Unit 1

The Nature & Practice of Science

Science is…..

thinking critically

asking why

evaluating evidence

to come to a conclusion.
The scientific method is a problem-solving approach
which has five basic steps, plus one feedback step:
1. Make an observation.
2. Ask a question.
3. Form a hypothesis, or testable explanation.
4. Make a prediction based on the hypothesis.
5. Test the prediction.
6. Iterate: use the results to make new hypotheses or
predictions.
Model Argument

Significant Theory
Variable
Observation Law
Scientific Method

Proof Inference Fact

Control Hypothesis
Pattern
 Science
Begins with
Observation
-Receiving and recording knowledge
about an event

-Not only visual. Any data recorded in

an experiment can be term an
observation
Hypothesis
-A proposed explanation for a
phenomena that CAN BE TESTED

-Must be FALSIFIABLE, meaning

that it can be proved wrong
Science does not claim to “prove”
anything because scientific
understandings are always subject
to modification with further
information
Prediction
-A statement of the expected results

-Can take the form ‘If….. then……’

Experiment
-A controlled method of testing the
hypothesis

-Best designed to DISPROVE a

hypothesis
There is always the possibility that a
new observation or a new
experiment will conflict with a long-
standing theory.
Last Step-
Draw a conclusion….

If the outcome of the experiment

matches the prediction, then the
hypothesis is supported.

Conclusion is specific to that

experiment and those conditions.
Pattern
-A non-random sequence of results
from repeated observations

Process
-The mechanism that is responsible for
that pattern
Germ theory of disease

the theory that certain diseases are caused by the invasion of the body
by microorganisms, organisms too small to be seen except through a
microscope.
Theory
-An explanation for observations or
phenomena that has been supported
through repeated experimental tests
over a long period of time
Law
-A statement that summarises the
relationship between variables but
makes no attempt to explain it.
Newton’s Law of Gravitation

statement that any particle of matter in the universe attracts any

other with a force varying directly as the product of the masses and
inversely as the square of the distance between them.
Fact
-An observation that has been
confirmed many times and has not
been refuted. This definition allows for
a level of uncertainty because what we
know changes with time.
Control
-A sample that remains unchanged
throughout the experiment so that the
effect of the variable of interest can be
tested
Variable
-Any factor that can be manipulated,
controlled for or affect the outcome of
an experiment.
Significant
-Means a statistical test has been
conducted and the result compared to a
value of probability (normally p < 0.05)
Causal Experiments

experiments that identify the cause of

an observed phenomenon or correlation

Correlation = Causation
Multiple Working
Hypotheses
-This approach attempts to
hypothesize every rational explanation
for an observation and then fairly
evaluate each
Exploratory Science

-Research that investigates a problem

that is not clearly defined
Applied Science

-Aims to use science to solve real-world

problems
Fundamental/Basic
Science
-Conducted to expand knowledge
regardless of the immediate application
of that knowledge
Natural Experiments

After 3 months
How do Scientists test
hypotheses when they
can’t manipulate any
variables?
The term "forecast
model" refers to any
objective tool used to
generate a prediction of
a future event, such as
the state of the
atmosphere. The
National Hurricane
Center (NHC) uses many
models as guidance in
the preparation of official
track and intensity
forecasts.
‘Ground-truthing’
https://origin.www.nhc.noaa.gov/modelsummary.shtml
Initially, little was known about
the virus’s transmissibility, but
that quickly changed. By about
the middle of January,
epidemiologists began reporting
the results of modelling studies,
which indicated that case
numbers were likely to be much
higher than had initially been
documented.
Their models suggested that infections and deaths could be
reduced if people wore face masks and maintained a degree of
distance from one another, and if more people stayed at home.
Model
-A physical/ mathematical/ conceptual
representation of a system of ideas,
events or processes. Scientists use
models to help explain ideas, to test
hypotheses and to make predictions.
‘models’ can be used to test ideas and
processes in ways that may be impossible
to do in the real world.
Science helps us
describe and
understand the
world, then we have
to decide how to use
that knowledge.
• Read class study tool, read your notes and all
the reading in the unit folder
Recognition
• Review the misconceptions and learning
objectives
Comprehension
• Ask yourself questions
Application
• Be careful with other websites

• Be honest with yourself

Do something your future self will thank you for

https://www.livescience.com/21491-what-is-a-scientific-theory-definition-of-theory.html

Every scientific theory starts as a hypothesis.

The University of California, Berkley, defines a theory as "a broad, natural explanation
for a wide range of phenomena.
Facts and theories are two different things. In the scientific method, there is a clear
distinction between facts, which can be observed and/or measured, and theories, which
are scientists' explanations and interpretations of the facts.
An important part of scientific theory includes statements that have observational
consequences. A good theory, like Newton's theory of gravity, has unity, which means it
consists of a limited number of problem-solving strategies that can be applied to a wide
range of scientific circumstances. Another feature of a good theory is that it formed from
a number of hypotheses that can be tested independently.

Some think that theories become laws, but theories and laws have separate and distinct
roles in the scientific method. A law is a description of an observed phenomenon in the
natural world that hold true every time it is tested. It doesn't explain why something is
true; it just states that it is true. A theory, on the other hand, explains observations that
are gathered during the scientific process.

"It was only then that scientists, such as T.H. Morgan working with fruit flies, explained
the Law of Independent Assortment using the theory of chromosomal inheritance. Still
today, this is the universally accepted explanation (theory) for Mendel's Law."
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4501050/
Abstract

When scientists want to explain some aspect of nature, they tend to make observations of the
natural world or collect experimental data, and then extract regularities or patterns from these
observations and data, possibly using some form of statistical analysis. Characterizing these
regularities or patterns can help scientists to generate new hypotheses, but statistical correlations
on their own do not constitute understanding. Rather, it is when a mechanistic explanation of the
regularities or patterns is developed from underlying principles, while relying on as few
assumptions as possible, that a theory is born. A scientific theory thus provides a unifying
framework that can explain a large class of empirical data. A scientific theory is also capable of
making predictions that can be tested experimentally. Moreover, a theory can be refined in the
light of new experimental data, and then be used to make new predictions, which can also be
tested: over time this cycle of prediction, testing and refinement should result in a more robust
and quantitative theory. Thus, the union of empirical and quantitative theoretical work should be
a hallmark of any scientific discipline.
“Science is cumulative. It builds steadily toward progress, and that’s
been my answer to despair during this last year. I can look back over my
life and see a degree of advancement that’s staggering.”

Leading vaccinologist Stanley Plotkin is inspired by the

accomplishments of science during the pandemic — though the 88-
year-old has struggled to get a COVID vaccine himself.

The Washington Post:

https://www.washingtonpost.com/nation/2021/01/27/expert-covid-
vaccine/?arc404=true