enter due to the camels and carriages that are carrying his family and delaying him, I might
have thought he would not be liable for failing to offer the Paschal lamb because he is trying to
enter; therefore, the verse states: “And was not on a journey,” and this person was not on a
distant journey and is therefore liable. This person could have dismounted and come to Jerusalem
on foot, but he wanted to bring his family with him in a carriage and was consequently delayed.
One’s liability is determined based on his distance from Jerusalem.

The discussion above pertaining to the distance that an average person can walk in a day is based
on the assumption that he walks five mil between dawn and sunrise. The Gemara brings support
for this assumption. Rava said: The size of the world is six thousand parasangs, and the
thickness of the firmament is one thousand parasangs. One of these measurements with regard
to the size of the world is a tradition, and one of the measurements is based upon Rava’s own
reasoning.

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The Gemara explains: Rava holds like that statement which Rabba bar bar Ḥana said that
Rabbi Yoḥanan said: How far can an average person walk in a day? One can walk ten
parasangs, which are forty mil. This is explained: From dawn until sunrise one can walk a
distance of five mil; from sunset until the emergence of the stars one can walk another five mil.
Therefore, it is found that the thickness of the firmament is one-sixth of the distance that the
sun travels during the day.

Between sunrise and sunset, the sun travels a distance of six thousand parasangs during the amount
of time an average person can walk thirty mil. During the dawn and twilight periods in the morning
and evening, when the sun passes through the thickness of the firmament, an average person can
walk five mil, which is one-sixth of the distance he can walk between sunrise and sunset.

Consequently, during dawn and twilight the sun must also travel one-sixth of the distance it travels
between sunrise and sunset, i.e., one thousand parasangs, which is the thickness of the firmament.

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The Gemara raises an objection from the following baraita: Rabbi Yehuda says: The thickness
of the firmament is only one-tenth of the distance that the sun travels during the day. Know that
this is true because how far can an average person walk in a day between dawn and the
emergence of the stars? One can walk ten parasangs, which are forty mil, and from dawn until
sunrise one can walk only four mil, which are one parasang.

Therefore, it is found that the thickness of the firmament is only one-tenth of the distance that
the sun travels during the day. This is a refutation of the opinion of Rava. Similarly, it is a
refutation of the opinion of Ulla, who holds that an average person can walk fifteen mil in half a
day, whereas Rabbi Yehuda holds that the average person can walk sixteen mil in half a day.

The Gemara concludes: It is indeed a conclusive refutation.

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RASHI

Steinzaltz

In a discussion related to the structure of the natural world, the Sages taught: The Jewish Sages
say the celestial sphere of the zodiac is stationary, and the constellations revolve in their place
within the sphere; and the sages of the nations of the world say the entire celestial sphere
revolves, and the constellations are stationary within the sphere. Rabbi Yehuda HaNasi said:
A refutation of their words that the entire sphere moves can be derived from the fact that we
have never found the constellation of Ursa Major in the South or Scorpio in the North. This
indicates that it is the stars themselves that revolve in place and not the celestial sphere as a whole,

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because otherwise it would be impossible for Ursa Major to remain in the North and Scorpio to
remain in the South.

Rav Aḥa bar Ya’akov strongly objects to this proof: And perhaps the stars are stationary within
the sphere like the steel socket of a mill, which remains stationary while the stones of the mill
revolve around it.

Alternatively, perhaps they are stationary like the pivot of a door, which remains stationary while
the door makes wide turns around it; similarly, perhaps the constellations are stationary within a
sphere, and there is an outer sphere within which the sun revolves around all the constellations.

Therefore, Rabbi Yehuda HaNasi’s statement is not necessarily true.

Come and hear another challenge from another baraita, which teaches that the constellation Ursa
Major is in the north and the constellation Scorpio is in the south, and the entire settlement
sits between Ursa Major and Scorpio, as the relative positions of these two constellations appear
to be the same from any location in the settled areas of the world.

The ratio of the entire settlement to the world as a whole is comparable to only one hour in a
day, as the sun enters the sky above the settlement for only one hour a day while the rest of the
day it is outside the settlement.

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The Gemara presents a similar dispute: The Jewish Sages say that during the day the sun travels
beneath the firmament and is therefore visible, and at night it travels above the firmament.
And the sages of the nations of the world say that during the day the sun travels beneath the
firmament, and at night it travels beneath the earth and around to the other side of the world.
Rabbi Yehuda HaNasi said: And the statement of the sages of the nations of the world appears
to be more accurate than our statement. A proof to this is that during the day, springs that
originate deep in the ground are cold, and during the night they are hot compared to the air
temperature, which supports the theory that these springs are warmed by the sun as it travels
beneath the earth.

It was taught in a baraita that Rabbi Natan says: During the summer the sun travels high in
the sky, above the earth, and therefore the entire world is hot, and springs that originate deep
in the ground are cold.

On the other hand, during the winter the sun travels low in the sky, over the edges of the earth.
Therefore, the entire world is cold, but springs are hot relative to the air temperature.

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The Gemara suggests: Let us say that this will be a conclusive refutation of the opinion of Rabba
bar bar Ḥana, citing Rabbi Yoḥanan, with regard to how far an average person can walk in a day.
The Gemara answers: Rabbi Yoḥanan could have said to you: I am speaking about the total
distance that an average person can walk in an entire day, but I never specified the distance one
can walk during different parts of the day. And it was the Sages Ulla and Rava who erred in
interpreting my opinion by saying that one can walk five mil and not four during each intermediate
period, because when they calculated five mil before sunrise and after sunset they included the
distance walked by people who set out earlier in the morning, before dawn, and by those who
continued walking after nightfall.

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The crossing of the Sun
Steinzaltz (OBM) writes:1

A large part of this daf is devoted to discussions between the Sages about time and distance, and
their relationship with the length of day and night.

According to the description in the Gemara, the way the sun appears crossing the sky during the
day is due to a physical pathway that exists across the sky. The raki’a – the sky, or “firmament”
(see Gen 1:6-8) is a half-circle above the ground reaching into the sky. The sun travels at the height
of the raki’a or below it from east to west (from A to B in the linked diagram). Darkness takes
place when the sun enters a halon – a “window” in the raki’a, where it cannot be seen until it
comes out of the halon the next morning. The Gemara attempts to establish the “size” of the world
based on an estimation of the distance a person can walk in a single day and a comparison between
that and the distance the sun travels during daylight hours.

Already in the period of the Ge’onim (prior to the tenth century CE) the commentaries taught that
these discussions in the Gemara are neither halakha, nor are they essential Jewish belief, as they
are based on a particular perspective on the natural world that was considered scientific knowledge
at that time. The Ge’onim further note, that since Jewish scholars have embraced the positions of
the scientific world with regard to these types of questions, the discussion and descriptions that
appear in our Gemara are not to be understood as literal truth.

It is important to note that at least some of the discussion here does not really relate to the physical
world in which we live; rather it refers to a spiritual and perhaps mystical world. As such it should
be noted that the Sages of the Talmud talk about gan eden – the Garden of Eden – and Gehinom –
Hell – as if they should be measured within the precincts of our physical world, even as it is clear
that they exist in a different realm of reality.

BEIN HA'SHEMASHOS
Rav Mordechai Kornfeld writes:2

Our Daf quotes a Beraisa in which Rebbi Yehudah states that an average person can walk 10 Parsa'os
(40 Mil) in one day. He adds that a person can walk 4 Mil in the time between Amud ha'Shachar (dawn)
and Hanetz ha'Chamah (sunrise), as well as another 4 mil in the time between Sheki'ah (sunset) and
Tzeis ha'Kochavim (nightfall).

1
https://steinsaltz.org/daf/pesahim94/
2
https://www.dafyomi.co.il/pesachim/insites/ps-dt-094.htm

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This implies that, according to Rebbi Yehudah, Bein ha'Shemashos (the period of time between sunset
and nightfall) is the time that it takes to walk 4 Mil. However, in Shabbos (34b-35a), Rebbi Yehudah
himself states that Bein ha'Shemashos lasts as long as it takes to walk 3/4 of a Mil (according to Rabah's
interpretation of Rebbi Yehudah's opinion there, or 2/3 of a Mil according to Rav Yosef's
interpretation).

How can Rebbi Yehudah say that the duration of Bein ha'Shemashos is 4 Mil, when in Shabbos he
says that it is only 2/3 or 3/4 of a Mil? (TOSFOS DH Rebbi Yehudah)

‫ת וס' ד " ה ר בי י ה ו ד ה א ומ ר מ ש קי ע ת ה ח מ ה ע ד צ א ת ה כ וכ בי ם א ר ב ע‬
‫מילין‬
Tosfos reconciles Rebbi Yehudah here with Rebbi Yehudah in Ba'meh Madlikin.

,‫ כל זמן שפני מזרח מאדימין‬,‫ משתשקע החמה‬,‫( אמר 'איזהו בין השמשות‬:‫ דבסוף במה מדליקין )שבת דף לד‬,‫קשה לר"ת‬
.'‫דברי ר"י‬

Rabeinu Tam asks from the end of Bameh Madlikin (Shabbos, Daf 34:) where the Gemara cites
Rebbi Yehudah, who defines Beis-ha'Shemashos as 'From when the sun sets as long as the east is
still red'.
?‫ והכא קאמר ר"י גופיה ארבעה מילין‬,‫ומסקי' התם דבין השמשות דר"י תלתא ריבעי מיל‬

And we conclude there that the Beis ha'Shemashos of Rebbi Yehudah lasts three quarters of a Mil,
whilst here Rebbi Yehudah himself gives the Shi'ur as four Milin?

‫ והתם קאמר‬,‫ דהכא קאמר מתחלת שקיעה דהיינו משעה שמתחלת החמה ליכנס בעובי הרקיע עד הלילה הוי ד' מילין‬,‫וי"ל‬
.‫מסוף שקיעה‬

Here he is referring to the beginning of Sheki'ah, which is from the time that the sun begins to
enter the thickness of the sky up until night fall, which is four Milin, whereas there he is describing
the end of Sheki'ah.

TOSFOS (DH Rebbi Yehudah, and in Shabbos 35a, DH Trei) above, explains in the name
of RABEINU TAM that the Gemara here says "mi'Sheki'as ha'Chamah," while the Gemara in
Shabbos uses the phrase, "mi'Shetishka ha'Chamah." The Gemara here refers to the moment that the
sun disappears from our eyes. That point marks the beginning of sunset ("mi'Sheki'as ha'Chamah"). At
that moment, however, the sun is still on its journey through the firmament (away from us). Once the
sun has passed through the entire thickness of the firmament, the "end of the sunset" occurs. This is

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referred to as "mi'Shetishka ha'Chamah." Shortly afterwards (3/4 Mil), the sun's remaining light
disappears altogether and three medium-size stars can be seen.

In summary, the order of events is as follows:

1. The sun disappears from view; at which time it begins to set.

2. A period of 3 1/4 Mil (or 3 1/3 according to Rav Yosef) passes, at the end of which the sun
completely sets (but some of its light is still visible). This moment marks the start of the Bein
ha'Shemashos under discussion in Shabbos.
3. Finally, after a period of 3/4 Mil (or 2/3 according to Rav Yosef), the light of the sun completely
disappears, and the stars appear. Accordingly, Halachic nightfall does not occur until long after sunset,
after the time it takes to walk 4 Mil.
This is the view of RABEINU TAM.

VILNA GA'ON (in SHENOS ELIYAHU, beginning of Maseches Berachos, and in BI'UR
HA'GRA OC 235 and 261) explains that both here and in Shabbos, the times mentioned (4 Mil and
3/4 Mil) begin only once the sun completely disappears from view. However, the Gemara here
discusses a different Tzeis ha'Kochavim than the Gemara in Shabbos (and not a different Sheki'as
ha'Chamah, as Rabeinu Tam suggests). In Pesachim, "Tzeis ha'Kochavim" refers to the time at which
every last ray of light disappears from the sky (which occurs four Mil after sunset), and all of the stars
can be seen. In Shabbos, "Tzeis ha'Kochavim" refers to the time at which three medium-size stars can
be seen, which is the Halachic definition of nightfall.3

According to the VILNA GA'ON, therefore, nightfall occurs shortly after sunset -- the time that it
takes to walk 3/4 of a Mil.

The RE'EM (SEFER YER'EI'IM) offers a third opinion. He suggests that the Gemara here refers to
both a different Sheki'ah and a different Tzeis ha'Kochavim than the Gemara in Shabbos. The Gemara
here focuses on the period of time from when the sun sets until the last ray of sunlight disappears. The
Gemara in Shabbos, when it discusses "Bein ha'Shemashos," refers to a period of 3/4 of a Mil beginning
from before the sun has completely set, while the sun is still visible. Nightfall occurs when the sun can
no longer be seen. This moment comes at the end of Bein ha'Shemashos. The Gemara here is a
discussion of Aggadah and does not discuss the Halachic definitions of sunset and nightfall.

3
Our daf is a discussion of Agadah and does not express the Halachic definition of Tzeis ha'Kochavim.

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THE TIME THAT IT TAKES TO WALK ONE "MIL"

The Chachamim often express a value of time in terms of how long it takes the average person to walk
one Mil. For example, our daf says that dough becomes Chametz if left without being baked or handled
for the amount of time that it takes a person to walk one Mil.

RAMBAM (Hilchos Ma'achalos Asuros 6:10) writes that in order to remove blood from meat, it must
be salted for the amount of time that it takes a person to walk one Mil (see also SHULCHAN ARUCH
YD 69:6). How long is this time period?

The Gemara here in Pesachim is the source for this measurement. Ula (93b) states that in one day (the
day of the equinox, when daytime and nighttime are of equal duration), a person can walk 10 Parsa'os,
or 40 Mil. However, 5 of these Mil are walked between Amud ha'Shachar and Hanetz ha'Chamah
(dawn and sunrise), and 5 more are walked between Sheki'as ha'Chamah and Tzeis ha'Kochavim
(sunset and nightfall). Therefore, a person can walk 30 Mil from Hanetz (sunrise) until Sheki'ah
(sunset). If that period is 12 hours long (720 minutes), then the time that it takes to walk 1 Mil is 24
minutes (720 / 30 = 24).

The Gemara challenges Ula's opinion from the view of Rebbi Yehudah in a Beraisa. Rebbi Yehudah
says, like Ula, that a person can walk 40 Mil in one day. However, as Rashi explains, according to
Rebbi Yehudah a person can walk only 4 Mil, and not 5, between Amud ha'Shachar and Hanetz and
between Sheki'ah and Tzeis ha'Kochavim. Therefore, a person walks 32 Mil between sunrise and
sunset. Accordingly, the time that it takes to walk 1 Mil is 22 1/2 minutes (720 / 32 = 22.5).

However, the Yerushalmi (Berachos 1:1, as cited by the SHENOS ELIYAHU to Berachos 1:1
and BI'UR HA'GRA OC 459) understands Rebbi Yehudah's statement differently. Rebbi Yehudah
means that a person can walk 40 Mil in one day, from sunrise to sunset. The distance one can walk
from dawn to sunrise (and from sunset to nightfall) is an additional 4 Mil and is not part of the total
40 Mil. Consequently, the time it takes to walk one Mil is 18 minutes (720 / 40 = 18).

While this interpretation allows for a much greater discrepancy between the opinions of Ula and Rebbi
Yehudah, it is much more consistent with Rebbi Yehudah's contention that the time between Alos and
Hanetz is "1/10 of the day" (i.e., of the 12 hours between Hanetz and Sheki'ah). This may be what the
Gemara means when it says that "[Ula] made a mistake in counting the time from Hanetz to Sheki'ah"
when he heard Rebbi Yehudah's statement. Ula thought that the 10 Mil is included in that period, when
it actually is besides that period (Vilna Ga'on, ibid.).

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HALACHA

One should not leave the dough unkneaded even for a moment. Whenever one is kneading it even
the entire day, it will not leaven.

If one leaves it unkneaded for the rate of [time passed when traveling] a 'mil', it's Chametz. The
rate of a 'mil' is a quarter of an hour and a twentieth of an hour [18min/1mil].

REMA: and there is cause to be strict and expedient regarding the making of the Matzot, for there
is concern that the suspensions will compound into the rate of a 'mil' or that it will be in a hot
place where leavening is accelerated. (Haghaot Maimoni perek 5 and Mordechai perek "Ayloo Overeen").

After we kneaded the dough and heated it in our hands, if he leaves the dough unkneaded, it will
immediately leaven.

If one began kneading two [dough] simultaneously and it becomes apparent that one has leavened,
the second has also leavened even if one does not see the signs of leaven. If it leavens to the extent
that cracks form, even if they do not converge together rather one travels here and another travels
there, it is considered cardinal Chametz.

The one who eats this incurs 'Karait'. If there is a crack but it has faded face (meaning: a change in
appearance toward whiter. ARUCH) like when a person's hair stands up, the consumer is exempt [from
'Karait'].

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REMA: and if the Matzah was formed and there is fear [that the standard] that the dough
shouldn't succumb to leavening [will not be upheld], it is permitted to break [the form] and return
to forming it so that the kneading will negate the leavening. However, better to be cautious
initially. (MAHA"RIL in the name of Aguda and Rokeach)

BEIS YOSEF (OC 459, and in SHULCHAN ARUCH 459:2) above, cites the opinion of
the TERUMAS HA'DESHEN who says, based on the Gemara here, that it takes 18 minutes to walk
one Mil.

However, he reaches this figure through a different calculation than the Yerushalmi (see Bi'ur ha'Gra,
ibid.). This is also the opinion of the RAMBAM in Perush ha'Mishnayos to Berachos (1:1).

Rambam Commentary to Mishnah Pesachim 3:2

RAMBAM (Perush ha'Mishnayos, Pesachim 3:2) above, says that the time it takes to walk one Mil
is 24 minutes. The Rambam seems to rule like Ula, as is clear from his words in Hilchos Korban Pesach
(5:8) where he defines "Derech Rechokah" as 15 Mil outside of Yerushalayim (which is the opinion
of Ula).

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Even though the Gemara refutes Ula's opinion, apparently the Rambam had a different text in his
Gemara (Bi'ur ha'Gra OC 459). TOSFOS (Pesachim 11b, DH Echad Omer) and the ROSH (Ta'anis
1:12) also cite the opinion of Ula.

BI'UR HA'GRA (OC 459) points out that according to the way Rashi and Tosfos seem to understand
the conclusion of the Gemara (i.e., not like the Yerushalmi), the time that it takes to walk one Mil
should be 22 1/2 minutes.

BI'UR HALACHAH (OC 459:2) writes that one should always use the more stringent measure.
Therefore, dough that sat still for only 18 minutes is considered Chametz. However, one must salt his
meat for at least 24 minutes to remove the blood (l'Chatchilah, one should leave the meat in salt for at
least an hour).

Rachel Scheinerman writes:4

Today a discussion about what distance constitutes a “long journey” and how far a person can
walk in a day gives way to cosmological speculation about the size of the universe. When an initial
estimate holds that the world is 6,000 parasangs (~14,000 miles) wide, the following beraita (early
rabbinic teaching) is brought to refute that number and show just how vast the world really is:

Egypt was 400 parasangs by 400 parasangs,

and Egypt is 1/60th the size of Cush,
and Cush is 1/60th the size of the world,
and the world is 1/60th the size of the Garden of Eden,
and the Garden of Eden is 1/60th the size of Eden,
and Eden is 1/60th the size of Gehenna.
Therefore, it is found that the entire world is like a pot cover to Gehenna.

It is interesting to note that the rabbis begin this tour of the universe with Egypt — the land of
Israelite suffering and slavery. In this teaching, Egypt is thought to be 400 parasangs, or about 900
miles across. This is not a terrible estimate. It’s difficult to say what boundaries the rabbis have in
mind for Egypt — surely not precisely the contemporary boundaries of the modern state — but
just for fun I plotted a trip on Google Maps from Alexandria, situated on the Mediterranean along
the northern border of Egypt, down to Argeen, located on the edge of Lake Nubia right at the
Sudanese border to the south. Traveling on existing roads, the distance is about 869 miles.

But Egypt, a land whose Hebrew name Mitzrayim means “narrow place” is just the tip of the
iceberg. Beyond Egypt is the land of Cush, usually identified with Ethiopia (perhaps here meaning
the rest of the African continent) which is, in the rabbinic reckoning, 60 times the size of Egypt —
about 54,000 miles! If we extend that road trip from Alexandria all the way down to Cape Town,
South Africa, the distance traveled is about 64,000 miles. So, again, right order of magnitude.

4
Myjewishlearning.com

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But the size of Cush pales in comparison to the Garden of Eden, the primordial paradise where
God placed the first man and woman — until they disobeyed their one divinely-given
commandment and found themselves expelled forever. This lush garden of heavily-laden fruit trees
and all manner of earthly delights was, in the rabbinic reckoning, 60 times larger than Cush!

We don’t stop there! The Garden of Eden was a proverbial drop in the bucket (actually, this idiom
is apt — the rabbis use the fraction 1/60th to mean basically that) compared to the land of Eden.
This is one reason it would be pretty much impossible for a living person to find their way back
there. And Eden itself was tiny compared to the vast stretches of Gehenna — of hell.

Wait a minute! Thought Jews don’t believe in hell? Well, it’s a bit complicated. Gehenna, also
called Gehinom, takes its name from a valley just south of Jerusalem. The rabbis understood it as
a place of punishment where souls went after death, though most did not remain there permanently.
Your average imperfect soul wouldn’t need more than a year in Gehenna to be straightened out,
as it were, and sent on its way to eternal life in the Garden of Eden. (This is why, to this day,
Jews say Kaddish for loved ones for 12 months.)

We might have expected the beraita to go on to speculate about the size of heaven, but it doesn’t.
(This happens elsewhere in rabbinic literature, and the rabbis have even been known to speculate
about the size of God!) Instead, however, we are given a vivid picture to sum up this
“map”: Therefore, it is found that the entire world is like a pot cover to Gehenna. That’s right,
according to this teaching, our corner of the world, so small when compared to Egypt, and to Cush,
to the Garden of Eden and the land of Eden itself is but a lid on the incomparably large roiling,
boiling pit of hell. And boy, some days that really feels like the truth.

Calculating Nightfall

Rav Doniel Schreiber writes:5

A. Contradictory Gemarot

Nonetheless, Rishonim and poskim have calculated the time at which three MEDIUM-
sized stars emerge. Two contradictory gemarot lie at the core of this calculation. The gemara our
daf states that the stars appear four "mil" (i.e., the time it takes to walk four mil) after sunset. In
contrast, the gemara Shabbat (35a) indicates that the period from sunset to nightfall is 3/4 of a
"mil." (See Tosafot ibid. s.v. Trei.)

It is unclear from the gemara how long a period a "mil" actually is. See Shiur #3, MB 459:15,
Bi'ur Halakha ibid. s.v. Havi, Bi'ur Ha’Gra ibid. s.v. Ve-shiur, and Chok Ya'akov (ibid. s.v. note
10). The view most widely accepted is that a mil can be walked in 18 minutes. With this number
in mind, the time of four mil between sunset and the appearance of the stars is 72 minutes, whereas
the time of 3/4 of a mil between sunset and nightfall is 13 and 1/2 minutes. How can these two
contradictory conceptions concerning the timing of nightfall be reconciled?

5
https://www.etzion.org.il/en/conclusion-shabbat-and-havdala

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B. Rabbeinu Tam

Rishonim and poskim offer different resolutions to the contradiction in the

gemarot. Rabbeinu Tam (Tosafot, Shabbat 35a s.v. Trei, and Pesachim 94a s.v. R. Yehuda)
asserts that there are two sunsets. In the first stage, the sun sets, disappearing from our view; this
is called "the beginning of sunset." This phase lasts the time it takes to walk three-and-a quarter
mil (i.e., 58 and 1/2 minutes) and this is still considered daytime (see Tosafot Menachot 20b, s.v.
Nifsal). In the next phase, a second "sunset" occurs when all the light in the sky disappears; this
is called "the end of sunset." This phase lasts the time it takes to walk three-quarters of a mil (i.e.,
13 and 1/2 minutes) and is considered "bein ha-shemashot" (a period of time in which it is doubtful
whether it is day or night).

At the conclusion of the second phase (i.e., bein ha-shemashot), three medium-sized stars
appear, indicating nightfall. Thus, according to Rabbeinu Tam, the total elapsed time between
sheki'a and nightfall is 72 minutes. In this fashion, R. Tam resolves any contradiction between the
two gemarot. The gemara Pesachim is referring to both stages of sunset while the gemara Shabbat
is referring only to the second stage. See MB 261:20,23, and Bi'ur Halakha s.v. Mi-tchila and s.v.
She-hu.

It is interesting to note that while the opinion of Rabbeinu Tam leads to an extra stringency
at the conclusion of Shabbat, it also theoretically leads to a leniency at the onset of
Shabbat. According to R. Tam's calculation, bein ha-shemashot begins much later, therefore one
would in theory be allowed to perform melakha much later on Friday than according to other
opinions. In practice, however, we do not rule this way. We are stringent regarding the onset of
Shabbat on Friday and one must be very careful not to do any melakha after sheki'a, i.e., once the
sun can no longer be seen. See MB and Bi'ur Halakha ibid.]

C. Vilna Gaon

However, this position of Rabbeinu Tam is disputed by many Ge'onim, Rishonim and
poskim, including the Vilna Gaon (Bi'ur Ha-gra, OC 261:2, s.v. She-hu). According to them, only
one stage of sunset exists. They rule that the disappearance of the sun from the horizon (i.e.,
sheki'a) marks the onset of bein ha-shemashot. According to this position, bein ha-shemashot lasts
the time it takes to walk three-quarters of a mil (i.e., 13 and 1/2 minutes). At the conclusion of
this time period, three medium-sized stars appear; this is nightfall min ha-Torah for all
purposes. This is the position reflected by the gemara Shabbat. The gemara Pesachim, however,
which cites a four-mil period, is relevant for other purposes; it refers to the time between sunset
and a later time at night when all the stars appear. See also MB ibid. and 233:14.

D. Accounting for Change in Latitude and Time of Year

Nevertheless, according to many poskim, whether one understands that there is one sheki'a
or two, all agree that the bein ha-shemashot period of three-quarters of a mil (i.e., 13 and 1/2
minutes) varies according to the time of year and one's location on the planet. This 13- and 1/2-
minute bein ha-shemashot time period was mentioned in the Talmud only for the latitude of

20
Babylonia during the months of Tishrei and Nissan when days and nights are equally
long. European lands, however, which are closer to the North Pole, have a much longer time
period of bein ha-shemashot. Therefore, one should be very particular not to perform melakha
after Shabbat, even if much time has passed since sunset, until three small stars appear. Bi'ur Ha-
gra ibid., MB 261:23 and Bi'ur Halakha s.v. Mi-tchilat.

E. Supplemental Indicators

Acharonim point out that other conditions must also exist for three small stars to indicate
nightfall. According to the Likutei Pri Chadash and R. Akiva Eiger, the sky must cease to glow
with a light resembling daylight. However, the Vilna Gaon writes that even if the sky is aglow,
three small stars indicate nightfall as long as the sun has set and all redness has disappeared from
the sky (see SSK vol. 2, 58:2 who rules that it is proper to conduct oneself according to this
view). MB 293:4. For further research, see Shiurim Le-zekher Abba Mari z"l, vol. 1, by Maran
Rabbi Joseph B. Halevi Soloveitchik, pp. 91-112).

The Tif'eret Yisrael has a different condition. He rules that three small stars indicate
nightfall only when one can also discern three medium-sized stars. This may be to ensure that we
have a point of comparison to determine that the small stars are indeed the small-sized variety and
not large ones. See MB ibid.

R. Yehuda says: The thickness of the firmament is one tenth (of the sun’s compass during the
day)…From Alos HaShachar until Haneitz HaChama is 4 mil and from shkiyah until Tzeis
HaKochavim is 4 mil.

The average person can walk 40 mil (1) per day. The times when the day changes over into night
and the night into day are referred to as “neshef (2).” The period of time from shkiyah until tzeis
and from Alos HaShachar until Haneitz are each one tenth of the entire day.

Our Gemara’s discussion is valid during the months of Nisan and Tishrei, where the amount of
daylight/night time hours are equal. In other words, there are 12 daylight hours and 12 nighttime
hours. The Poskim are at odds how to calculate the “neshef” times during the winter when the days
are shorter (e.g., when there are only 10 light hours) and the summer days which are longer (when
there are 14 light hours).

There are those (3) who say we always calculate the neshef time as one-tenth of the day. Others
hold4 that the neshef hours are set in accordance with the amount of sunlight in the months of

21
Nissan and Tishrei. According to the calendar of Rav Y.M. Tuchachinski (zt” l), Alos HaShachar
is 90 minutes before ‫ הנץ‬and it is proper (5) to follow this opinion l’Chumra.

According to many Poskim (6), however, Alos HaShachar is 72 minutes before Haneitz HaChama.

Rav Tzadok Hakohen, zt” l, explains that the dimensions of the world described in today’s daf
allude to different types of spiritual work. The firmament is a balanced combination of fire and
water, representing the rectification of physical desire which is likened to both fire and water. We
achieve this by focusing on the Torah that is also compared to both fire and water, purifying our
mind and subduing physical desires. “Earth” rectifies greed and jealousy, because the way we lose
our self-absorbed wanting for more is by turning our gaze outward to become involved with the
needs of others.

Once we are focused on “the world outside,” the drive for personal gain is subdued.
To achieve this, we need to perform many, many acts of selfless giving—this is why the firmament
is only a sixth of the dimensions of the earth.

A widow appealed to Rav Chaim of Sanz, zt” l, “Help me, Rebbe! I’m a poor widow and my
children are starving!” Rav Chaim was taken aback. He knew she sold apples in the market and
made a decent living. Why was she coming to him for help? “Rebbe, it’s true that I used to do
alright, but I just bought a wagon-load of apples, and a false rumor has gone around the market
that they’re rotten. No one will buy them!” “Who told you that your apples are spoiled?!” cried
the Sanzer Rav. “Take them out to the market now, and I’ll be right along!” The woman did as she
was told, and the Rebbe called out to his gabbai: “Let’s go.” He limped out to the marketplace and

22
planted himself at the widow’s stall. “Come buy some good, sweet, apples!” he cried out to the
passerby.

When people saw the great Sanzer Rav praising the merchandise, they rushed to buy until not a
single apple remained—and they were sold at a good price, too! “You see, there wasn’t anything
wrong with your apples at all!” smiled the Rebbe. With a simple act, the Rebbe was able to help
the woman overcome the devastating effects of a vicious rumor.

Sunrise, Sunset
Jeremy Brown writes:6

Our daf deals with the topic of dusk or twilight, known in Hebrew as Bein HaShmashos. It is not
quite night, and certainly still not day, so what may and may not be done during that period on
Friday afternoon? Has Shabbat begun, in which case work is prohibited, or is it still technically
Friday, in which case work is permitted?

Back in gemoro Shabbes 34 we learned:

‫ב‬,‫שבת לד‬

‫ ָסֵפק כּוּלּוֹ ִמן ַהַלּ ְיָלה — ְמִטיִלין אוֹתוֹ ְלחוֶֹמר‬,‫ ָסֵפק כּוּלּוֹ ִמן ַהיּוֹם‬,‫ ֵבּין ַהְשָּׁמשׁוֹת ָסֵפק ִמן ַהיּוֹם וִּמן ַהַלּ ְיָלה‬:‫ָתּנוּ ַרָבַּנן‬
‫ְשֵׁני ָיִמים‬.

The Sages taught a baraita which discusses the range of problems that arise with regard to the
twilight period. Twilight is a period of uncertainty. It is uncertain whether it consists of both day
and night, it is uncertain whether it is completely day, and it is uncertain whether it is completely
night. Therefore, the Sages impose the stringencies of both days upon it. If there is a stringency
that applies on either of the days, one is obligated to adhere to it during the twilight period.

So far so good. But when does this liminal period start and end? There are at least three opinions:

‫ ִהְכִסיף‬.‫ ִהְכִסיף ַהַתְּחתּוֹן ְול ֹא ִהְכִסיף ָהֶﬠְליוֹן — ֵבּין ַהְשָּׁמשׁוֹת‬.‫שְׁפֵּני ִמְז ָרח ַמֲאִדיִמין‬
ֶ ‫שִּׁתְּשַׁקע ַהַחָמּה ָכּל ְזַמן‬ ֶ ‫ִמ‬
‫ָהֶﬠְליוֹן ְוִהְשָׁוה ַלַתְּחתּוֹן — ֶזהוּ ַל ְיָלה‬, ‫ִדְּב ֵרי ַרִבּי ְיהוָּדה‬.

‫ ָאָדם ִמֶשִּׁתְּשַׁקע ַהַחָמּה ֲחִצי ִמיל‬V‫ ְכֵּדי ֶשׁ ְיַּהֵלּ‬:‫ַרִבּי ְנֶחְמָיה אוֵֹמר‬

‫ ַרִבּי יוִֹסי אוֵֹמר‬: ‫ ְוִאי ֶאְפָשׁר ַלֲﬠמוֹד ָﬠָליו‬,‫ ֶזה ִנְכָנס ְוֶזה יוֵֹצא‬,‫ֵבּין ַהְשָּׁמשׁוֹת ְכֶּה ֶרף ַﬠ ִין‬

6
http://www.talmudology.com/jeremybrownmdgmailcom/2019/12/28/berachot-2b-sunrise-sunset?rq=sunset

23
From when the sun sets, as long as the eastern face of the sky is reddened by the light of the sun.
If the lower segment of the sky has lost its color, and the upper segment has
not yet lost its color, that is the twilight period. If the upper segment has lost its color, and its
color equals that of the lower one, it is night; this is the statement of Rabbi Yehuda.

Rabbi Nechemya says: The duration of the twilight period is the time it takes for a person to walk
half a mil after the sun sets.

Rabbi Yossi says: Twilight does not last for a quantifiable period of time; rather, it is like the blink
of an eye: This, night, enters and that, day, leaves, and it is impossible to calculate it due to its
brevity.

We have previously met the opinion of Rabbi Yossi on the very first page of the Talmud. It deals
with the obligation to recite three passages from the Torah called the shemah. These must be
recited “when you lie down in the evening and when you stand in the morning” (Deuteronomy
6:7). The rabbis debate when these times might be, and link them several events, including sunrise
and sunset. These two solar events are relatively easy to agree upon. But what about that period
right after sunset and before nightfall, which we call dusk? Or that period right before sunrise and
after the night, which we call dawn? Defining these periods of time are much more subjective,
since they depend on shades of light, rather than the position of the sun on the horizon.

As we have seen, there are various opinions as to when these liminal periods start and end,
including that of Rabbi Yossi, whose underscored the subjectivity of the whole enterprise.

CIVIL, NAUTICAL, AND ASTRONOMICAL DUSK

Jews were not the only ones that had to define the parameters of dusk and dawn. So too did
astronomers. Their most widely accepted definitions depend on the position of the center of the
sun below the horizon as seen at sea level, as shown below.

24
Here are the definitions, according to the US National Weather Service.

1. Civil Twilight:

This period begins in the morning, or ends in the evening, when the geometric center of the sun is
6 degrees below the horizon. Under these conditions (and absent fog or other restrictions,) the
brightest stars and planets can be seen, the horizon and terrestrial objects can be discerned, and in
many cases, artificial lighting is not needed.

2. Nautical Twilight:

This begins in the morning, or ends in the evening, when the geometric center of the sun is 12
degrees below the horizon. In general, the term nautical twilight refers to sailors being able to
take reliable readings via well-known stars because the horizon is still visible, even under moonless
conditions. Absent fog or other restrictions outlines of terrestrial objects may still be discernible,
but detailed outdoor activities are likely curtailed without artificial illumination.

3. Astronomical Twilight:

This begins in the morning, or ends in the evening, when the geometric center of the sun is 18
degrees below the horizon. During astronomical twilight, sky illumination is so faint that most
casual observers would regard the sky as fully dark, especially under urban or suburban light
pollution. Under astronomical twilight, the horizon is not discernible and moderately faint stars

25
or planets can be observed with the naked eye under a non-light polluted sky. Point light sources
such as stars and planets can be readily studied by astronomers under astronomical twilight.

WHAT CAN YOU SEE AT DUSK?

What you could see during Bein HaShmashos will depend on where you happen to live. Back in
1952 a very determined group of astronomers demonstrated this with a series of illumination
measurements at dusk. One was taken on Sacramento Peak New Mexico (altitude 2,800m) and the
second “in the country in Maryland near sea level” (altitude 30m). “It was the impression of the
observers that owing to the clearness of the mountain air the overhead and eastern portions of the
sky during evening twilight were much darker relative to the western sky at Sacramento Peak than
in Maryland.”

Zenith sky brightness values at Sacramento Peak New Mexico. From Koomen
M.J. et al. Measurements of the Brightness of the Twilight Sky7

Another way of looking at this is by the change in brightness as we move from civil, through
nautical and then astronomical twilight until we finally arrive at night.

7
Journal of the Optical Society of America 1952: 42 (5); 353-356.

26
Smoothed illuminance E (in lux) on a horizontal surface as a function of the zenith distance
of the sun. 8

Here is a description of what is happening, by the Russian physicist Georgii Vladimirovich

Rosenberg, who was the Deputy Director of the Institute of Physics of the Atmosphere, (a part of
the “Academy of Sciences of the USSR”). It explains why the sky is darker at higher altitudes and
cleaner air:
So yes, the more pollution, the more light scattering and the more you can see at twilight as the
sun’s setting rays are refracted through the atmosphere. It’s counterintuitive. But hey, it’s science.

Computation by Degrees Explained

R' Dovid Eisikowitz writes:9

Our daf states that the time span between Alos HaShachar (Dawn) and Hanetz HaChama (Sunrise) is as
long as the amount of time it takes an average person to walk a distance of 4 "milin" (plural of "mil").
According to most Poskim, it takes 18 minutes for an average person to walk a distance of one mil, and
therefore 72 minutes to walk 4 milin. As a result, they hold that Alos Hashachar occurs 72 minutes before

8
From Grzegorz V. Rozenberg. Twilight: A Study in Atmospheric Optics. Springer Science, New York 1966. 18.
9
http://www.myzmanim.com/read/degrees.aspx

27
sunrise. Others say it takes 22.5 minutes to walk a mil, and therefore 90 minutes to walk 4 milin.
Accordingly, Alos HaShachar occurs 90 minutes before sunrise. Either way, Alos HaShachar refers to a
specific point in the gradual transition from night to day. Likewise, Tzes HaKochavim (nightfall) refers to
a point in the transition between day and night. These transitions occur at a rate which varies from place to
place and season to season.

- Place to Place: In locations close to the equator, the process of nightfall occurs faster than it does in
locations further away from the equator. To illustrate: For any given date, it will be darker a half hour after
sunset in Miami, than it will be a half hour after sunset in Montreal. That is, the same "half hour after
sunset" corresponds to visually different stages of nightfall, in different locations.

- Season to Season: The process of nightfall occurs slowest in the summer, and fastest in March and
September. As such, for any given location, it will be darker a half hour after sunset on a September day,
than it will be a half hour after sunset on a summer day. That is, the same "half hour after sunset"
corresponds to visually different stages of nightfall, during different seasons.

Taking these facts into account, the Gra and others ruled, that Alos HaShachar cannot be defined in
terms of a fixed amount of time before sunrise, and Tzes HaKochavim cannot be defined in terms of
a fixed amount of time after sunset. All figures of the Gemara involving a fixed time span were
stated specifically in reference to the equinox days (the days of Nissan and Tishrei, in which day and night
are equally long). Furthermore, the figures stated by the Gemara were stated only with regard
to Bavel and Eretz Yisroel. For other places and other dates, different but corresponding figures apply.

- Alos HaShachar: The Gemara, as we said above, states that Alos HaShachar occurs 4 milin (72 minutes)
before sunrise. The figure of 72 minutes applies only, to the equinox days in Bavel and Eretz Yisroel. Actual
times of Alos HaShachar in other settings may be more or less than 72 minutes before sunrise. The figure
of 72 minutes was given as a means of identifying a specific point in the process of dawn, which
defines Alos HaShachar. This point can be identified astronomically according to the position of the sun.
Where is the sun 72 minutes before sunrise, on an equinox day, in Yerushalayim? The answer is 16.1
degrees below the horizon. As such, Alos can be defined for all settings, as the time when the sun reaches
16.1 degrees below the horizon.

According to this interpretation, Alos HaShachar has the same appearance during all seasons of the
year, anywhere in the world. This example involves Alos HaShachar, but the same method can be applied
to calculate Tzes HaKochavim and Misheyakir by interpreting the figures of the Gemara and Poskim in this
way.

- Tzes HaKochavim: Some Poskim say that "emergence of 3 smaller stars" occurs 36 minutes (2 milin)
after sunset. The figure of 36 minutes applies only, to the equinox days in Bavel and Eretz Yisroel. Times
in other settings may vary. Since the angle of the sun - 36 minutes after sunset, on the equinox days
in Yerushalayim - is 8.5 degrees below the horizon, the time for "Emergence of 3 smaller stars" can be
identified in all settings, as the moment when the sun has descended 8.5 degrees below the horizon.

Note that computation by degrees has ramifications, not only with regard to Alos and Tzes, but also with
regard to those zmanim times which are based on Alos and Tzes, such as Sof Zman Krias Shema according
to the Magen Avrohom.

.‫ע' באור הגר"א או"ח ס' רס"א וס' תנ"ט‬

28
 ‫ )סימן רס"א ד"ה שהוא( וכן הוא גם דעת הגר"א בבאורו דכל שעורי הגמרא בין דד' מילין שהוא עד צאת‬:‫באור הלכה‬
‫כל הכוכבים לשיטתו ובין דג' רבעי מיל שהוא זמן בין השמשות הכל הוא בזמן ניסן ותשרי מה שאין כן בזמן‬
‫ וכן כתב הגר"א עוד דשעורי הגמרא לא‬.‫אחר משתנה לפי הזמן ובימי הקיץ הבין השמשות מאריך הרבה יותר‬
.‫נאמר רק באפק בבל‬

The Orbit of the Sun around the Earth10

Our Daf is one of two passages that are well known and difficult to understand. They concern the
movement of the stars and the orbit of the Sun around the Earth. Here is the first one:

‫ב‬,‫פסחים צד‬

‫ וַּמָזּלוֹת‬,‫ ַגְּלַגּל חוֵֹזר‬:‫ ְוַחְכֵמי אוּמּוֹת ָהעוָֹלם אוְֹמ ִרים‬.‫ וַּמָזּלוֹת חוְֹז ִרין‬,‫ ַגְּלַגּל ָקבוַּﬠ‬:‫ ַחְכֵמי ִיְשׂ ָרֵאל אוְֹמ ִרים‬,‫ָתּנוּ ַרָבַּנן‬
‫ ְתּשׁוָּבה ְלִדְב ֵריֶהם — ֵמעוָֹלם ל ֹא ָמִצינוּ ֲﬠָגָלה ַבָּדּרוֹם ְוַﬠְק ָרב ַבָּצּפוֹן‬:‫ ָאַמר ַרִבּי‬.‫ְקבוִּﬠין‬

The Sages taught: The Jewish Sages say the celestial sphere [‫ ]גלגל‬of the zodiac is stationary, and
the constellations revolve in their place within the sphere; and the sages of the nations of the world
say the entire celestial sphere revolves, and the constellations are stationary within the
sphere. Rabbi Yehuda HaNasi said: A refutation of their opinion [that the entire sphere moves]
can be derived from the fact that we have never found the constellation of Ursa Major in the South
or Scorpio in the North. [This indicates that it is the stars themselves that revolve in place and not
the celestial sphere as a whole, because otherwise it would be impossible for Ursa Major to remain
in the North and Scorpio to remain in the South].

The meaning of this passage is unclear, and as the late Isidore Twersky pointed out, it “has a long
history of interpretation, reflecting various moods: embarrassment, perplexity, satisfaction, with
some attempts at harmonization or reinterpretation or restricting the significance of the report.”

WHAT COULD THIS PASSAGE MEAN?

Many different interpretations have been offered. One is that the galgal refers to the Sun, and the
mazzalot refer to the planets; in this understanding, the sages of the Talmud anticipated the
Copernican heliocentric system. However, this explanation must be rejected because in the very
next line of the discussion, the Talmud makes it clear that the mazzalot contain the constellations
Eglah (Taurus) and Akrav (Scorpio). It is therefore apparent that the mazzalot in this rabbinic
passage are not to be identified with any of the planets. It is also clear that the system being
described is not the Ptolemaic one in which the stars and planets revolve around the Earth, because
the Earth is never referred to as galgal. The most likely explanation of this passage is that the
galgal refers to a sphere and that, according to the Gentile sages, the constellations are fixed within
a revolving sphere. The Jewish sages believed the sky to be both solid and immovable; according
to them, the constellations—which are clearly seen to revolve, do so independently of the fixed
heavens beneath them.

10
Jeremy Brown, http://www.talmudology.com/

29
“WE HAVE NEVER FOUND URSA MAJOR IN THE SOUTH”

According to Rabbi Yehuda HaNasi, the constellation known as Agalah is always found in the
southern sky, and that known as Akrav is always found in the north. These two constellations
should be easy to identify. Let’s start with the second one mentioned. The word Akrav ‫ ַﬠְקָרב‬means
a scorpion, and Scorpio is one of the twelve signs of the zodiac. Good. But what about the first
constellation eglah or agalah (there is a big difference)? To what constellation might this refer?
Agalah - ‫ ֲﬠָגָלה‬means either a “wagon” or, when the same letters are vocalized as eglah, a “calf.”
And then things really get interesting. So interesting that we did an entire post just on this topic.
You can read it here.

WHERE DOES THE SUN GO AT NIGHT?

And now the second passage. Incidentally, it is also the text seen in the header on the landing page
of Talmudology. It is from a manuscript of the Talmud held at the Jewish Theological Seminary
MS Rab. 1623.

‫ ב‬,‫פסחים צד‬

‫חכמי ישראל אומרים ביום חמה מהלכת למטה מן הרקיע ובלילה למעלה מן הרקיע וחכמי אומות העולם אומרים ביום‬
‫חמה מהלכת למטה מן הרקיע ובלילה למטה מן הקרקע א"ר ונראין דבריהן מדברינו שביום מעינות צוננין ובלילה‬
‫רותחין‬

The wise men of Israel say that during the day the Sun travels under the rakia, and at night it
travels above the rakia. And Gentile wise men say: during the day the Sun travels under the rakia
and at night under the Earth. Rabbi [Yehudah Hanasi] said: their view is more logical than ours
for during the day springs are cold and at night they are warm.

THE PATH OF THE SUN, PER THE TALMUD

In the talmudic view, the sky is completely opaque. As the Sun passes over the top of the sky at
night, it is not in the slightest way visible. The rabbis of the Talmud also believed that the Earth
was a flat disc, and that above the sky was an opaque covering called the rakia. During the day the
Sun was visible under the rakia, and then at night it zipped back from where it set in the west to
where it would rise again in the east by traveling over the rakia. Something like

30
this:

From Judah Landa. Torah and Science. Ktav 1991. p63

This orbit of sorts comes up again in another discussion, found in tractate Bava Basra: There is an
argument whether at night the sun zips across the top of the opaque rakia, as Rabbi Eliezer
believed, or zips behind it, as it were, which is what Rabbi Yehoshua believed.

‫ א–ב‬,‫בבא בתרא כה‬

‫תניא ר"א אומר עולם לאכסדרה הוא דומה ורוח צפונית אינה מסובבת וכיון שהגיעה חמה אצל קרן מערבית צפונית‬
‫נכפפת ועולה למעלה מן הרקיע ורבי יהושע אומר עולם לקובה הוא דומה ורוח צפונית מסובבת וכיון שחמה מגעת‬
‫לקרן מערבית צפונית מקפת וחוזרת אחורי כיפה‬

Rabbi Eliezer taught: The world is similar to a partially enclosed veranda [‫]אכסדרה‬, [which is
enclosed on three sides] and the northern side of the world is not enclosed with a partition like the
other directions. When the reaches the northwestern corner it turns around and ascends
throughout the night above the rakia [to the east side and does not pass the north side].

Rabbi Yehoshua says: The world is similar to a small tent [‫]קובה‬, [and the north side is enclosed
too,] and when the sun reaches the northwestern corner it orbits and passes behind the dome.

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 From Judah Landa. Torah and Science. Ktav 1991. p66.

It is hardly news to point out that a long time ago people believed that the universe was
different to the way that we understand it to be today. But the belief of the rabbis of the
Talmud was standard until only very recently, by which I mean only a few hundred
years.

COPERNICUS AND HIS CRITICS

When Nicolas Copernicus (d. 1543) proposed his heliocentric universe he did so for a
number of mathematical reasons but without any evidence. The experimental evidence
that supported his claim did not appear for over three hundred years, when in 1838 the
first measurement of stellar parallax occurred. Without evidence to support the
Copernican model, many rejected it. For example, the famous Danish astronomer
Tycho Brahe (1546–1601) rejected the Copernican model, and came up with one of his
own in which all the planets orbited the sun, which in turn dragged them around a
stationary earth. For about one hundred years after Copernicus, the universities of
Oxford and Cambridge ignored the heliocentric model entirely, and the English
philosopher, statesman, and member of Parliament Francis Bacon (1561–1626) rejected
the Copernican model as having “too many and great inconveniences.”

GALILEO AND THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

Galileo published his discovery of the four satellites of Jupiter in Sidereus Nuncius in
1610. This discovery did not prove that Copernicus was correct, but it lent a great deal
of corroborative evidence to the Copernican model. In addition Galileo noted that
Venus seemed to change shape, just as the Moon did, sometimes appearing almost (but
never quite) full, sometimes as a semi-circle, and at other times as sickle-shaped. The
best explanation was that Venus was not orbiting the earth, but that it was in fact
orbiting the Sun. And that turned out to be correct too. But as we know, things didn't
tun out to well for Galileo. The Catholic Church, which by now had placed Copernicus'
book on its Index of Banned Books, also banned Galileo's Dialogue Concerning the Two
Chief World Systems - the book in which he outlined his proofs that the earth orbited
the sun. The works of the astronomer Johannes Kepler (d.1630) were also added to the
Index.

THE JESUIT EDITION OF NEWTON'S PRINCIPA

In 1687 the Copernican model found support with the publication of Newton’s Principa
Mathematica. In that work, Newton described the universal laws of gravitation and
motion that were behind the observations of Copernicus, Galileo, and Kepler. The book
went through three Latin editions in Newton’s life-time, and an English edition was

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published two years after his death in 1727. A new three-volume edition of the
Principia was published in Geneva between 1739 and 1742. This edition contained a
commentary on each of the book’s propositions by two Franciscan friars but was
noteworthy for another reason. In its final volume, the “Jesuit edition” contained a
disclaimer by the friars distancing themselves from the heliocentric assumptions
contained in the book:

Newton in this third book assumes the hypothesis of the motion of the Earth. The
propositions of the author cannot be explained otherwise than by making the same
hypothesis. Hence, we have been obliged to put on a character not our own. But we
profess obedience to the decrees promulgated by sovereign pontiffs against the motion
of the Earth.

So, it wasn't just the rabbis of the Talmud who believed the earth stood still. In fact
they believed what (nearly) everyone else continued to believe for at least a thousand
years. The sun certainly looks like it revolved around the earth, so the rabbis created a
model of the universe in which it did so, either by circling under the earth at night, or
by zig-zagging back across the top of the rakia. Neither model turned out to be
correct. But in believing this, the rabbis were firmly in the majority.

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 Rabbi Emmanuel Gettinger, 1925-2015 | Photo: Eliyahu Ungar-Sargon

Bein Hashemashos (‫)בין השמשות‬

My revered late father-in-law Rabbi Gettinger z’tl, had a particular interest in Bein Hashemashos,
and spent many years delving into this topic. The crowning achievement of these studies was the
publication of his magnum opus “Mnach Yoma,” a ground-breaking discourse on Rabbeinu Tam's
opinion on Bein Hashemashos.

In the video below, taken in Chicago on the occasion of the publication of "Mnach Yoma," Rabbi
Gettinger explains his views on Bein Hashemashos. His understanding of Bein Hashemashos was
premised upon his view of how the Sages understood cosmology, which he described in "Elements
of Talmudic Cosmology" (1989), published in a collection of essays in honor of the 60th birthday
of Rabbi Yehuda Cooperman, founder of Michlalah-Jerusalem College.

The topic of Bein Hashemashos is addressed primarily in Mesechta Shabbos. However, Mesechta
Pesachim contains an important discussion of "shkiah," and includes a critical comment of
Rabbeinu Tam on a seeming contradiction between these two gemaras. Rabbi Gettinger addressed
Bein Hashemashos at length in a series of shiurim that can be found here (starting on Shabbos
34B). Rabbi Gettinger's style of learning is nothing if not thorough, as can be gleaned from a brief
interchange between him and a student concerning how they would approach learning Bein
Hashemashos. When they concluded the topic, 29 shiurim later, Rabbi Gettinger provided a brief
summary of Rabbeinu Tam's seminal comment on "shkiah." (diagram below courtesy of Mrs.
Ruchama Rena Basya Newmark).

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https://drive.google.com/file/d/0B882ZBVEvdOjallyeU1iOVNEcHc/view

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uKRauYrmINE&feature=emb_logo

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Rabbi Dovid Cohen writes:11
“Shkiah” is the Talmudic term used to describe sunset. There is much controversy surrounding the
definition of this period of time, and much ink has been spilled explaining the various debates,
nuances and opinions. One of the works surrounding this topic, the Mnach Yoma, was authored by
Rabbi Emmanuel Gettinger, my predecessor as rabbi of the Young Israel of the West Side in
Manhattan. Rabbi Gettinger wrote this manuscript about thirty-five years ago, when he took a
Sabbatical from the shul. He merited publishing it only much more recently.

I still vividly recall the first time I casually mentioned the term “shkiah” in his presence. He looked
at me quizzically and said, “Shkiah! What is shkiah?” I can still hear his voice ringing in my ear.
It was a trick question and an opening to discuss his favorite topic. This exchange happened
numerous times over our years together.

I met the revered (and famed) Rabbi Gettinger toward the shkiah of his life. He had already reached
the stage of “gevuros” (eighty years), as he liked to refer to it. He had completed Shas at the tender
age of seventeen—one can only imagine how much I missed in only meeting him when he was in
his early eighties. In truth, I walked away from our first meeting thinking he was going on fifty.
He was razor-sharp, spry and incredibly perceptive. I wished him well, but honestly was
discouraged, as I never thought I would have the chance at Young Israel to lead my own shul.

Rabbi Joseph B. Soloveitchik, zt” l, commented that “bein hashmashos,” the twilight period
between sunset and nightfall, is a combination period comprised of aspects of both day and night.
Conceptually, he argued, it was defined as a new entity, distinct from both periods, not really day
or night. It embodies a new, unfamiliar reality that raises various intricacies in Jewish law.

Sadly, at the Young Israel of the West Side, the last few years have been “bein
hashmashos.” Rabbi Gettinger has been very much still with us, but in reality, not with us at all.
It wasn’t the daytime, when he led Young Israel for sixty years, but thankfully not the absolute
darkness of nighttime either, as he slowly recovered in Chicago from a serious stroke. It amazes
me how the essence of a person can be so imbedded within the walls of an institution. He is
nowhere, and at the same time, everywhere. To this day, when certain people refer to the “rabbi,”
I need to double-check and clarify if they mean him or me.

My initial years at Young Israel as his associate rabbi were another “bein hashmashos” of sorts.
We overlapped and shared rabbinical duties. At first, Rabbi Gettinger spoke on Yom Kippur, gave
the big Shabbat Shuvah and Shabbat HaGadol derashot, was makri on Rosh Hashanah and
performed mechirat chametz for the kehillah. He also remained the posek for the shul, and I often
had to explain his unique halachic views to a young kehillah that didn’t always understand his
approach. It was a tricky period for me. I was in my mid-thirties and felt mature enough to handle
my own kehillah, and yet I was still second-in-command to someone who was very much in
command.

Rabbi Gettinger, a prime and early disciple of Rabbi Yitzchak Hutner, zt”l, of Yeshiva Rabbi
Chaim Berlin, very much demanded kavod haTorah. He was strict in its applications and
demanded it of everybody, from great scholars to the simplest balabus. He wasn’t interested in

11
https://jewishaction.com/tribute/missing-rabbi-gettinger/

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hearing about new ways of doing things or what the younger generation wanted or expected of the
shul. He knew what was right and he didn’t feel the need to explain himself. He also demanded
that I, as a (young) rav, demand kavod haTorah as well. When I would call his home and introduce
myself as “Dovid Cohen” to either him or his indomitable, illustrious Rebbetzin Rochel
Gettinger—who also mastered Shas, by the way—they would immediately respond with “hello
Rabbi Cohen.”

It took only my second week at work to receive my first (of many!) firm rebukes from him. We
used to learn b’chavruta in my initial year, and the sessions were fascinating. The stylistic clash
between my yeshivah training and his more scholarly approach was something to behold. The
sessions went on for hours, until frankly, the demands on my time precluded continuing. Early on
in my tenure, Rabbi Gettinger used a verse we were learning together to scold me and remind me
about which topics are better left unaddressed in a public forum. I was a little scared of his ire, and
it didn’t help that the young congregants enjoyed seeing me figuratively squirm next to a small
figure of towering stature and see if I was up to the challenge.

The first three years were difficult. At one point, I even tried to leave. I began every public address
with “b’rishut harav,” and although respectful and appropriate, it made it difficult to escape Rabbi
Gettinger’s lofty shadow.

Eventually, however, something shifted in a positive way. I don’t know exactly when it happened,
but I began to really gain Rabbi Gettinger’s trust. He slowly began to relinquish his hold on shul
matters, and there was a marked shift in his attitude toward me.

As time went on, I really enjoyed spending time with Rabbi Gettinger—schmoozing, hearing about
how things used to be at Young Israel. He would always ask about my family and my parents. He
loved my kids, and my kids adored him. He would show my Meir his telescope and would listen
to my Anaelle repeat the entire Purim story. When I would ask Anaelle who is her favorite rabbi,
she’d always respond “Rabbi Gettinger.” Thankfully, her Abba was always a close second.

I began to change as well. Rather than view Rabbi Gettinger as an obstacle to my success, I began
to appreciate the privilege I had to learn from a giant of a man. I had a very unique perspective
indeed. I had the zechut to be so close to a man who had touched the greatness of Rabbi Yosef
Eliyahu Henkin, zt”l, Rabbi Hutner, zt”l, and Rabbi Gettinger’s own father-in-law, Rabbi Naftali
Riff, zt”l. Rabbi Gettinger was from a different generation, and yet was so much a part of ours. I
had a very unique view and role that nobody else was privy to nor could totally understand.

Rabbi Gettinger wasn’t a schmoozer. In my mind—and maybe to others—he was a rosh

yeshivah trapped as a pulpit rabbi. He always enjoyed telling me the story of how Rabbi Moshe
Feinstein, zt”l, the posek hador, was called “Rosh Yeshivah” and how Rabbi Joseph B.
Soloveitchik, who was a classic rosh yeshivah, was called “The Rav.”

Rosh yeshivah and shul rav are different roles and require different skill sets—and sometimes the
role or title fails to adequately describe the individual. Being a shul rav wasn’t always the grandest
fit for Rabbi Gettinger, who sometimes had to deal with people way beneath his lofty level in both
halachic observance and in Torah scholarship. My recent recollections of him are of warm
embraces and even (once!) a kiss on the cheek, but I know he wasn’t always this tender, at least

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not in the shul. He was warm and welcoming if you pursued him, but he wasn’t today’s glad-
handing rabbi at the kiddush.

Rabbi Gettinger really was “bein hashmashos” incarnate. He fit comfortably into two worlds—
Yeshivish and Modern Orthodox—and yet he didn’t really fit into either. He attended Columbia
University and had advanced degrees in mathematics and engineering and did kiruv way before
most modern-day college campus outreach organizations were around. His devotion to and
reverence for his rebbetzin were exemplary. In fact, the earliest and sternest piece of advice he
gave me was to invest money to ensure my rebbetzin had adequate household help in her new role.

Rabbi Gettinger was computer savvy and used technology very effectively for a man of his age,
yet he was also the quintessential “ish hatefillah.” He could be quiet and still, and he could be
engaged and vociferous. To watch him daven so slowly and carefully, reciting each and every
word, was something to behold. He also loved to recite Sefer Tehillim. Rabbi Gettinger was an
amalgamation of different time periods in history and different currents of Orthodoxy.

It fascinates me how different institutions end Shabbat at different times on the Upper West Side
of Manhattan. People are always in a hurry to get somewhere and often choose the “early times”
for Maariv. As Rabbi Gettinger’s magnum opus was elucidating the opinion of Rabbeinu Tam, he
was never in a rush to end Shabbat. This devotion to Rabbeinu Tam’s view, or at least his novel
interpretation of it, beautifully describes how we at Young Israel have felt recently: a yearning to
hold on to Rabbi Gettinger for just a little bit longer, and to hold on to the sanctity, reflected in the
Shabbat that he so embodied.

Our spiritual guide, the mentor of so many for so long, represents to us kedushah, being apart, but
also being together with us, providing illumination and light. We miss Rabbi Gettinger’s
indomitable presence and prayed that he wouldn’t take leave of us. Sadly, this Purim he did take
leave of us. The sun has set and he has transitioned to the world that is all light and no darkness, a
world that is totally Shabbat. May his memory be a blessing to us and all of Klal Yisrael.

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