Final Term Examination Assignment Based Exam

BS CS 5th Semester
Instructor: Muhammad Behroz Khan
Course: Organizational Behavior
Faculty of Management and Computer Sciences
University of Agriculture Peshawar.

NAME Naveed Khan

CLASS NO 392. Section F. Semester 5th

QNO 1: Define Personality and its characteristics. Discuss the Physical

Perspective and Psychological Perspective of Personality. Also through light on
the Trait theory of Personality.
ANSWER:
Personality, a characteristic way of thinking, feeling, and behaving. Personality embraces
moods, attitudes, and opinions and is most clearly expressed in interactions with other people.
It includes behavioral characteristics, both inherent and acquired, that distinguish one person
from another and that can be observed in people’s relations to the environment and to the
social group.

Characteristics, The most widely accepted of these traits are the Big Five:
1. Openness:
Openness is shorthand for "openness to experience." People who are high in
openness enjoy adventure. They're curious and appreciate art, imagination and
new things. The motto of the open individual might be "Variety is the spice of
life." Conscientiousness.
2. Conscientiousness:
People who are conscientious are organized and have a strong sense of duty.
They're dependable, disciplined and achievement-focused. You won't find
conscientious types jetting off on round-the-world journeys with only a
backpack; they're planners.
3. Extraversion:
 Extraversion versus introversion is possibly the most recognizable personality
trait of the Big Five. The more of an extravert someone is, the more of a social
butterfly they are. Extraverts are chatty, sociable and draw energy from crowds.
They tend to be assertive and cheerful in their social interactions.
4. Agreeableness:
Agreeableness measures the extent of a person's warmth and kindness. The
more agreeable someone is, the more likely they are to be trusting, helpful and
compassionate. Disagreeable people are cold and suspicious of others, and
they're less likely to cooperate.
5. Neuroticism:
a. To understand neuroticism, look no further than George Costanza of the long-
running sitcom "Seinfeld." George is famous for his neuroses, which the show
blames on his dysfunctional parents. He worries about everything, obsesses over
germs and disease and once quits a job because his anxiety over not having
access to a private bathroom is too overwhelming.

Psychological Perspective:
The psychological perspective is the result of a synthesis of cognitive and behavioral
psychology theories. In this tradition of research, three strategies are clear: (1) the
adoption of attitude change as the most interesting dependent variable, (2) the
modeling of communication (i.e., persuasion) as a special case of behavioral learning
theory, and (3) the reliance on experimental social psychology for conceptual and
methodological research strategies. The basic communication model proposed by
Hovland and Janis (1959) conceived of the communication situation in terms of message
content, source identity, type of channel, and setting operating through predispositional
factors (situational elements that determine what audience members attend to and
how) and internal mediating processes (attention, comprehension, and acceptance) in
order to produce observable communication effects (changes in opinion, perception,
affect, and action).

Physical Perspective:
The physical perspective relates to the physical senses, to our bodies, and to the
material and natural environments. We include the functions of doing, building, taking
apart, detailing, producing, and acting. Thus, it relates both to sensation and
performance. Development implies cultivating bodily awareness, healthy habits, and
positive attitudes about our bodies and the natural world.
 It also relates to becoming aware of how to rely on the wisdom and intuition of the body,
and how to make choices about what we produce and build.

Trait theory of Personality:

If someone asked you to describe a close friend's personality, what kind of things
would you say? A few things that might come to mind are descriptive terms, such as
"outgoing," "kind" and "even-tempered." All of these represent traits. What exactly
does this the word "trait" mean?
A trait can be thought of as a relatively stable characteristic that causes
individuals to behave in certain ways. The trait approach to personality is one of the
major theoretical areas in the study of personality. The trait theory suggests that
individual personalities are composed of these broad dispositions.1
Unlike many other theories of personality, such as psychoanalytic or humanistic
theories, the trait approach to personality is focused on differences between
individuals. The combination and interaction of various traits form a personality that is
unique to each individual. Trait theory is focused on identifying and measuring these
individual personality characteristics.
The study of personality and what shapes and influences each person is
fascinating. As you can see, those who study this field have varying opinions. However,
they do build off one another, and theorists tend to refine the work of their
predecessors, which is common in all scientific pursuits.
What is most important to understand is that everyone has different personality
traits. We each have certain traits that dominate our personality with a myriad of traits
that can arise in different situations. Also, our traits can change over time and can be
shaped by our experiences.

QNO 2: Define Motivation and its types. Discuss the Biological Motives and
Psychological Motives. Discuss the Primary and Secondary motives.
ANSWER:
Motivation:
‘Motivation is a biological, social or psychological state that drives a person towards a specific
action’. ‘Motivation is driving force which stimulates an individual to initiate and sustain a
behavior.’ ‘Motivation is a desire that fuels an individual to perform or continue an action
based on needs and wants of the individual’. The terms ‘Motivation’ and ‘Motives’ are sometimes
used interchangeably but there is a difference in meaning of both terms. ‘Motivation’ ’ is a generalized
term while ‘motive’ ’ is a specific term. A motive is an agent of motivation. A motive is a goal, an aim,
ambition, a need, a want, an interest, or a desire that motivates an individual towards an action. On the
other hand, the term ‘Motivation’ refers to the process in which motives motivates an individual
towards an action.

TYPES OF MOTIVATION:
Intrinsic Motivation :
It is a type of motivation in which the motives originate from inside the human body. It
refers to the internal driving state stimulating an individual to behave in a specific way.
It includes all biological drives such as hunger, thirst, sleep, relief from pain,
temperature regulation, need for oxygen and so on. For example, the hunger is driving
force coming from inside to compel an individual to eat food. Similarly, after doing all
day activities, the individual feels tired and requires a good amount of sleep to relax for
the next day. Our curiosity, internal fears, psychological needs, and desires also serve as
intrinsic motives.
It includes the following motives:

• Biological drives: e.g. hunger, thirst, relief from pain, sleep, temperature
regulation,
• Curiosity
• Internal fears
• Psychological needs e.g. need for being accepted and appreciated by others.
• Internal desires.
Extrinsic Motivation:
In this type of motivation, the motives originate from outside the human body. The
driving force exists outside the human body that stimulates the individual for certain
actions. Though these motives are external to the human body, but they have a
rewarding or punishing impact for the individual.
It includes the following motives:

• Incentives
• Bonuses
• Allowances
• Promotion and demotion
• Rewards and punishment
• Merit and Distinction certificates
• Appreciation certificates and prizes.
 Biological Motives:

• Biological motives include hunger, thirst, the pursuit of pleasure, and the avoidance of
pain. An early attempt to specify how these motives affect animal behavior was the
ambitious theory of Clark Hull.
• Hull borrowed from the concept of homeostasis or biological regulation. His assumption
was that biological motives followed the pattern of homeostasis. After Hull, this
conceptual linkage is still reflected in concepts such as the set-point for fat regulation.
• Modern theories of hunger involve multiple factors. For example, obesity is strongly
influenced by genetics, but palatability of food plays a role, and even habitual fidgeting
(small nervous movements) can influence fat deposition over time.
• Pleasure and pain are regulated by a hedonic control system. Solomon's opponent
process theory explains hedonic rebound: the phenomenon where a period of happy or
sad emotion is followed by its opposite.
• The neurotransmitter dopamine is involved in neural pathways to the prefrontal cortex
of humans, a key area for pursuing goals. Dopaminergic pathways energize behaviors
aimed at reinforcements.
• Research has shown dopamine levels are elevated by anticipation of reinforcing events.
This applies to addictive drugs but also a wide range of normal and desirable behaviors.
Dopamine levels seem to increase whenever people look forward to something they
enjoy.
• The concept of stress-induced behavior resembles Hull's original drive concept. It also
resembles popular ideas about motivation held by non-scientists: motivation involves pep
or energy, generated in response to environmental challenge (stress), and shaped or
directed by situational factors.

1. Hunger motive
2. Thirst motive
3. Need for oxygen
4. Motive for regulation of body temperature
5. Need for sleep
6. Need for avoidance of pain
7. Drive for elimination of waste
8. Sex motive
9. Maternal drive

Psychological Motives:

The psychological motives are also known as personal motives. These motives are personal in the
sense that they are very specific to the person psychological make up of the individual.
• Curiosity
Curiosity is a motivational tendency to act, which does not have sped and identifiable
goals. It is simply gaining pleasure by obtaining informatics experiencing, or doing, it is
the tendency to seek for the novel. Curios describe behaviours whose primary motives
appear to remain in the activities themselves rather than on objectives. Curiosity motives
and the needs for sensory stimulation are also conducive for the motive of exploration. It
is true that we are driven to explore the environment by our curiosity and our need for
sensory stimulation.

• Exploration

Always people want to explore the environment. On many occasions we want to visit new
places and “points of interest” by spending time and money. Further, we watch television,
cinema and sports, and read newspapers ant magazines to know about the world. The
motive behind all the activities is to find out “What’s new?” by exploring the world around
us.

Small children always try to explore something. A baby’s life is dominated by this motive.
They also seem to receive satisfaction from being allowed the explore. Very often, they
smile and babble excitedly when exploring their world. When the motive to explore has
been frustrated, children become distressed the same way as adults are bothered by
frustration.

• Achievement Motivation
The need to meet some inner standard of excellence is called achievement or competence
motivation. Achievement motivation is a personality variable which appears to differ from
one individual to another. Some individuals an highly achievement-oriented and
competence-oriented and others are not.

As we know, what is most striking about man is his achievement. It arises out of a
tendency to define one’s goals according to some standards c excellence in product or
performance attained. This motive has bee investigated most extensively by cognitive
psychologists like David McClellan and John Atkinson. For the first time, they used the
projective methods to measure achievement motivation.

Extrinsic motivation and intrinsic motivation are closely related to the achievement
motivation. Extrinsic motivation programmes are extensively applied in education,
industrial and clinical settings. A person’s need for feeling Detent and self-determined in
dealing with his environment is termed as “intrinsic motivation”. It is called intrinsic
because the goals are internal feelings achievement and competence. Extrinsic
motivation is directed towards goals external to the person such as money or grades. But
intrinsic motivation has practical aspects because they are powerful motivators of human
behaviour. The intrinsically motivated activities are those activities for which there are no
 rent rewards except the activity itself. The activities are ends in themselves rather than
means to ends.

Primary Motives:
Primary motives are essential for survival. They must be satisfied first before we can take up
any other activity. Primary motives come to action when the physiological balance of the body
is upset. This balance is called homeostasis.

• Hunger or Thirst drive:

• Drive for elimination of wastes:
• Maternal drive:

Secondary Motives:
Human life has not only just biological aspect but also social aspect. Hence human behaviour is
activated by the following social motives.

• Achievement motives

• Affiliation motives

• Aggression motives

• Power motives

• Curiosity motives.

QNO 3: Explain the following in context of Learning:

1. Classical Conditioning:
Classical conditioning (also known as Pavlovian or respondent conditioning) is learning
through association and was discovered by Pavlov, a Russian physiologist. In simple
terms, two stimuli are linked together to produce a new learned response in a person or
animal.

There are three stages of classical conditioning. At each stage the stimuli and responses
are given special scientific terms:
Stage 1: Before Conditioning:
In this stage, the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) produces an unconditioned response (UCR) in
an organism.
In basic terms, this means that a stimulus in the environment has produced a behavior /
response which is unlearned (i.e., unconditioned) and therefore is a natural response which has
not been taught. In this respect, no new behavior has been learned yet.
For example, a stomach virus (UCS) would produce a response of nausea (UCR). In another example, a
perfume (UCS) could create a response of happiness or desire (UCR).

Stage 2: During Conditioning:

During this stage, a stimulus which produces no response (i.e., neutral) is associated with the
unconditioned stimulus at which point it now becomes known as the conditioned stimulus (CS).
For example, a stomach virus (UCS) might be associated with eating a certain food such as chocolate
(CS). Also, perfume (UCS) might be associated with a specific person (CS).
Stage 3: After Conditioning:
Now the conditioned stimulus (CS) has been associated with the unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
to create a new conditioned response (CR).
For example, a person (CS) who has been associated with nice perfume (UCS) is now found attractive
(CR). Also, chocolate (CS) which was eaten before a person was sick with a virus (UCS) now produces a
response of nausea (CR).

2. Operant Conditioning:

Operant conditioning, sometimes referred to as instrumental conditioning, is a method of

learning that employs rewards and punishments for behavior. Through operant conditioning, an
association is made between a behavior and a consequence (whether negative or positive) for
that behavior.

Components of Operant Conditioning:

There are several key concepts in operant conditioning.

o Reinforcement in Operant Conditioning:

Reinforcement is any event that strengthens or increases the behavior it follows. There are two
kinds of reinforcers. In both of these cases of reinforcement, the behavior increases.

• Positive reinforcers are favorable events or outcomes that are presented after the
behavior. In positive reinforcement situations, a response or behavior is
 strengthened by the addition of praise or a direct reward. If you do a good job at
work and your manager gives you a bonus, that bonus is a positive reinforcer.
• Negative reinforcers involve the removal of an unfavorable events or outcomes
after the display of a behavior. In these situations, a response is strengthened by the
removal of something considered unpleasant. For example, if your child starts to
scream in the middle of a restaurant, but stops once you hand them a treat, your
action led to the removal of the unpleasant condition, negatively reinforcing your
behavior (not your child's).

o Punishment in Operant Conditioning:

Punishment is the presentation of an adverse event or outcome that causes a decrease in the
behavior it follows. There are two kinds of punishment. In both of these cases, the
behavior decreases.

• Positive punishment, sometimes referred to as punishment by application, presents

an unfavorable event or outcome in order to weaken the response it follows.
Spanking for misbehavior is an example of punishment by application.
• Negative punishment, also known as punishment by removal, occurs when a
favorable event or outcome is removed after a behavior occurs. Taking away a
child's video game following misbehavior is an example of negative punishment.

o Reinforcement Schedules:

Reinforcement is not necessarily a straightforward process, and there are a number of factors
that can influence how quickly and how well new things are learned. Skinner found
that when and how often behaviors were reinforced played a role in the speed and strength
of acquisition. In other words, the timing and frequency of reinforcement influenced how new
behaviors were learned and how old behaviors were modified.

Skinner identified several different schedules of reinforcement that impact the operant
conditioning process:4

• Continuous reinforcement involves delivering a reinforcement every time a

response occurs. Learning tends to occur relatively quickly, yet the response rate is
quite low. Extinction also occurs very quickly once reinforcement is halted.
• Fixed-ratio schedules are a type of partial reinforcement. Responses are reinforced
only after a specific number of responses have occurred. This typically leads to a
fairly steady response rate.
• Fixed-interval schedules are another form of partial reinforcement. Reinforcement
occurs only after a certain interval of time has elapsed. Response rates remain fairly
steady and start to increase as the reinforcement time draws near, but slow
immediately after the reinforcement has been delivered.
 • Variable-ratio schedules are also a type of partial reinforcement that involve
reinforcing behavior after a varied number of responses. This leads to both a high
response rate and slow extinction rates.
• Variable-interval schedules are the final form of partial reinforcement Skinner
described. This schedule involves delivering reinforcement after a variable amount
of time has elapsed. This also tends to lead to a fast response rate and slow
extinction rate.

3. Observational Learning Theory:

Observational learning describes the process of learning through watching others, retaining
the information, and then later replicating the behaviors that were observed. There are a
number of learning theories, such as classical conditioning and operant conditioning, that
emphasize how direct experience, reinforcement, or punishment lead to learning. However,
a great deal of learning happens indirectly.

For example, think of how a child watches his parents wave at one another and then
imitates these actions himself. A tremendous amount of learning happens through this
process of watching and imitating others. In psychology, this is known as observational
learning.

Observational learning is sometimes also referred to as shaping, modeling, and vicarious

reinforcement. While it can take place at any point in life, it tends to be the most
common during childhood as children learn from the authority figures and peers in their
lives.

Examples of Observational Learning

The following are instances that demonstrate when observational learning might take place.

• A child watches their parent folding the laundry. They later pick up some clothing and
imitate folding the clothes.
• A young couple goes on a date to a Chinese restaurant. They watch other diners in the
restaurant eating with chopsticks and copy their actions in order to learn how to use
these utensils.
• A child watches a classmate get in trouble for hitting another child. They learn from
observing this interaction that they should not hit others.
• A group of children plays hide-and-seek at recess. One child joins the group, but has
never played before and is not sure what to do. After observing the other children play,
they quickly learn the basic rules of the game and join in.
 QNO 4: Define Stress and discuss its two kinds of appraisals with
examples. Discuss Good stress and Bad Stress. Explain biological
mechanism of Stress.

ANSWER:

Stress:
Stress is a feeling of emotional or physical tension. It can come from any event or
thought that makes you feel frustrated, angry, or nervous. Stress is your body's reaction
to a challenge or demand. In short bursts, stress can be positive, such as when it helps
you avoid danger or meet a deadline

▪ Stress Appraisal Theory Definition

Stress appraisal refers to the process by which individuals evaluate and cope with a
stressful event. Stress appraisal theory is concerned with individuals’ evaluation of the
event, rather than with the event per se. People differ in how they construe what is
happening to them and their options for coping. Stress appraisal comes in two forms,
primary and secondary appraisal, which should be considered as two stages of appraisal
or evaluation. These two types of appraisal are not mutually exclusive; they work in
concert with one another to complete the appraisal process.

▪ Primary Appraisal

Primary appraisal is the cognitive process that occurs when one is appraising whether an
event is stressful and relevant to him or her. During this phase, a decision is made about
whether the event poses a threat, will cause harm or loss, or presents a challenge. Harm
or loss is associated with damage that has already occurred, such as a death or a job loss.
Threat is the possibility of a harm or loss in the future, such as sickness or poor job
performance. Conversely, challenge consists of events that provide a person an
opportunity to gain a sense of mastery and competence by confronting and overcoming
a dilemma. Such a struggle would be considered a positive type of stress and allows a
person to expand one’s knowledge and experience, and to develop extra tools to embrace
future challenges or stresses. Finishing a marathon or writing a book might be an example
of a challenge.

▪ Secondary Appraisal

Secondary appraisal is the cognitive process that occurs when one is figuring out how to
cope with a stressful event. During this process, a person decides what coping options are
available. A harmful event requires immediate evaluation of coping options because it
has already occurred, whereas threatening or challenging events allow one time to gather
 more information about events. Prior experience or being exposed to similar situations
previously provides a frame of reference to determine the options available for dealing
with the situation.

Biological Stress a condition that imposes severe demands on the physical and psychological
defenses of the organism.

Biological Mechanism of Stress:

Environmental events, both physical and emotional, can produce stress reactions to
widely varying degrees. Stress can affect many aspects of physiology, and levels of
stress, emotional status, and means of coping with stress can influence health and
disease. The stress system consists of brain elements, of which the main components
are the corticotropin-releasing homrone (CRH) and locus ceruleus (LC)-norepinephrine
(NE)/autonomic systems, as well as their peripheral effectors, the pituitary-adrenal axis
and the autonomic system, which function to coordinate the stress response. Activation
of the stress system results in behavioral and physical changes which allow the organism
to adapt. This system is closely integrated with other central nervous system elements
involved in the regulation of behavior and emotion, in addition to the axes responsible
for reproduction, growth and immunity. With current trends in stress research which
focus on understanding the mechanisms through which the stress-response is adaptive
or becomes maladaptive, there is a growing association of stress system dysfunction,
characterized by hyperactivity and/or hypoactivity to various pathophysiological states.
The purpose of this review is to 1) define the concepts of stress and the stress response
from a historical perspective, 2) present a dynamic overview of the biobehavioral
mechanisms that participate in the stress response, and 3) examine the consequences
of stress on the physiologic and behavioral well-being of the organism by integrating
knowledge from apparently disparate fields of science.

THE END