Mining matters

Unacceptable metal mining in developing countries

and the responsibilities of companies in the Netherlands

Friends of the Earth Netherlands

Credits

Research: Friends of the Earth Netherlands (Milieudefensie)

Text: Albert ten Kate
Editing: Iris Maher
Production: Joukje Kolff
Design: Ruparo, Amsterdam
© Milieudefensie - Friends of the Earth Netherlands, May 2009

Friends of the Earth Netherlands (Milieudefensie)

Office: Nieuwe Looiersstraat 31, 1017 VA Amsterdam
Post: P O Box 19199, 1000 GD Amsterdam
The Netherlands
Phone: (00 31) (0) 20 5507 300
Email: service@milieudefensie.nl
Website: www.milieudefensie.nl

Special thanks to:

Anne van Schaik (Friends of the Earth Netherlands, FoE NL)
Anne-Sophie Simpere (Les Amis de la Terre, FoE France)
Carina Tertsakian (Global Witness)
Esther de Haan (SOMO/makeITfair)
Jan Willem van Gelder (Profundo)
Päivi Pöyhönen (Finnwatch/makeITfair)

Coca-Cola: Robert Seegers (public affairs & communications manager Netherlands)

Corus: Eric van der Oest (manager public affairs Netherlands)
Corus: René Boulonois (manager sustainable development Netherlands)
Draka: Annette Schermer (manager safety, health and environment)
Draka: Martin de Koning (director corporate communications) Photo cover:
Heineken: Hans Kroes (manager safety, health and environment Netherlands) Miners extracting tin
Philips: Jan Roodenburg (senior vice president supply, development and sustainability) ore from the Bisie
mine in the Democratic
Republic of Congo
This document has been produced with the financial assistance of the
European Union. The contents of this document are the sole responsi- © J o h a n S pa n n e r /
bility of Milieudefensie and can under no circumstances be regarded as H o l l a n ds e H o o g t e ,
reflecting the position of the European Union. No v e m b e r 2 0 0 8 .
Contents

Executive summary 4

Conclusion and recommendations 7

1. Trade links from the Netherlands to mining in developing countries 9

1.1 Tin 9
1.2 Bauxite 12
1.3 Copper 14

2. Review of mining practices in developing countries 16

2.1 Tin: Indonesia, the Democratic Republic of Congo, Bolivia and Burma 16
2.2 Bauxite: Jamaica and Guinea 24
2.3 Copper: Chile, Peru, Zambia and Indonesia 29

3. Companies reviewed 37
3.1 Methodology of the review 37
3.2 Cookson / Alpha-Fry Technologies 37
3.3 Corus 39
3.4 Aluminium smelters Aldel and Zalco 41
3.5 Draka 42
3.6 Philips 43
3.7 Heineken 45
3.8 Coca-Cola 47

4. Dutch government policy on supply chain responsibility 48

5. Preliminary research on the use of copper and tin resources 51

Annexes:
A: Abbreviations 56
B: Questionnaires sent to the companies 57
 Executive summary
• The Netherlands is a large importer of copper,
aluminium and tin from developing countries
• Mining causes major environmental and human
rights violations in developing countries
• Dutch companies import and/or use met-
als, but leave problems for planet and people
unsolved
• The metals mined are used in cars, electronics,
housing and packaging materials
In this report, mining practices in ten develop-
ing countries are reviewed with regard to labour
rights, human rights and the environment. The
mining products examined are tin, bauxite and
copper, metals which have major trade links with
companies in the Netherlands. Various compa-
nies in the Netherlands import and/or use met-
als. This report reviews the supply chain respon-
sibility towards mining practices in developing
countries of seven companies in the Nether-
lands.
Tin: mining practices and trade links
Most of the tin imported for further processing
in the Netherlands can be linked to serious envi-
ronmental, labour rights and human rights con-
cerns in developing countries. Tin is used mainly
for solder in electronic products and tinplate (to
make cans).
Tin mining in Indonesia – number one
exporter of tin to the Netherlands – only takes
place on and off the shores of Bangka island,
east of Sumatra. The mining damages coral
reefs; seriously affects fishermen’s income; has
created hundreds of toxic craters on the island;
causes abrasion of the coastline; and does not
provide a sustainable livelihood for the people
on the island.
In Bolivia, which also supplies tin to the Neth-
erlands, thousands of children work in under-
ground tin, zinc and silver mines. According to
the International Labour Organization (ILO) this
is one of the worst forms of child labour.
Tin imports to the Netherlands may also origi-
nate from the eastern part of the Democratic
Republic of Congo (DRC), where miners are
subject to oppression by rebel groups and gov-
ernment army factions. Revenues from mining
4
fuel a terrible war that has already gone on for
ten years. Working conditions in the mines are
extremely poor. Furthermore, tin mining poses
an immense threat to the survival of the eastern
lowland gorilla, which is hunted for food by min-
ers and traded by rebels.
Due to the enormous oppression of Burma’s
people, the EU has put trade sanctions in force
against the military junta, including tin.
Nonetheless, raw tin materials mined from
the DRC and to a lesser extent in Burma still
arrive in the Netherlands through Asian smelt-
ers, such as tin from the company Thaisarco
in Thailand (supplying 7 per cent of Dutch
imports) which contains tin mined in eastern
Congo.
In the Netherlands, the companies Alpha-Fry
Technologies (producer of solder and subsidi-
ary of the UK-based Cookson group) and Corus
(producer of tinplate and subsidiary of Indian
Tata Steel) are the largest importers of tin.
Bauxite: mining practices and trade links
Alumina is the mineral made from mined baux-
ite; in smelters it is turned into aluminium.
Jamaica accounts for 60 to 70 per cent of annual
alumina imports by Dutch aluminium smelt-
ers. Bauxite mining is the single largest cause of
deforestation in Jamaica. The mining industry
has stripped thousands of hectares of forest and
has caused even larger destruction by creat-
ing access roads into forests, making the forests
accessible to loggers.
Air pollution from the chimneys of the four
bauxite processing plants (mainly particulate
matter and sulphur dioxide emissions) cause seri-
ous health problems, like respiratory diseases,
in the communities living nearby. Community
health risks due to air pollution have been badly
monitored and as yet no investigation has been
carried out. Dust resulting from bauxite mining,
bauxite processing and port activities is also a
big nuisance for people.
A matter of great concern are the red mud
lakes of waste covering hundreds hectares near
the four bauxite processing plants in Jamaica.
The lakes consist of metals, water and alkaline
substances. Releases of water from red mud
lakes can seriously contaminate ground and sur-
face waters.
Most of the bauxite mining in Guinea (Africa),
which is also an indirect bauxite supplier to the
Netherlands, takes place in tropical rainforests.
The area is one of the world’s most biologically
rich, yet seriously threatened, ecosystems.
The Dutch aluminium smelters Zalco (Zee-
land Aluminium Company) and Aldel (Aluminium
Delfzijl) are both owned by the UK-based Klesch
& Company. Together they account for all annual
alumina imports into the Netherlands.
Copper: mining practices and trade links
Most of the copper and copper products
imported by the Netherlands probably have
their origin in Chile. In this country, the biggest
problems of copper mining are related to the
massive amounts of water and energy needed to
produce copper concentrates. Often the use of
water for copper mining conflicts with the needs
of farmers. Water shortage is a major issue in
Chile, as well as in Peru, which also exports cop-
per to the Netherlands.
In Chile, there are plans to build huge hydro-
power dams in Patagonia, in the south of the
country, to supply energy to the mining industry.
These dams will flood thousands of hectares of
native forest in a pristine area.
Indonesia contains the biggest and most
polluting copper mine in the world: the Gras-
berg copper and goldmine in West Papua.
Massive toxic releases from the mine flow into
natural river systems. The main mining compa-
ny is Freeport McMoRan, which has also been
accused of illegal payments to members of the
Indonesian military.
In Zambia, environmental practices and work-
ing conditions in the copper mines are poor.
The Dutch cable producer Draka is probably
the biggest Dutch importer of copper. The com-
pany accounts for more than 7 per cent of cop-
per imports by the Netherlands.
The seven companies reviewed
For this report, seven companies in the Nether-
lands were reviewed. The seven companies are
among the biggest Dutch companies involved in
the supply chain for tin, bauxite and copper. The
reviewed companies, located in the Netherlands,
are:
• Cookson/Alpha-Fry Technologies: solder manu-
facturer for the electronics industry
• Corus: big producer of tinplate for can makers
• Klesch & Company: owner of the Dutch alu-
minium smelters Zalco and Aldel
• Draka: third-biggest copper cable producer in
Europe
• Philips: user of tin in its electronic and lighting
products
• Heineken: producer of beer packed in tinplate
cans
• Coca-Cola: producer of non-alcoholic bever-
ages packed in tinplate cans
Results of the review
Cookson, the aluminium smelters, Draka and
Corus use massive amounts of mining products.
Moving further down the supply chain, Philips,
Heineken and Coca-Cola use considerably fewer
mining products themselves, as the mining prod-
ucts used to make their products are spread
throughout multiple companies.
Most companies acknowledged they have
not yet mapped out the supply chain of their
mining products nor have they identified prob-
lems related to the environment, human rights
and labour rights. This means that the compa-
nies are purchasing metals without being aware
of the consequences of the mining practices.
Reporting to the public about their trade
relationships with specific mining practices is
not common yet among the seven companies
reviewed. In fact, not a single annual report or
CSR (Corporate Social Responsibility) report was
found including any information on the mining
practices or the origins of the tin, bauxite and
copper used by these companies.
The situation in the eastern part of the Dem-
ocratic Republic of Congo (DRC) is probably the
best known case triggering responsibility among
companies for mining practices. Corus and
Philips have acted on the DRC issue. Both com-
panies now demand that their suppliers exclude
raw tin materials from the DRC from their prod-
ucts. While seeming sincere in their intentions,
neither company could guarantee that suppliers
fulfil this demand as no monitoring is carried out.
Both companies state they are looking forward
to a broader industry response to the situation in
the DRC.
Meanwhile, the biggest importer of tin into
the Netherlands, Cookson/Alpha-Fry Technolo-
gies, showed no interested in communicating
about the origins of its tin purchases and its
efforts – if any – to improve mining practices.
Though their global tin use may somewhat
less than that of Philips, it is remarkable that
Heineken and Coca-Cola have no supply chain
policy in place regarding their global use of tin
for cans.
5
 Of all the reviewed companies, Philips had
the best general policy on supply chain responsi-
bility.

Dutch government policy

The Dutch government has several initiatives to
promote supply chain responsibility among com-
panies with regard to the environment, human
rights and labour rights:
• Reporting on corporate social responsibility
(CSR) by companies will be further encouraged
and stricter reporting requirements will be
introduced. This is an initiative, supported by
the government, of the major employers’ asso-
ciations and trade unions in the Netherlands.
• The Dutch government has a procurement
policy stating that in 2010 all purchases of the
state government must be sustainable.
• As an addition to several existing market initia-
tives, the government and several stakehold-
ers have started the Dutch Sustainable Trade
Initiative (IDH), aiming to bring stakeholders
together to work on CSR problems related
to the trade in commodity products such as
timber and other forest products, soy, natural
stone products, cocoa and tea.
• Currently, the government has started research
and discussions with experts and stakeholders
on better options to hold companies liable for
abuses in the CSR chain within their sphere of
influence.

While the government initiatives may be mov-

ing in the right direction, Friends of the Earth
Netherlands thinks the present policies are not
likely to help reduce the severe social and envi-
ronmental problems related to the mining of tin,
bauxite and copper imported into the Nether-
lands.

Preliminary research on resource use

Although it may not be the case for copper in
the immediate future, tin mining resources are
definitely running out. Governments will have to
adopt policies to reduce global metal scarcity.
Preliminary research on resource use for cop-
per and tin shows that the recycling rates of tin
(around 27 per cent) and copper (around 67 per
cent) leave much room for improvement. For
both copper and tin, future resources will be
more difficult to extract, and at higher environ-
mental costs.

6
Conclusion and recommendations
Conclusion
This report shows that there are huge problems
with regard to mining in developing countries,
including loss of livelihood and health risks to
communities; devastation of rich ecosystems;
poor working conditions of miners; child labour;
fuelling war and oppression.
Several large Dutch companies which import and
process tin, bauxite and copper are linked with
these problems through their supply chain. How-
ever, these companies do not yet appear to feel
a strong responsibility for the mining practices
occurring upstream in their supply chains.
This situation is not unique to the tin, aluminium
or copper sector. The mining practices and the
trade links of tin, bauxite and copper with the
Netherlands should be seen as a model of the
entire mining sector and their Dutch buyers. Vari-
ous other Dutch companies source other mining
products in large quantities, in which the mining
process causes huge problems in developing
countries.
So far, the government has not focused on the
mining sector at all. Friends of the Earth Neth-
erlands strongly appeals to the Dutch govern-
ment to turn its attention to the severe problems
in the mining sector which are related to Dutch
companies, and also to develop a policy on the
use of scarce metals.
Recommendations
For governments
• Transparency. Governments should ensure
that companies report publicly on the supply
chain of their mining products. The reporting
should include: the origin of the mining prod-
ucts; existing environmental, human rights and
labour rights problems; the company’s efforts
to reduce and end the problems. Because
experience shows that a lot of companies do
not provide this information voluntarily, the
government should institute mandatory report-
ing by companies on environmental, human
rights and labour rights, including criteria for
reporting on mining products.
• Freedom of information. In specific cases,
mandatory reports will always be too general.
When a specific problem exists (environment,
human rights and labour rights), there is always
valuable information which only the company
possesses. At present, companies have the
ability to withhold information that might be
valuable to solve the problem. The govern-
ment has poor mechanisms in place to make
a company comply with specific requests by
stakeholders. The government should construct
better regulations for this purpose.
• Resource use. The government should set
policy goals to reduce the use of metals with
depleting resources, in order to ensure com-
ing generations will also be able to utilise their
useful applications. There are also many pos-
sibilities to create a bigger market for our own
recycling deposits.
• Chain initiatives. Governments should pay far
more attention to the severe CSR problems of
mining and trade links. Mining appears to be
an overlooked problem. Governments could
set up chain initiatives within host and mining
countries, with all stakeholders involved. The
government could also address the severe CSR
problems in the mining sector through their
procurement policy.
• Liability. It is necessary to legally anchor mini-
mum requirements for supply chain responsibil-
ity in order to be able to tackle abuses and free
riders (supply chain liability). It must be made
possible to take legal action against companies
in their homelands if they are involved in main-
taining illegal and/or unacceptable practices
in their supply chains. The Dutch government
must work to achieve regulations on supply
chain liability, in the Netherlands and in the EU.
For companies
Companies which use considerable amounts of
mining products in their final products should
take responsibility for the total supply chain
with regard to the environment, human rights
and labour rights. In order to make this happen,
7
 companies should do the following:
• map out the supply chain for their mining
products from the mine level and identify prob-
lems with the environment, human rights and
labour rights along the supply chain.
• take active steps to prevent, reduce or end the
problems by exerting influence on suppliers
• report publicly about their involvement in min-
ing throughout the supply chain, existing prob-
lems, and efforts towards improving the envi-
ronment, human rights and labour rights along
the mining product chain.

8
Chapter 1
Trade links from the Netherlands
to mining in developing countries
This chapter maps the
­Netherlands’ trade links to the
mining of tin, bauxite and cop-
per in developing countries.
This was done with the help of
import statistics from Statistics
­Netherlands, US Geological
Survey global mining statistics
and additional information.
1.1 Tin
Tin: the metal
Tin is a silvery-white metal; its elemental symbol
is Sn. It is obtained chiefly from the grey mineral
cassiterite (tin ore). Tin ore is transformed into tin-
in-concentrate in processing plants, and smelters
then heat the tin-in-concentrate to become pure
refined tin. The London Metal Exchange (LME)
and Kuala Lumpur Tin Market (KLTM) are the key
centres of the worldwide refined tin trade.
Major mining countries
The major tin mining countries are China and
Indonesia, in 2007 accounting for 41 per cent
Printed wire
board
F li ckr / B e ll m a r k
9
 and 31 per cent of tin mining production respec- of tin to prevent rust, is second largest use for
tively. Peru, Bolivia, the Democratic Republic of tin. Tinplate is primarily used for the packaging
Congo, and Brazil followed, accounting respec- of products, principally food cans, beverage cans
tively for 12, 5, 4 and 3 per cent. In 2007 mining and pet foods.5 Globally, tinplate accounts for 16
production totalled 329,000 tonnes.1 In the last per cent of tin usage.
ten years, tin mining production has increased by
50 per cent.2 Tin imports to the Netherlands
In 2008, the Netherlands imported 14,000
Large tin belts have been found in Asia and tonnes of tin, worth 180 million euros. More than
South America. The biggest starts on the island 30 per cent of exports to the Netherlands come
of Tasmania, off the coast of Australia, and runs from countries that do not mine tin themselves,
up through Indonesia and Malaysia, Singapore but re-export it to the Netherlands, usually after
and further through Burma and Vietnam up to some processing operations.
the outer reaches of China and Russia.3 Tin is For this report it is assumed that Indone-
also found in some African countries, notably the sia imports a bigger percentage of tin than
Democratic Republic of Congo. is accounted for by the Dutch statistics listed
below. This is due to the fact that Indonesia is a
Tin in products main exporter and a main producer of tin.
Tin is the main substance used in solder, a metal China is also a big producer of tin, but not a
alloy used to join the edges or surfaces of two big trader. China’ tin exports have declined over
pieces of metal. In 2007 solder accounted for 53 the years, due to China’s massive demand in its
per cent of global tin use. More than 80 per cent own domestic industries (especially electron-
is used in the electronics industry, for example in ics) and a 10 per cent export duty on refined tin
printed wired boards.4 In the past few years, tin imposed by the Chinese government.6
use as solder has increased rapidly, due to the
growing global electronics industry and regula- The Netherlands’ trade links with the
tions requiring replacement of lead in solder. Democratic Republic Congo
Solder can be found in many products: cars, tel- About 4 per cent of global raw tin materials are
evisions, computers, mobile phones, household mined in the eastern part of Democratic Repub-
appliances, etc. lic of Congo (DRC). The Netherlands’ import
Tinplate, sheet steel covered with a thin layer statistics do not list any imports from the DRC.
But some Dutch imports might nevertheless
Imports of tin and tin alloys to the ­Netherlands in 20087 originate from the DRC, as most tin ore from the
DRC is known to be exported to Asian smelters.
Country tonnes per cent
Dutch import statistics only list imports of refined
Indonesia 4,136 29 tin after smelting. The tin smelting companies
Thaisarco Smelting and Refining Corporation
Peru 1,875 13 and Malaysia Smelting Corporation Berhad have
both indicated that they buy cassiterite from
United Kingdom (re-export) 1,133 8 the DRC.8 In December 2008, a United Nations
Group of Experts working on behalf on the Secu-
China 1,065 8
rity Council reported it had obtained documents
Bolivia 949 7 showing that an exporter had sold all its mineral
purchases to Thaisarco. The exporter knowingly
Thailand (re-export) 895 6 bought the tin ore from mines in South Kivu con-
trolled by the FDLR rebel group.9
Germany (re-export) 891 6
The Thai company Thaisarco exports a great deal
Singapore (re-export) 682 5
of refined tin to the Netherlands that is likely to
Malaysia (re-export) 633 5 have been mined in the DRC. The company is
part of the UK-based Amalgamated Metal Cor-
Brazil 612 4 poration group. In Thailand little tin mining takes
place and raw material imports from Indone-
Other 1,206 9 sia, common in earlier years, have decreased.10
The Thaisarco tin smelter in Phuket – the only
Total 14.077 100
tin smelter in the country – produced 22,000

10
Thaisarco share in Dutch imports of refined tin, period 2004-200813

Sold by Thaisarco to the Tin imports by the

Year Thaisarco share
Netherlands (tonnes) Netherlands (tonnes)

2004 534 9,131 6%

2005 1,272 11,274 11%

2006 1,165 16,049 7%

2007 339 11,318 3%

2008 895 14,077 6%

Total 2004-2008 4,205 61,849 7%

tonnes of refined tin in 2008.11 It therefore must

rely heavily on the import of tin concentrates,
including from the DRC. Thaisarco annually buys
30,000 tonnes of this raw material.12 The table
above charts Thaisarco’s trade link with the
Netherlands. In the period 2004-2008 Thaisarco
accounted for about 7 per cent of imports of tin
by the Netherlands.

Companies and countries reviewed for

this report
The companies Cookson/Alpha-Fry Technolo-
gies and Corus were reviewed for this report.
These companies are the largest importers of tin
into the Netherlands. Alpha-Fry Technologies in
Naarden (a 100 per cent subsidiary of the Cook-
son group) produces solder. Alpha-Fry accounts
for 15 to 20 per cent of the European solder
market. It can thus be assumed that the compa-
ny bought around 3,500 tonnes of refined tin in
2007 (for the calculation, see endnote).14
Corus Packaging Plus in IJmuiden (a 100 per
cent subsidiary of Tata Steel) has one of the larg-
est European plants producing tinplate for the
can-making industry. The company buys about
3,000 tonnes of tin annually. In 2008, 30 per
cent of its tin originated from recycling sources;
in 2009 the percentage has risen to 65 per cent
according to the company.15
In addition to Cookson and Corus, down-
stream users (users which are further down in the
supply chain) of tin Philips, Heineken and Coca-
Cola were reviewed for this report.
For this report the following mining coun-
tries were reviewed: Indonesia, the Democratic
Republic of Congo, Bolivia and Burma. Togeth-
er these countries are estimated to account for
more than half of the imports of tin to the Neth-
erlands.

11
 tonnes in 2008, worth 206 million euros. In 2008
1.2 Bauxite as well as in previous years, Jamaica and Spain
were the main exporters of alumina to the Neth-
Bauxite: aluminium ore erlands.
Bauxite, which looks like gravel, is the most
important ore for aluminium extraction. Alumina
(also known as aluminium oxide) is made from Percentage of Dutch imports alumina
bauxite in a refinery. Alumina is converted into originating from Jamaica and Spain in the
aluminium in smelters. On average, two kilo- period 2004-200822
grams of alumina can be made from four kilo-
grams of bauxite, which in turn can be smelted Year Jamaica Spain
into 1 kilogram of aluminium.16
2004 70% 16%
Main production countries
2005 61% 31%
In 2008, bauxite was mainly mined in Australia
(31 per cent), followed by China (16 per cent), 2006 65% 25%
Brazil (12 per cent), India (10 per cent), Guinea (9
per cent) and Jamaica (7 per cent).17 2007 58% 32%

Main bauxite areas 2008 65% 22%

The following map shows where most bauxite is
found in the earth’s crust.18
Globally, in 2008, aluminium was mainly smelt- Spain
ed in China (34 per cent), followed by Rus- Spain does not itself mine bauxite, but it does
sia (11 per cent), Canada (8 per cent), United have a huge refinery that processes bauxite into
States (7 per cent), Australia (5 per cent) and alumina, the San Ciprián facility, with a produc-
Brazil (4 per cent).19 tion capacity of 1.5 million tonnes of alumina
per year. The bauxite arrives at San Ciprián har-
Aluminium in products bour from the Alcoa mines in Conakry, Guinea,
In addition to cars, trains, planes and other and Brazil.23 The plant is owned by the Ameri-
means of transport (25 per cent of all alumini- can aluminium giant Alcoa and is the only plant
um use), aluminium is widely used in construc- producing alumina in Spain. In 2005 and 2006,
tion (18 per cent), for beverage cans and other Spain accounted for about 10 per cent of Guin-
packaging materials (18 per cent), in electrical ea’s export revenues. Bauxite mining and alu-
equipment and machinery (14 per cent) and for mina production provide about 80 per cent of
various consumer products (6 per cent).20 Guinea’s foreign revenues.24 For this report, it is
assumed that most of the bauxite that arrives at
Alumina imports to the Netherlands the San Ciprián facility originates from Guinea.
Dutch imports of alumina totalled 685,000
Companies and countries reviewed for
this report
Imports of alumina to the ­Netherlands in Nearly 700,000 tonnes of alumina reach the
200821 Dutch harbours of Flushing and Delfzijl each
year. The Zalco and Aldel aluminium smelting
Country tonnes per cent companies were reviewed for this report, both
of which are owned by the UK-based Klesch &
Jamaica 447,588 65
Company. These countries mine most of the
Spain 142,448 22 bauxite that is eventually imported into the
Netherlands as alumina.
Surinam 42,274 6 The Zeeland Aluminium Company (Zalco),
located near the harbour of Flushing in the
Ireland 35,797 5 south-east of the Netherlands, produces more
than 300,000 tonnes of aluminium annually, aug-
Other 16,580 3
mented partially with recycled aluminium.
Total 684,687 100 Aluminium Delfzijl (Aldel), located near the
harbour of Delfzijl in the north-west of the Neth-

12
 © R i c a r d o S t u c k e r t/PR , A pr il 2 0 0 6
President Luiz
erlands, annually produces over 115,000 tonnes Inácio Lula
of new (or primary) aluminium. Re-melting da Silva of
production waste and scrap produces another Brazil visits
an aluminium
50,000 tonnes. Can-users Heineken and Coca-
plant in Brazil
Cola were also reviewed for this report.
The mining countries Jamaica and Guinea
were reviewed for this report. In these countries
most of the bauxite is mined that eventually is
imported into the Netherlands as alumina.

13

1.3 Copper
Copper: the metal
Copper is a chemical element with the sym-
bol Cu (Latin: cuprum), known for its excellent
electrical conductivity. Copper is mined in large,
open-pit or underground mines.25
Main mining countries
Chile is by far the leading copper mining coun-
try. In 2007 the country mined 36 per cent of the
world’s copper, followed by Peru (8 per cent),
United States (8 per cent), China (including Mon-
golia, 7 per cent), Australia (6 per cent), Indone-
sia (5 per cent) and Zambia (4 per cent).26
Over the past five decades, the volume of
copper mined globally has increased by an aver-
age of 2.6 per cent annually.27 In 2007, 15 million
tonnes of copper was mined globally; in the year
1900 the total was less than 0.5 million tonnes.28
Copper in products
Average residents of wealthy nations require
about 200 kg of copper per person to fulfil their
needs.29 Copper is used in four main sectors:
• Housing and other buildings. These are sup-
plied with copper wires and cables in the elec-
tricity and phone network. In the Netherlands,
Copper pipe
stocks
90 per cent of water pipes are made from cop-
14
per.30 A great deal of heating equipment uses
copper components. Copper is also used for
roofs and cladding.
• Industrial use: surface and underground
cables, ships, rail, aircraft, plants, machinery,
ammunition, etc.
• Electrical and electronic equipment: This
includes everything with a pin contact or bat-
teries. The list of products is endless: micro-
waves, televisions, computers, vacuum clean-
ers, refrigerators, mobile phones, wires for
lighting, etc. Copper is used in cables, wiring,
motors, circuit boards, etc.31 Consumer elec-
tronics like DVD players and audio equipment
have on average 400 grams of copper con-
tent.32
• Vehicles. On average, a car contains 20 kg of
copper (electronic devices, radiator, motor,
brakes, etc.)33
Copper imports to the Netherlands
In 2007, the Netherlands imported almost
300,000 tonnes of copper, copper alloys and
copper objects with a total worth of 1.5 billion
euros (copper waste trade excluded). Almost
40 per cent of copper imported into the Neth-
erlands came from Chile. Chile mainly exports
refined copper.
A large portion of Dutch imports originate
from countries like Germany, Belgium and the
F li ckr / P ul p o l ux, O ct ob e r 2 00 8
United Kingdom. These countries have no cop- Imports of copper, copper alloys and copper objects to
per mines themselves, but process copper the Netherlands in 2007 (copper was­­te trade excluded)34
before exporting it to the Netherlands. There-
fore, the mining origin of the copper imported Country tonnes percentage
to the Netherlands is difficult to extract from the
statistics. Chile 115,804 39

Companies and countries reviewed for Germany (re-export) 57,056 19

this report
Belgium (re-export) 34,082 11
The only company reviewed in this report is the
Dutch cable producer Draka, probably the big- Peru 15,586 5
gest Dutch importer of copper. Draka’s head-
quarters are in Amsterdam, the Netherlands. Russia 13,404 5
Draka annually processes about 22,000 tonnes of
copper wire in the Netherlands, thus accounting United Kingdom (re-export) 13,347 4
for more than 7 per cent of copper imports to
France (re-export) 8,310 3
the Netherlands. Only primary copper is used in
cables; no recycled copper is used in cables.35 Brazil 7,567 3

The reviewed countries are Chile, Zambia, Peru Canada 6,101 2

and Indonesia. Together these countries account
Other 25,669 9
for about 55 per cent of global copper mining
production.
Total 296,926 100

15
 Chapter 2
Review of mining practices
2.1 Tin
Indonesia
Almost all tin produced in Indonesia originates
from and around Bangka Island, located just
east of Sumatra. Bangka-Belitung is one of the
33 provinces of the Republic of Indonesia, and
Bangka is the biggest island of the province. The
amount of tin mined in Indonesia in 2008 has
been estimated at 100,000 tonnes.36
PT Timah
The leading producer of Indonesian tin is the PT
Timah Tbk company (Timah). Timah produced
almost 50,000 tonnes of refined tin in 2008.37
The Indonesian Government owns 65 per cent
of the company, while the other 35 per cent is
owned by private shareholders. The company
is listed on the Jakarta, Surabaya and London
Stock Exchanges.
Timah operations
Timah mines both on and offshore Bangka
Island and has a very large tin smelter in Men-
tok, Bangka. Offshore mining presently accounts
for about 30 per cent of its mining production.
Timah has a number of dredgers that operate
several kilometres offshore in depths of up to 50
16
metres below sea level.38 In March 2009, Abrun
Abubakar, corporate secretary of Timah, stated:
‘Currently, we have three suction vessels and hire
more than 20 vessels of this type from our part-
ners, which operate in our concessions.’39 The
company wants to boost offshore mining from
30 to 50 per cent of its tin production. In 2009
it intends to invest $21 million in new bucket-
wheel dredgers,40 which may be capable of dig-
ging down to 70 metre depths.41 While present
offshore resources in depths up to 50 meters
are being depleted and onshore operations are
constrained for geographical, environmental,
and sociological reasons, Timah considers the
area extending to 70 metre depths as a major
resource for the future.42
IHC Merwede
The Dutch company IHC Merwede has a long
tradition of delivering dredgers to Indonesia
for tin mining and the company is currently still
involved in this business. In 2005, IHC delivered
the Pulau Tujuh (seven islands) dredger to Timah.
The Pulau Tujuh will be used by Timah for remov-
ing sediment above the tin deposits, which will
subsequently be mined by Timah’s huge bucket
dredgers.43 Timah also works with IHC Merwede
to dredge at depths of more than 50 meters.44
Timah markets
The company produces mainly refined tin as an
end product. Its buyers are traders or manu-
facturers of downstream products like solder,
tinplate and chemicals. ‘If you ask about our
markets, they are mostly in Asia,’ says Wachid
Usman, President Director of Timah. ‘About 55
per cent goes to Asia, 30 per cent to Europe,
and about 8 per cent to North America. The
domestic market is very small.’45 Timah’s web-
site reports: ‘Export destination in Asia Pacific:
Japan, Korea, Taiwan, China and Singapore;
Europe: England, Netherlands, France, Spain
and Italy; and also America and Canada.’46 PT
 REUTERS /B e aw i h a r ta , F e b r u a ry 2 0 0 7 .
A worker
Timah’s financial report 2008 shows the follow- Arcelor Espana and S.A Westmetal Gmbh &
holds an ingot
ing main debtors as of 31 December 2008: Mit- Co.KG.47
of 99.99%
subishi Shoji Light Metal Corp, Indelberg Trad- tin at a PT
ing & Service PTE Ltd, Pan Light Corporation, Other tin companies on Bangka Timah smelter
Daewoo International Corp., Cookson Electron- Many small artisanal miners are still engaged in Mentok
ics. Wilhelm Grillo Handelsgesellsschaft GmbH, in illegal mining on Bangka. In recent years the on the
Indonesian
island of
Bangka.
Päi vi P ö y h ön e n , F i n n Wat ch/ m a ke ITfa i r ,

One of the
hundreds of
toxic lakes on
Bangka

17
 government has tried to clamp down on the
illegal mining, but in October 2008 Bangka-
Belitung’s police chief reported that mining was
still going on in prohibited areas, including pro-
tected forests.48
PT Koba Tin (Koba), which operates in South
Bangka, is the number two company active in
mining and smelting on Bangka. The Malay-
sia Smelting Corporation Berhad owns 75 per
cent of Koba, while Timah owns the rest. Koba
produced 7,200 tonnes of refined tin in 2008.49
Its production was low compared to previous
years, because the police had closed down the
company’s operations for some time in 2008
due to allegations that it had bought tin from
illegal sources.50 All charges against the defend-
ants have been dropped, but an investigation
by the Forestry Department into Koba’s use of
protected forests for mining operations is still
pending.51
Apart from Timah and Koba, some 20 to
30 smaller tin smelters operate on the islands
of Bangka and Belitung. In late 2007, a new tin
smelter with a capacity of 12,000 tonnes of tin
per year, was put into operation by Singapore
Tin Industries (which is 51 per cent owned by the
Chinese Yunnan Tin Company).52
Environmental damage
Tin mining causes severe environmental damage.
Though dredging ships are sometimes halted and
One of the
tin dredging
boats of PT
Timah
18
checked, government monitoring to prevent and
clean up damage from mining activities is weak.
Hundreds of deep craters and small lakes
containing acidic water cover the landscape of
Bangka. Most of the onshore mining uses gravel
pumps, and the tin ore containing alluvium is
washed with running water. This water becomes
acidic when it is mixed with the grey-black tin
ore extracted from the earth.53 Reclamation and
re-vegetation of mined areas is almost never
done. The two main mining companies have
re-vegetated only a few of their former mines.
Many holes have been left by the illegal mining
of small-scale miners.54
Tin mining is also the main cause of damage
to the coral reef ecosystem around the island
of Bangka. The head of the Bangka-Belitung
Marine and Fishery Service, Dr. Yulistyo, has
stated that about 30 per cent of the coral reefs
in Bangka-Belitung waters have been damaged
due to offshore tin mining and fish poaching
activities using explosives. He has further assert-
ed that on Bangka Island, coral reefs have been
mainly damaged due to tin dredging activities
in the coastal area, naming losses in Lepar and
Pongok (South Bangka) and Tanjung Ular (West
Bangka).55 Another negative consequence of off-
shore mining is abrasion of the coast area, due
to the number of holes at the bottom of the sea
caused by coastal mining.56
Coral reefs along the coast, extending up
Päi vi P ö y h ön e n , F i n n Wat ch/ m a ke ITfa i r , 2 0 0 8
 Pä i v i P ö y h ö n e n , F i n nWatc h / ma k eITfa ir , 2 0 0 8
Tin miner on
to 50 metres deep, are the tropical rainforests of these ships are able to suction around 1000 Bangka with
of the sea: there are no other sea areas where cubic metres of sand per hour.60 gravel pump
so much biodiversity can be found.57 As fish-
ing grounds, they are thought to be 10 to 100
times as productive per unit area as the open
sea.58 It is estimated that about 20 tonnes of
fish can be obtained each year, enough to
feed 1,200 people in the coastal areas, on one
square kilometre of healthy coral reef. Even
when dredging associated with mining only
takes place in the area around the coral reefs, it
causes water turbidity which can reach the coral
reef area and damage it.59
The Indonesian environmental organisation
Walhi (Friends of the Earth Indonesia) reported
in early March 2009, after field visits, that the
income of fishermen in the Permis, Rajik and
Sebagin villages in South Bangka has decreased
by 80 per cent, due to offshore tin mining.
According to Walhi, a newly built road along the
coast also suffered damage due to abrasion of
the coastline.
Three tin dredgers owned by Timah have
been active in this specific region of South
Bangka since the beginning of 2004. Another tin
dredger has also been conducting activities in
the waters since the end of January 2009. Some

19

Democratic Republic of Congo
Tin mining in eastern Congo
About 4 per cent of global tin mining takes place
in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC).
Cassiterite (tin ore) is found in various parts of
eastern Congo, mainly in the provinces of Manie-
ma, North Kivu and South Kivu. It is estimated
that exports from the Kivus amounted to 18,000
tonnes of cassiterite in 2007 and 25,000 tonnes
in 2008. The export value of the cassiterite sold
from the Kivus in 2008 has been estimated at
$200 million.61
Adapted
from a map
in a report
by Global
Witness:
‘Undermining
peace’, June
2005
War
War was waged in eastern Congo during the
period 1998-2002, leading to extreme violence,
massive population displacement, widespread
rape and the collapse of public health services.
Despite the signing of a formal peace agree-
ment in December 2002, conflict and erup-
tions of violence have persisted in the eastern
provinces, causing severe loss of life. Approxi-
mately 500,000 Congolese have continued to
die each year, mostly due to easily preventable
and curable conditions, such as malaria, diar-
rhoea, pneumonia, malnutrition, and neonatal
problems.62 Rape, murder and pillage are still
committed regularly in eastern Congo; children
are still being recruited to join the rebel groups.
The United Nations Mission in the Democratic
Republic of Congo (MONUC) has been engaged
in the area since February 2000, and currently
has about 20,000 peacekeepers in the country.63
MONUC and the Congolese government have
not yet managed to gain control of the region,
though some progress has been made.
20
Mines in control of armed groups
Rebel groups as well as units and commanders
of the Congolese national army have had con-
trol over mines or have imposed ‘taxes’ in the
form of minerals or cash at the mines, along the
roads or at border crossings since 1998. These
revenues enable them to keep fighting.64 Among
other groups, mine revenues are extracted by:
The Forces Democratiques de Liberation du
Rwanda (FDLR). The group is descended from
Hutu rebels responsible for the 1994 Rwandan
Genocide. It controls mines in Walikale, in the
Kahuzi-Biéga National Park in the South Kivu
province and also lots of other mines in North
and South Kivu.65
The non-integrated 85th Brigade of the Forc-
es Armées de la République Démocratique du
Congo (FARDC, the Congolese national army).
In December 2007, the DRC’s Vice-Minister of
Mines, Viktor Kasongo, stated that the 85th
brigade was not under the control of the ‘état-
major’, while it should be under the control of
the government and army structure. One of the
mines it controlled was the Bisie mine, which is
the largest mine in the Walikale region. The 85th
brigade was moved away from Bisie in March
2009; a FARDC/ex-CNDP (Le Congrès National
pour la Défense du Peuple) brigade replaced the
85th brigade.66 Walikale is the main cassiterite
production area of DRC, estimated to account
for about 9,000 tonnes of cassiterite exported
from Goma (North Kivu’s trading capital).67
The Tutsi-dominated CNDP. One of the prin-
cipal sources of revenue for CNDP has been con-
trolling Bunagana customs on the DRC/Uganda
border.68 In December 2008, a United Nations
report accused Rwanda of supporting CNDP-
leader General Laurent Nkunda.69 This has led
to aid cuts (among others from Sweden and the
Netherlands) and threats from donors. The pres-
sure may have led to the fact that on 22 January
2009 General Nkunda was arrested by Rwan-
da. In March 2009, the Congolese government
reached an agreement with CNDP: the group
said it would give up violence and in exchange
was promised the release of all prisoners taken
in the war, accorded a political party status and
an all-important clause granting amnesty to all its
members (including some serious criminals) who
have fought since 2003.70
Workers’ conditions
The consultant Nicholas Garrett has widely
published about mineral trade in the DRC and
has advised several organisations including the
Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative,

World Bank and German government. He has
extensively studied working conditions at the
Bisie Mine in North Kivu. The mining is subdivid-
ed into alluvial, open pit and hard rock mining in
167 different pits, tunnels and alluvial sites. Allu-
vial and open pit mining is undertaken on the
surface; hard-rock mining goes on underground.
Hard-rock mining accounts for the large major-
ity of production volume, with a cross-checked
estimate of 75 per cent, suggesting a far higher
yield in the tunnels. This extra productivity is an
incentive for tunnel owners to drive the tun-
nels ever further into the mountain; some up
to 150 meters deep, which is far beyond the 30
meters stipulated as ‘safe’ in DRC mining regula-
tions. Mining activities are accompanied by seri-
ous safety hazards, such as mudslides, naturally
occurring CO2 in the tunnels, or mine collapse.
Even on a productive day, the income of the
workers in the Bisie mine does not exceed $5.
Communities around the mine subsist in abso-
lute poverty. In Bisie, the FARDC’s non-integrat-
ed 85th brigade used to prey on the miners.
Low-ranking soldiers were exploited by their
commander to steal cassiterite on his behalf. At
the time of research, no children under the age
of 10 were identified on the mining sites in Bisie,
but a minimum of 300 youths (estimated 10-18
years) were present.
Garrett estimates that the province of North
Kivu has up to 200,000 artisanal miners. Allow-
ing for five dependants per worker, this means
up to one million people in North Kivu could be
dependent on artisanal miners for their liveli-
hoods.71 The working conditions in most mines
Miners
extracting
cassiterite
from the Bisie
mine
© J o h a n S pa n n e r /H o l l a n ds e -H o o g te , No v e mbe r 2 0 0 8
are generally in breach of commonly acceptable
labour standards and many injuries and acci-
dents – some of them fatal – occur regularly.
Health hazards result from occupational hazards,
poverty, poor sanitation and a lack of access to
protection and health support. Environmental
degradation includes pollution, erosion, defor-
estation, poaching, etc.72
Kahuzi-Biéga National Park
The Kahuzi-Biéga National Park in eastern Congo
is a World Heritage Site and home to the eastern
lowland gorilla (Gorilla beringei ssp. Graueri).
This subspecies of gorilla is endemic in the DRC
and 86 per cent of the population, some 14,500
animals, live in the Kahuzi-Biéga National Park
and the adjoining Kasese forests. However, about
25 per cent of the population is said to have
disappeared. Most of these gorillas have been
killed for bush meat for the thousands of mining
labourers and for sale by armed rebels.73
The gorilla is an endangered species. In
eastern DRC, the eastern lowland gorillas face
substantial threats to their survival. Firstly, agri-
culture and grazing are leading to massive loss
and fragmentation of forest habitat. Secondly,
widespread illegal mining activities in the forests
increase the demand for bush meat, includ-
ing consumption of gorillas. Thirdly, infants are
illegally captured, often causing other group
members to be killed. Ongoing political unrest
and military activity, including the occupation of
national parks and killing gorillas for food, have
compounded the problems.74
21
 in the south-western departments of Oruro and
Bolivia Potosí, and in gold mining in the subtropical area
around La Paz.79 Another estimate states that
Bolivia’s mining sector accounted for about 4.5 3,800 children – 10 per cent of the total min-
per cent of the country’s gross domestic product ing workforce – work in tin, zinc and silver mines
(GDP) in 2006. Zinc, gold, tin and silver were the in the Ururo (which incorporates the Huanuni
main products mined.75 mine), Potosí and La Paz departments.80
The International Labour Organization (ILO)
Yearly, Bolivia produces some 18,000 tonnes of defines the mining work done by children in
tin-in-concentrate, making it the world’s fourth- Bolivia as one of the worst forms of child labour,
largest tin producer (after China, Indonesia and and states that its elimination should be a prior-
Peru). Almost half of the production originates ity. Article 3d of ILO Convention 182 describes
from the Posokoni mine near the city of Huanu- this hazardous work as ‘work which, by its nature
ni, the remainder from smaller mines.76 In 2006, or the circumstances in which it is carried out,
small-scale, cooperative and artisanal miners is likely to harm the health, safety or morals of
accounted for about 62% of tin production in children.’81
Bolivia. An estimated 41,800 miners were offi- A 2006 study on child labour in the Boliv-
cially registered with a cooperative in 2006, but ian mining sector states the following about the
it is assumed there are more artisanal small-scale health conditions for children working in the
miners.77 Most of the mined tin-in-concentrate underground Posokoni mine: ‘Mining children
is processed in the Vinto tin smelter, which pro- who work in the mine are exposed to reduced
duced 9,500 tonnes of tin in 2008.78 oxygen and poisonous gases that affect their
health, particularly their nervous system. Contin-
Miners at Child labour uous exposure to dust causes silicosis (the most
work in an It is estimated that more than 13,500 children common occupational lung disease worldwide),
underground and adolescents in Bolivia work in traditional as well as nose and eye irritation. The high levels
mine at mining (extraction of tin, silver and zinc), mainly of noise produced by the drills and explosions
Potosí
can produce deafness. (...) None of the children
that were interviewed go to the doctor since
they have no money, or because they ignore the
pain.’82
© W. J . R u i t e r, O ct o b er 2 0 0 8

22

Burma
EU regulations
In response to the brutal repression of the
peaceful protesters of the Saffron Revolution in
September 2007, the European Council decided
to strengthen their position against Burma’s mili-
tary junta. Among other measures, the import
into the European Union of several goods origi-
nating or exported from Burma was prohibited:
round logs, timber and timber products, metals
and minerals, as well as precious and semi-pre-
cious stones. Banned tin products included tin
ores and concentrates; unwrought tin (refined tin
before further processing); tin waste and scrap.83
The new regulations came into force in March
2008.
The regulations have not yet had any effect
on tin imports originating in Burma to the Neth-
erlands. This is due to the fact that according to
EU Import Customs Regulations, the country of
origin changes if goods have been processed.
Therefore, if tin ores and concentrates from Bur-
ma are processed into refined tin outside Burma
and the EU, the tin is simply allowed onto the EU
market.
Earlier this year, Friends of the Earth Neth-
erlands (FoE NL) conducted research on timber
traded from Burma to the European Union.84
Based on a first round of interviews and field
work in Burma, FoE NL has found several strong
Log truck in
Burma. The
export of logs
from Burma
to the EU is
prohibited.
© M i l i e u def e ns ie , 2 0 0 8
indications that the recent European sanctions
have had no impact on the export of Burmese
timber. Sanctions are a means to put more
pressure on the junta in order to work towards
democratisation. Therefore it is highly important
that sanctions are effective and monitored on a
regular basis by the European Council.
Tin trade link Burma – Netherlands
The Netherlands does not directly import tin
ores/concentrates and refined tin from Burma.
Refined tin is however imported from China, Sin-
gapore and Thailand. Tin smelters in these coun-
tries may source tin ore and concentrates from
Burma. Some examples:
• China imported 7,000 tonnes of tin ore and
concentrate in 2008.85 In 2008, China’s main
import sources were Vietnam (39 per cent),
Bolivia (31 per cent) and Burma (17 per cent).86
In 2007, as well as 2008, the Netherlands
was the biggest importer of refined tin from
China.87 Both refined tin as well as electronic
products containing tin solder from tin mined in
Burma may end up at the Dutch market.
• About 5 per cent of tin imports to the Nether-
lands come from Singapore. In 2007, the Sin-
gapore Tin Industries Pte Ltd tin refinery relied
on supplies of crude tin from Australia, Burma,
India and Vietnam. Most of their refined tin
output was exported to the United States and
European countries.88
23
 Burma also has some tin smelting facilities. In
November 2002, the newly built Lonhtan (or
Long Tan) tin smelting plant started operations,
very close to the border with Yunnan, China.89
No information on the capacity and recent pro-
duction of this plant could not be found for this
report.
Tin ore is also being refined at the Thanlyin
tin smelting plant. The tin ore for this plant is
sourced from the Heinda mine through a joint
venture between the military junta (No. 2 Min-
ing Enterprise) and the Thai company Myanmar
Pongpipat Co Ltd In 2008 production of refined
tin and tungsten was around 600 tonnes, which
reportedly was distributed to the domestic mar-
ket.90
How much tin is mined, refined or exported
in Burma is not known, due to lack of independ-
ent information. The US Geological Survey esti-
mates that production by state-owned mines
was 923 tonnes (tin content of ores and concen-
trates) in 2006, based on statistics from the jun-
ta.91 In 2007 and the first three quarters of 2008,
the amount of tin mined in Burma has probably
risen due to stronger demand and higher tin
prices.
Some Asian companies have been looking
into investing in the Burmese tin mining indus-
try. Singapore Tin Industries said it also planned
to set up a smelter with an annual capacity of
12,000 tonnes in Myanmar in 200892, but to our
knowledge the company has not proceeded with
this plan. The Tongkah Harbour PCL mining com-
pany from Thailand recently stated it was con-
sidering taking over or forming a joint venture
with a tin business in Myanmar, to be effected in
2009.93
24
2.2 Bauxite
Jamaica
Bauxite and alumina in Jamaica
In 2008, Jamaica was responsible for 7 per cent
of global bauxite mining.94 The country mines
about 14 million tonnes of bauxite, which it par-
tially exports and mainly uses to produce about
4 million tonnes of alumina.95 There are no alu-
minium smelting facilities in Jamaica.
The mining and processing of bauxite is a
major sector of the Jamaican economy, account-
ing for about 10 per cent of GDP (gross domes-
tic product). Bauxite and alumina are the third
earner of foreign revenue, after remittances and
tourism. It is a capital-intensive industry and,
as a consequence, directly employs only 3,400
workers.96 Due to the financial crisis, in May 2009
three of the four alumina plants will be closed for
an extended period of possibly 12-18 months.97
Producing companies
Jamaica has four bauxite mining and alumina
producing companies which may be supplying
alumina to Dutch aluminium smelters:
• Jamalco (55 per cent US-based Alcoa, 45 per
cent Jamaican government). Jamalco has a pro-
duction capacity of around 1.4 million tonnes of
alumina per year.98 The company has a refinery
at Halse Hall in Clarendon parish.
• Windalco (93 per cent Russia-based RUSAL, 7
per cent Jamaican government). The produc-
tion volume of Windalco is 1.2 million tonnes of
alumina annually.99 Windalco has two refineries:
one at Ewarton in Saint Catherine parish and
the other at Kirkvine in Manchester parish.
• Alpart (65 per cent RUSAL, 35 per cent Nor-
way-based Hydro). Alpart has a production
capacity of around 1.65 million tonnes of alu-
mina per year.100 The company has a refinery at
Nain in Saint Elizabeth parish.
• St Ann Bauxite Ltd (SABL) is a Jamaican baux-
ite mining company which is owned by a 50/50
joint venture between Canada-based Century
Aluminum and US-based Noranda Aluminum.
SABL, in turn, is a 49 per cent owner of St Ann
Bauxite Partners with the remaining 51 per cent
owned by the Jamaican government. Approxi-
mately 60 per cent of the bauxite mined at St
Ann is shipped to an alumina plant in the USA.
The remainder is sold to a single third party.
The current annual bauxite production capacity
at St Ann is 5.1 million tonnes of ore.101
Environmental problems
There are several environmental, health and
social problems related to the bauxite mining
and alumina refineries in Jamaica:
• Forest loss. Bauxite mining is the single larg-
est cause of deforestation in Jamaica. The
bauxite mining industry has stripped thou-
sands of hectares of forest. Up to 2006, a total
of 7,400 hectares of land had been disturbed
since the commencement of mining activi-
ties in Jamaica. Only 4,800 hectares, however,
had been rehabilitated, and most forests were
not restored. For rehabilitation, material from
the surrounding hillsides is often used to fill
holes, a procedure which destroys hillsides and
watershed areas.103 Bauxite mining also affects
water quality.
Bauxite mining has caused even greater forest
destruction by opening access roads.104 Not
only are forests cleared in order to make way
for these access roads, but once they exist,
loggers move in and illegally remove trees in
and around the mining areas. According to
the Jamaican Bauxite Institute, access roads
present bauxite mining’s most serious threat to
the forest cover on the island.105
• Air pollution. The bauxite industry is the larg-
est emitter of particulate matter and sulphur
dioxide in Jamaica.106 ‘Bunker C’ heavy oil is
used to process bauxite into alumina in refiner-
ies. In 2007 about 9 million barrels of this oil
were used for this purpose.107 Bunker C, mostly
used for seagoing ships, has a sulphur content
of at least 3 per cent. Therefore, the oil refiner-
ies emit a great deal of sulphur dioxide (SO2)
and particulate matter. When it comes in con-
tact with moisture, SO2 can result in acid rain, • Red mud pools. Because the processing of Map: adapted
which damages crops. Some communities are bauxite produces at least as much residue as from the
Jamaican
located very near to the four Jamaican refin- alumina, large storage ponds are built next to
Bauxite
eries. These residents will have more respira- refineries. The Jamalco refinery at Halse Hall Institute map
tory and cardiovascular diseases than people in Clarendon, for instance, currently has four of February
exposed to cleaner air. Long term exposure to active residue disposal areas (red mud pools) 2007.102
particulate matter is especially unhealthy. San- covering 214 hectares in total.109 The mud
dra McLean, living near the Alpart refinery in pools consist of metals (mainly iron ore), water
Nain, St Elizabeth, states: ‘You know how long I and strong alkaline substances left over from
have flu and it can’t get better? The white acid the use of caustic soda during bauxite process-
from the plant is killing us slowly. My niece is ing into alumina.110 The greatest risk of the red
suffering from asthma, four to five times a year mud pools is spillage, which may contaminate
they go to a hospital.’108 both groundwater and surface water sources,
Community health risks due to air pollution such as ponds, streams and rivers. This caus-
have been badly monitored and not yet inves- es damage to humans, plants and animals.
tigated. The government and refinery-owning For instance, the red mud lake around Mount
companies do not report the amount of health- Rosser was used for over 30 years, until 1991,
related emissions released into the air by the by the mining company Alcan to collect resi-
refineries. This information cannot even be dues from alumina processing. The pond area
found in environmental impact assessments. is continuously fed by stormwater run-off from

25
Red mud lake
in Jamaica

© Cl a u d e F l e tc h e r , O c to be r 2 0 0 7
the surrounding hillsides. The alkaline water of Cockpit Country. In November 2006, the
flows from the lake into neighbouring areas Minister of Agriculture, the Hon. Roger Clarke,
and groundwater. According to the US Army renewed Alcoa’s licence. The public outcry that
Corps of Engineers, the nearby Moneague Blue ensued prompted the Minister to suspend the
Hole was once a good freshwater source, but licences almost immediately. However, the threat
has now been contaminated; this is believed to Cockpit Country remains, as the government
to have come from the Mount Rosser pond has not made a definite decision not to allow
with its high sodium effluent.111 In August 2006, mining in Cockpit Country.116
the pH level for the water in the Mount Rosser
pond was 10.2, which is very alkaline compared
to normal water that has a pH of 7.0.112 In the
coming years the red mud pond at Mount
Rosser will finally be rehabilitated.113
• Dust nuisance. Dust nuisance as a result of
mining, drying and calsining (decomposition
of hydrated minerals) operations is a major
problem for communities in bauxite mining and
processing areas.114 There may also be high lev-
els of dust affecting people in ports.115

Cockpit Country: will it be saved from

bauxite mining?
Cockpit Country is a mountainous, forested
area of western Jamaica, rich in biodiversity and
home to the Leeward Maroon people of Jamai-
ca. The forest of Cockpit Country is Jamaica’s
largest remaining primary forest and a refuge
for rare Jamaican animals such as the black-
billed parrot and the giant swallow-tail butter-
fly. In 2006, Alcoa and its Jamaican joint-venture
partner applied for the renewal of a prospect-
ing licence, first granted in May 2004, to exclu-
sively prospect for bauxite within an extremely
large area of western Jamaica, including much

26
Guinea

Guinea in West Africa, one of the poorest coun-

tries on the continent, has about one third of
the world’s bauxite reserves. Bauxite mining and
alumina production provide about 80 per cent
of Guinea’s foreign revenue.117 In 2007, bauxite
production amounted to 18.5 million tonnes.
Since December 2008 Guinea has been led by a
military junta which has promised to hold elec-
tions in 2009 or 2010. The military seized power
after the death of President Lansana Conte,
who had ruled since 1984. The new president,
Moussa Dadis Camara, said in January 2009 that
mining contracts under the last administration
had not been in Guinea’s interest. He stated: ‘I
commit myself to move ahead with revising the to mining in Sangaredi, CBG operates a port in
mining code and mining conventions in force, Kamsar for drying and shipping the bauxite to
and with technical, financial and fiscal audits for refineries worldwide.120
the past five years by internationally regarded
firms.’118 The Sangaredi Mine in the Upper Guinea Forest
is located within one of the world’s most biologi-
Sangaredi: mining Guinean forests cally rich – but also seriously threatened – eco-
Most bauxite mining takes place in Guinea’s San- systems. Recent biological assessment of the
garedi Plateau in the Boké region, a biodiversity area surrounding the bauxite mine and proposed
hotspot in the north-west of Guinea. The mines alumina processing facility identified five reptile
produce about 13 million tonnes of bauxite species, 17 amphibian species, 140 species of
annually, most of the country’s total production. birds, 16 species of mammals, and eight primate
The mining is done by the Compagnie des Baux- species, including the endangered West African
ites de Guinée (CBG). Halco mining, a joint ven- chimpanzee and western red colobus monkey.123
ture controlled by the mining giants Alcoa (45%,
US-based) and Rio Tinto Alcan (45%, Anglo-Aus- New Sangaredi
tralian), is a 51 per cent shareholder of CBG. The Mining is expected to increase massively in the
Guinean government holds the remainder of the Boké region. In 2005, the Guinean government
shares. CBG has exclusive rights through 2038 approved a 75-year investment and concession
to bauxite resources in the area.119 In addition agreement with a joint venture of Global Alumi-
UNEP

Satellite view of the Sangaredi bauxite mine in is visible as a vast open pit approximately 20
1986 and 2007. The bauxite ore is mined in open km from one end to the other.121 Since opening
pits, requiring the removal of vegetation and in 1973, the operation has produced over 260
topsoil. In the 2007 image, the Sangaredi Mine million tonnes of bauxite for export.122

27
Bauxite
mining
concessions
and
exploration
permits in
Guinea

na, BHP Billiton, Dubai Aluminium Company Lim- petroleum coke; a 30-meter-high dam for the
ited and Mubadala Development Company. The refinery’s water supply; and a lined storage facil-
joint venture has exclusive rights to build and ity for red mud disposal. The total construction
operate an alumina refinery within a 690 square costs at completion are expected to be more
Train full kilometre mining concession area in the Boké than $5 billion with alumina production starting
of bauxite region. The refinery will have an annual capacity in late 2011.124
heading for of 3.3 million tonnes of alumina. The mining con-
the port cession contains 19 previously unmined bauxite- Another refinery
of Kamsar,
bearing plateaus. The investment includes: a In 2005, Alcoa and Alcan also signed a basic
where it is
shipped for 70-megawatt power plant to be fuelled by coal agreement with the government of Guinea, this
export. (likely to be sourced from South Africa) and/or time for the development of a 1.5 million metric
tonne per year alumina refinery. Alcoa and Alcan
worked with Conservation International on biodi-
versity issues related to the refinery plan.125 The
location of the refinery will probably be a site
near Kabata, north of Kamsar. A detailed feasibil-
ity study is expected to be completed in 2009
with a final investment decision made thereafter.
Following such a decision, alumina production
could be expected to begin in 2012.126

RUSAL
In Guinea, the Russian aluminium giant Unit-
ed Company RUSAL owns two companies:
the Compagnie des Bauxites de Kindia (CBK
complex) and the Alumina Company of Guinea
© A F P p h o t o / G eo r ge s Go b et, O ct o be r 2 0 08 .

(Friguia complex).127
The CBK complex has an annual capacity of 3
million tonnes of bauxite. It includes the Debele
mine, a railway, a mine port and a repair cen-
tre. Over 2 million tonnes of bauxite per year
are delivered to the Nikolaev alumina refinery in
Ukraine.128
The Friguia complex consists of an alumina
refinery in the town of Fria (0.6 million tonnes
capacity) close to a bauxite deposit. RUSAL
wants to increase the plant’s capacity to 1 million
tonnes annually.129 Recently, the Guinean presi-
dent Moussa Camara stated that he is consid-

28
ering legal action over a 2006 transaction that
gave control of the Friguia complex to RUSAL. 2.3 Copper
According to the president, the Guinean gov-
ernment was paid a fraction of the amount the
company was valued at by consulting firms.130 Chile
RUSAL (51%) and the China Power Investment
Corp (CPI, 49%) also are investors in an alumina
refinery producing up to 2.8 million tonnes of
alumina per year, near the RUSAL owned Dian-
Dian mine, with a possible future production of
13.4 million tonnes of bauxite annually.131

Bauxite exploration permits

(See map on page 28.) The Canadian-based
Navasota Resources Ltd has a bauxite mining
concession in Guinea, near Sangaredi, and has
started exploring mining possibilities.132 In early
2007, China agreed to fund a $1 billion hydro-
power dam in return for rights to bauxite con-
cessions.133 Mitsubishi (Japan) and Vale (Brazil)
have also won exploration permits.134 A Nava-
sota Resources brochure pictures the bauxite
mining concessions and exploration permits in
Guinea.135 There will be little forest left in the
western part of Guinea if all these areas are actu-
ally mined for bauxite.

Copper is Chile’s most important export prod-

uct. In 2007, helped by high copper prices,
exports of copper totalled $37 billion, 56 per
cent of total exports.136 Copper production in
Chile reached 5.6 million tonnes in 2007. The
Chilean government expects copper production
to rise to 6.7 million tonnes in 2015. Investments
by private mining companies and the state-run
company CODELCO are predicted to be $18 bil-
lion in the period 2008-2012.137

Copper is mined in Chile in about 25 mines.

The biggest ones are: the Rio Escondida open
pit mine (annual capacity 1.43 million tonnes);
the CODELCO North Division including Chuqui-
camata, Mina Sur, and Radomiro Tomic Mines
(0.97 million tonnes); the Collahuasi open pit
mine (0.46 million tonnes); the underground El
Teniente Mine (0.43 million tonnes); the Los Pela-
mbres open pit mine (0.36 million tonnes) and
the Los Bronces Mine (0.3 million tonnes).

Water shortage in Chile

It has been calculated that the copper industry
in Chile uses 11,500 litres of water per second,

29
Mining in
progress at
the open
pit mine
Chuquicamata
in northern
Chile
more than 5 per cent of the country’s water
usage.138 In April 2009 the Chile’s Public Works
Minister, Sergio Bitar, stated: ‘We are entering a
complex water shortage phase in Chile. Water
consumption to produce a tonne of copper is
still high and we have to ask for more efficient
usage.’ In 2008, Chile suffered one of its worst
droughts in memory, which affected the agricul-
ture and hydro-electric sectors and prompted
miners to consider alternatives, such as desali-
nation plants, to ensure supplies. The copper
industry has stated that it reduced its water use
from 15,000 litres per second in 2000 to 11,500
litres in 2006 through projects to reuse water
and measures to avoid evaporation by covering
reservoirs.139 Increased copper production might
however increase water conflicts among sectors
of the economy and, most critically, over avail-
ability for human consumption.140 Some mining
companies have started to pump water from
the Pacific Ocean high into the Andes Moun-
tains (where the copper mines are) because of
chronic water shortages exacerbated by climate
change.141
Water is often allocated where it brings the
highest economic yield in Chile. Academics and
environmentalists argue that Chile’s privatised
water system is unsustainable because it pro-
motes speculation, endangers the environment
and allows smaller interests to be muscled out
by powerful forces, like Chile’s mining industry.142
30
Ro b i n N y str o m, Oc to b e r 2 0 0 4
Plans for destructive hydroelectric dams
in Patagonia
The copper mining sector accounts for around
10% of the total energy consumption of Chile
(31% of the total electric energy and 5% of other
fuels). The energy used to make one tonne of
copper decreased by 8 per cent between 1995
and 2006. The Chilean copper industry uses
about 100 petajoules of energy annually,143 an
amount equivalent to the annual household
energy use (natural gas and electricity) of 3 mil-
lion people in the Netherlands.144
Plans to expand the copper industry in Chile
mean that its energy use will increase consider-
ably. In respond to energy demand, five massive
hydroelectric dams are planned in Patagonia in
southern Chile. The dams – two on the Baker riv-
er and three on the Pascua river – would damage
one of the wildest and most beautiful places on
earth, by flooding nearly 6,000 hectares of pris-
tine forest. The project also calls for construction
of a 2,000-km transmission line to transport the
electricity from the south to Chile’s central and
northern regions, creating a scar across some of
Chile’s most magnificent landscape.145
The HydroAysén company that wants to
implement the project is a joint venture between
Endesa Chile (owning 51 per cent of its shares)
and Colbún (with 49 per cent of its shares).
Endesa Chile owns the (privatised) water rights.
One of Europe’s biggest utility companies – Enel
from Italy – controls Endesa.146 Two huge Chilean
wood and pulp producers – the Matte Group and
the Angelini Group – together control Colbún.
Opponents of the HidroAysén dams have
joined together in The Patagonia Defence Coun-
cil (CDP), an umbrella group of 50 Chilean and
international organisations. In Chile, the cam-
paign is called Patagonia Sin Represas (Patago-
nia Without Dams). Friends of the Earth Chile
(National Committee for the Defense of Flora
and Fauna, Codeff) is a member of Patagonia Sin
Represas.147
In November 2008, the HidroAysén energy
company was granted a nine-month extension of
the environmental impact assessment phase of
the project.148 Environmental authorities ordered
dam proponents to respond to overwhelming
criticism from the public and government agen-
cies in their 10,500-page environmental assess-
ment. The company will have to answer over
3,000 comments and observations made on the
environmental impact assessment report (EIA)
the company produced in August 2008.149
Copper industry and pollution
At present, about 90 per cent of the sulphur
emissions are captured in Chile’s seven cop-
per smelters, compared to 97 to 99 per cent in
copper smelters in Western Europe, the USA
and Japan. Compared to the situation in 1989,
however, the capture of sulphur emissions has
increased considerably. There is now less pollu-
tion around the copper smelters. This is mainly
due to environmental regulations and the fact
that the sulphur can be profitably used to pro-
duce sulphuric acid. Nonetheless, some smelt-
ers exceed the Chilean standards for hourly SO2
(sulphur dioxide) and annual PM10 (particulate
matter) emissions.150
Peru
Peru’s mining sector accounted for about 60 per
cent of total export revenues in 2006 and 2007.
Copper accounted for about 40 per cent of the
exports in the mining sector.151 Approximately
1.3 million tonnes of copper was mined in Peru
in 2008.152 Peru has about 10 copper mines, the
biggest of which is the Antamina Mine in Huari
(400,000 tonnes). There are copper smelters
at Ilo (320,000 tonnes) and La Oroya (65,000
tonnes).
Many communities in Peru have protested
against mining. As in Chile, water shortages are
a major problem. Local communities also expe-
rience few benefits from mining revenues. The
Peruvian government lacks the capacity and
political will to regulate the industry. For exam-
ple, the mining sector was exempted from the
responsibilities of the newly created Ministry of
the Environment; only the Ministry of Energy and
Mines is allowed to monitor mining.153 This sec-
tion examines two examples of mining projects
with serious consequences for humans and the
environment.
Rio Blanco copper mine
When realised, the Rio Blanco copper mine,
planned in the Northern highlands of Piura, will
be one of the biggest copper mines in Peru.
UK-based Monterrico Metals plc (Chinese Zijin
Consortium 89.9 per cent and South Korean LS-
Nikko Copper Inc 10.1 per cent) aims to invest in
this project.154
Communities have protested against the
potential impacts of the huge proposed cop-
31
 per mine to their production of organic coffee Run Peru inaugurated a $50 million sulphuric
and fruit. Much of Piura is desert or semi-desert acid plant, which is expected to reduce half of
and its agriculture is acutely dependent on the the sulphur dioxide emissions from the La Oroya
quantity and quality of water draining from metals smelter.161 However, even after more
the region’s eastern highlands, where the Rio active emissions from the smelter are reduced,
Blanco project is located. The agricultural sec- the expended lead will remain in La Oroya’s soil
tor has begun to grow rapidly, with both large for centuries — and there currently is no plan to
enterprises as well as small and medium farm- clean it up.
ers’ organisations supplying internal and external
markets.155 In 2007, referenda were held in the
villages of Carmen de la Frontera, Ayabaca and
Pacaipampa. The great majority of people voted
against mining activity on their lands.156
A report on Rio Blanco by the Peruvian
Ombudsperson, released in November 2006,
concluded that the implementation of the
Rio Blanco project violates community mem-
bers’ rights to property, to determine the ways
in which their property will be used, and to
informed participation in decisions about devel-
opment. The Ombudsperson concludes that
these violations of rights derive from lack of clar-
ity in the regulations and practices of the Minis-
try of Energy and Mines.157
In 2004 and 2005, local protests against the
project led to violent clashes with police, result-
ing in two deaths. In January 2009, a coalition
of Peruvian human rights groups released pho-
tographs from a 2005 protest that suggested
police and security forces had tortured protes-
tors. The government said it was investigating
the case.158

Copper smelter La Oroya
In September 2007, the US-based not-for-profit
organisation Blacksmith Institute, which focus-
es on identifying and solving pollution-related
problems in the developing world, listed the
town of La Oroya (35,000 inhabitants) in Peru
as one of the top ten most polluted places on
earth. A poly-metallic smelter has been the main
cause of the released toxins. A survey conduct-
ed by the Peruvian Ministry of Health in 1999
revealed blood lead levels among local children
to be triple the limits set by the World Health
Organisation (WHO). Sulphur dioxide concentra-
tions also exceeded the World Health Organiza-
tion guidelines by a factor of ten. Vegetation in
the surrounding area has been destroyed by acid
rain due to high sulphur dioxide emissions. The
copper smelter is the main driver of the local
economy and able to exercise control over the
livelihood of the population.159
The smelter and adjoining copper mine are
owned by Doe Run Peru (a subsidiary of the US-
based Renco Group).160 In September 2008, Doe

32
Zambia
Zambia is a poor country. Most of its 12 million
people live in poverty. Copper mining generates
three-quarters of its foreign exchange earnings
and the mines are a major employer in the coun-
try.162
The copper content of mined ore in Zambia was
560,000 tonnes in 2008, 4 per cent of global
production.163 The mining takes place in the so-
called African Copperbelt, which stretches along
the southern border of the Democratic Republic
of Congo (DRC). The DRC has also some copper
mines, in the Katanga region above the Zambian
Copperbelt province.
Main mining companies
Most mining operations in Zambia are controlled
by foreign companies, with the government of
Zambia holding a minority share:
• Zambia’s largest copper mining company is
Konkola Copper Mines (KCM), with an annual
capacity of 200,000 metric tonnes of copper.164
The India-based company Vedanta Resources
owns 79 per cent of the shares, the remain-
der is owned by ZCCM-IH (Zambian govern-
ment 87.6 per cent, private equity holders 12.4
per cent). KCM has several copper mines: the
open pit and underground Nchanga mine; the
Konkola underground mine; and the Fitwaola
mine.165 Recently it built a new copper smelter
in Nchanga, with a capacity of 300,000 tonnes
annually.166 At Konkola, mine shafts go down as
deep as 1,500 metres, where copper content is
very high.167
• In late 2008 the Australia/Canada-based Equi-
nox Minerals Ltd started producing copper
from the Malundwe and Chimiwungo depos-
its (100 per cent share) in the north-west of
Zambia, outside the Copperbelt province. The
company expects to produce 170,000 tonnes
of copper in 2009.168 The investment was sup-
ported through loans by the European Invest-
ment Bank and the African Development Bank,
among others.
Copper
smelter in
Zambia
Me r li n M a r r- Jo hn s on , 1 9 99
33
 • Mopani Copper Mines (MCM) is 73 per cent
owned by the Swiss mining company Glencore.
The remaining shares are in the hands of the
Canada-based First Quantum Minerals (17 per
cent) and ZCCM-IH (10 per cent).169 The assets
owned by the company include the Mufulira
mine and Nkana mines, a smelter and a refinery
at Mufulira.
• Kansanshi Mining plc is owned by First Quan-
tum Minerals Ltd (79.4 per cent). The remaining
20.6 per cent of the shares is owned by ZCCM-
IH. The company owns the Kansanshi copper
mine, also produces copper cathodes and has a
sulphuric acid plant.
• The China Nonferrous Metals Mining Co. Ltd
owns the Chambishi mine and also runs a fac-
tory producing copper cathodes.
The financial crisis
Since the financial crisis which started in late
2008, thousands of mine workers have been
made redundant in Zambia. These workers often
provided for entire families. A proposed hydro-
electric project (the Kafue Gorge Lower Dam)
has recently been put on hold.170 The project was
aimed at providing more energy for the cop-
per industry, as it is the largest energy user in
Zambia and most of the energy it requires comes
from hydroelectric power plants.
In early 2008, Zambia tightened its tax policy
towards foreign mining companies, in order
to share in the benefits of high copper pric-
es. However, the country has not been able to
profit from the new laws, as due to the financial
crisis both copper demand and the price have
dropped.171 Unfortunately, Zambia has a long his-
tory of not profiting much from its own copper
industry: problems first were caused by govern-
ment mismanagement, then came privatisation
and low-tax agreements with companies and
now the financial crisis has lowered prices.
Pollution
With support from the World Bank, the Zambian
government has set up a programme to address
its own environmental liabilities and obligations
incurred prior to the privatisation of industries,
and to strengthen the capacity of its environ-
mental regulatory institutions to improve future
compliance by the mining sector with environ-
mental and social regulations.172 That this is
needed is illustrated by a few examples:
• In January 2008, spillage of an acidic solu-
tion used in the leaching process by MCM at
Mufulira contaminated underground drink-
ing water supplies. About 582 people were
34
treated at various health institutions in Mufu-
lira after drinking contaminated water. People
complained of severe abdominal pains, general
body pain, vomiting and other ailments.173
• The environment around the Mufulira smelter is
heavily polluted because of regular SO2 releas-
es that affect the land, vegetation, buildings
and people’s health.174 The regional manager
for the governmental Environmental Council of
Zambia puts it as follows: ‘Here in Zambia we
are dealing mostly with sulphide copper...so
during the processing there is a lot of sulphur
dioxide that gets released...in some places like
in Mufulira you’ll find that there is a large space
where you can’t grow things because of the
acid rain and that kind of thing...”175
• On 6 November 2006, one of KCM’s pipelines
leaked significant quantities of acidic liquid.
The Environmental Council of Zambia reported
that KCM ‘significantly polluted Chingola and
Mushishima streams, as well as the Kafue River,
causing serious effects on human life and the
environment.’176
Fatal accidents and injuries
Mining in Zambia is dangerous for workers:
• The University of Bergen in Norway recently
published a short report on injuries and fatal
accidents in the underground copper mines of
KCM. In the period from January 2005 to May
2007, there were 17 fatal accidents (mostly
caused by falling rocks) and 85 injuries. The
authors of the study conclude that the fatality
frequency rate in copper mining in Zambia is
high, particularly at underground sites, and that
measures should be taken to reduce the risk
of accidents and to evaluate the reporting sys-
tems of occupational injuries.177
• In Zambia, there are many complaints about
labour conditions at Chinese companies. In July
2006 six workers at the Chambishi mine (owned
by the China Nonferrous Metals Mining Co.
Ltd) were shot and wounded after rioting over
wages. In April 2005, the company caused a
massive and unexplained explosion in a factory,
which killed 46 people.178
• At the Mopani Copper Mines, more than 20
workers died in 2005, including six when a cage
carrying miners fell into a shaft, according to
the miners union.179

Indonesia: the Grasberg mine
The Grasberg mine is a large mining complex
located in West Papua, Indonesia. Grasberg is
situated 4,000 metres above sea level, and bor-
ders on Lorentz National Park, a UNESCO World
Heritage Site. Grasberg is an open pit mine, but
also includes zones of underground operations.
In 2008, the mine produced 499,000 tonnes of
copper; copper reserves as of 31 December
2008 were 16 million tonnes.180 The mine has the
world’s largest copper reserves and biggest gold
deposits. It is probably also the most polluting
mine in the world.
R o b Hu i b e rs /H o l l a n ds e H o o g te , M a r c h 2 0 0 0
Aerial view of
tember 2008 the Norwegian government stated: the Grasberg
‘The finance ministry has decided to exclude the copper and
Rio Tinto Group from the public pension fund gold mine
because of the serious environmental risks.’182
Freeport had already been excluded from the
fund in 2006, because it caused ‘serious damage
to the river system and parts of the nearby river-
ine rainforest and…considerable negative con-
sequences for the indigenous people residing in
the area of Freeport’s operations.’183
Environmental problems
In 2006 Friends of the Earth Indonesia (WALHI)
completed an investigative report on the envi-

Freeport
The Grasberg mine is operated by PT Freeport
Indonesia, 90.64 per cent of which is owned by
Freeport McMoRan Copper&Gold Inc. The Indo-
nesian government owns the remainder of the
shares.
Freeport McMoRan has established a special
agreement with the Anglo-Australian mining
giant Rio Tinto. Rio Tinto holds a 40 per cent
interest in production exceeding specified annu-
al amounts through 2021, and, after 2021, a 40
percent interest in all production.181
Because of the polluting Grasberg mine,
Freeport and Rio Tinto have been excluded from
the government pension fund of Norway. In Sep-

35
 ronmental impacts of the Grasberg mine. The
report documents severe environmental damage
and clear breaches of environmental law, based
on a number of unreleased company and gov-
ernment monitoring reports, including an envi-
ronmental risk assessment never made available
to the public.184
The Grasberg mine discharges very large
amounts of tailings (the refuse material resulting
from processing ore) directly into a natural river
system. Every day, about 230,000 tonnes of tail-
ings are discharged directly into the Aghawagon
River, which feeds into the Otomona River. The
Otomona River runs through a plain covered by
rainforest before flowing into the Ajkwa Estuary.
The tailings release a considerable amount of
heavy metals into the environment. The rainfor-
est and wetland area destroyed by tailings depo-
sition was formerly a vital hunting, fishing and
gardening area for Kamoro traditional landown-
ers. Local communities face water shortages as
their rivers have become contaminated. Elevated
levels of heavy metals in the sediment have also
been detected. Freeport has repeatedly claimed
that riverine tailings disposal is the best solution,
given the difficult terrain, the earthquake threat
and the rainfall.185
The second environmental problem of the
Grasberg mine is acid rock drainage (outflow
of acidic water). Waste rock is disposed of in
two valleys adjacent to the mine, amount-
ing to 360,000-510,000 tonnes per day. Acid
rock drainage from the deposit sites was first
observed in 1993, and leaching into the ground-
water has also been reported, causing pollu-
tion of springs in Lorentz National Park, among
Export others. Acid rock drainage is considered one of
destinations the most serious mining-related environmental
of Freeport’s
problems throughout the world. It occurs when
copper
concentrate190 sulphurous minerals come into contact with
36
both water and air, forming sulphuric acid. In
this process the heavy metals that are naturally
present in the ore may be mobilized. The result
is the generation of acid water containing heavy
metals, which may lead to considerable pollution
of groundwater and water systems. Once this
process has been initiated, it may go on for cen-
turies.186
Other problems
Apart from the severe environmental damage, a
frequent source of controversy concerning the
Grasberg mine has been the share of revenue
going to Papuans, the legality of payments to
Indonesian security forces who help guard the
site, and whether such an operation should be
run by a foreign company.
Freeport has a long tradition of ties to the
Indonesian military. In 2008, Freeport paid ‘less
than’ 1.6 million dollars through wire transfers
and cheques to provide a ‘monthly allowance’ to
police and soldiers at and around the Grasberg
mine. The direct payments are part of 8 million
dollars Freeport paid in broader ‘support costs’
for 1,850 police and soldiers protecting Gras-
berg last year. In a 2005 report, the non-gov-
ernmental organisation Global Witness alleged
Freeport had paid hundreds of thousands of
dollars directly to senior police and military offic-
ers between 2001 and 2003.187 Company records
obtained by the New York Times show that
from 1998 through 2004, individual command-
ers received tens of thousands of dollars, in one
case up to $150,000. The company records were
provided by an individual close to Freeport and
confirmed as authentic by current and former
employees.188 Up till now, Freeport has still not
disclosed which security forces are given allow-
ances, how much money they get and whether
there is a legal basis for these payments.
Trade links
The copper, gold and silver
produced by PT Freeport is
milled into copper concen-
trate (which also contains
gold and silver) by Freeport
itself. A portion of this cop-
per concentrate is then sent
to the copper refinery of PT
Smelting in Gresik (Indone-
sia), but a much larger part
is exported for refining else-
where.189
Chapter 3
Companies reviewed
3.1 Methodology of the review
Seven companies located in the Netherlands
were reviewed for this report. These are among
the biggest Dutch companies involved in the
supply chain for tin, bauxite and copper. The
reviewed companies are:
• Cookson/Alpha-Fry Technologies: solder manu-
facturer for the electronics industry
• Corus: large producer of tinplate for can pro-
ducers
• Klesch & Company: owner of the Dutch alu-
minium smelters Zalco and Aldel
• Draka: third-biggest copper cable producer of
Europe
• Philips: user of tin in its electronic and lighting
products
• Heineken: producer of beer packed in tinplate
cans
• Coca-Cola: producer of non-alcoholic bever-
ages packed in tinplate cans
The main questions Friends of the Earth Nether-
lands asked the companies to answer were:
• Have you mapped out the supply chain of the
mining products?
• Have you identified problems related to the
environment, human rights and labour rights
(CSR problems) along the supply chain?
• To what extent do you publicly (and/or after
questioning) report about your involvement in
mining throughout the supply chain (transpar-
ency)?
• What is your general policy with regard to sup-
ply chain responsibility?
• Which steps did you take to ensure better min-
ing practices on labour rights, environment and
human rights?
The review consisted of reading the latest sus-
tainability and/or annual reports of the com-
panies, their public statements such as codes
of conduct for suppliers, and any other avail-
able information with regard to the supply chain
responsibility of the companies. In December
2008, questionnaires were sent to the compa-
nies in order to get more information. Most of
the companies returned the questionnaires and
provided additional information. There were also
follow-up meetings and phone calls. All the com-
panies were sent the draft report and were able
to comment on it. Where necessary, the com-
ments have been adopted into the final report.
Cookson Electronics (Alpha-Fry Technologies)
and Klesch & Company (Zalco and Aldel) were
the only companies which did not respond at all
to questionnaires, draft reports, phone calls and
emails. The review of these companies consisted
solely of reading publicly available information.
3.2 Cookson/Alpha-Fry
­Technologies
General information on Cookson
The Cookson Group is a public limited compa-
ny registered in England and Wales and listed
on the London Stock Exchange. The company’s
total revenue was £2.2 billion in 2008; its trading
profit was £216 million. Cookson employs over
15,000 people in 40 countries. The Cookson
Group has three divisions:
• The Ceramics division supplies products to the
steel, glass, solar and foundry industries. This
division’s revenue was £1,265 million in 2008.
• The Electronics division comprises two sec-
tors: assembly materials and chemistry. This
division’s revenue was £620 million in 2008.
One of the main products manufactured and
sold within this division is solder for the elec-
tronics market. In 2008, the total value of tin
and silver included within the revenue of the
electronics division (£620m) was £200m.191
Cookson is probably the world’s largest buyer
of tin for electronics solder.192 The only thing
37
Panorama
Corus known about Cookson’s tin suppliers is that the
IJmuiden Indonesian PT Timah company is one of them,
as Cookson Electronics is listed as one of the
debtors in PT Timah’s 2008 financial report.193
• The Precious Metals division supplies fabricat-
ed precious metals (primarily gold, silver and
platinum) to the jewellery industry in the US,
UK, France and Spain. The division’s revenue
was £318 million in 2008.194
Alpha-Fry Technologies
The Dutch company Alpha-Fry Technologies
BV is a 100 per cent subsidiary of the Cook-
son group. The company is located in the small
city of Naarden near Amsterdam. The average
number of employees at the Naarden company
amounted to 127 in 2007.
Alpha-Fry ‘s activities consist of buying base
metals and metal alloys and producing the fol-
lowing products: tin and solder anodes; various
solder products such as powders, ingots, sticks,
bars and wire; solder preforms; printing metal;
lead and tin alloys. In 2007, the costs of buying
raw materials were 46 million euros. In addition
to tin, the company buys silver and lead in lower
quantities.195 It can be estimated that Alpha-Fry
bought around 3,500 tonnes of refined tin in
2007 (for the calculation, see endnote).196 Alpha-
Fry is the only Cookson company making solder
in Europe and the lion’s share of its production
is sold to Cookson companies within Europe.
38
Alpha-Fry accounts for 15 to 20 per cent of the
European solder market.197
In 2004, Alpha-Fry arranged the purchase of
tin for the all Cookson’s European companies.
The company bought both primary and second-
ary (recycled) commodities, stating the ratio as
approximately 50:50. Annually, 12,000 tonnes of
tin, lead and silver were purchased.198
Alpha-Fry buys its silver from the Dutch-
based Cookson Drijfhout, also a 100 per cent
subsidiary of the Cookson group. Drijfhout is
engaged in the purchase and sale of precious
metals and related products for the jewellery
business.199
Supply chain policy
In its 2007 and 2008 annual reports, Cookson
made no reference to any responsibilities due to
the purchase of raw mining materials, but only
referred to the risks related to fluctuations of
price and supply of raw materials: ‘Tin, solvents,
alumina, graphite, silver and gold are among the
principal raw materials that the Group purchas-
es. The Group’s businesses may be affected by
fluctuations in the price and supply of such raw
materials, although purchasing policies and prac-
tices seek to mitigate, where practicable, such
risks and the Group’s geographical and product
diversity reduces the dependence on any single
item or supplier.’200
Cookson includes a CSR (Corporate Social

Responsibility) tab on its website, supplying
information such as its Code of Conduct and its
Health, Safety and Environmental policy. While
the company may have made quite some effort
to ensure sound safety, health and environmental
practices in its global operations, Cookson does
not yet have a policy on supply chain responsibil-
ity regarding mining products. Furthermore, no
reference could be found to international stand-
ards, like the Core Conventions of the Interna-
tional Labour Organisation (ILO).
Questionnaire
Alpha-Fry did not fill in the questionnaire which
was sent to the company in December 2008.
After several phone calls with the Health and
Safety manager of Alpha-Fry Technologies in
March, it was agreed Friends of the Earth Neth-
erlands (FoE NL) should contact the headquar-
ters of Cookson in London. This was tried several
times, from 7 April 2009 onwards, but always
to no avail. Phone calls were directed to voice
mails. Only one time there was email contact.
After a facilities manager stated: ‘Please forward
me a copy of your report for our comments,’ a
draft report was sent to Cookson by FoE NL.
However, no comments had been received by
the stated deadline of 1 May 2009.
S a n d e r va n d e r M o l e n , De c e mbe r 2 0 0 6
3.3 Corus
General information
Corus is Europe’s second largest steel producer,
with annual revenues of around £12 billion and
a yearly production of over 20 million tonnes of
steel, nearly 7 million tonnes of which are pro-
duced in IJmuiden, the Netherlands. The com-
pany employs around 40,000 people worldwide.
In late 2006, Corus was the ninth largest steel
producer in the world. In 2007, the company
became part of Tata Steel, based in India. Since
then Tata Steel has become the world’s sixth
largest steelmaker. In addition to producing steel
in the UK and the Netherlands, Corus manu-
factures value-added steel products for several
industries: construction, automotive, packaging,
aerospace, energy and engineering.201
Corus Packaging Plus is a division within
the Corus group that manufactures packag-
ing steel. It supplies approximately 1.2 million
tonnes annually to the can-manufacturing indus-
try.202 Corus Packaging Plus has its headquarters
in IJmuiden, in the north-west of the Nether-
lands.203 In IJmuiden, Corus has one of the larger
European plants producing tinplate for the can-
making industry, with an annual production near-
ing 0.9 million tonnes.204 Production of tinplate
within Corus also takes place in Trostre (South
Wales).
39
 Supply chain policy
In its Corporate Responsibility Report 2007/2008,
Corus declares its policy principles regarding
supplier practices: ‘Our health and safety stand-
ards apply equally to contractors’.205 The Corus
Purchase Terms for Goods & Services state that
suppliers need to conform to all applicable laws
with regard to health, safety and the environ-
ment.206 Corus has recently begun implement-
ing the Tata Code of Conduct, which defines the
ethical identity of the company, but does not yet
include its position towards suppliers.207
The overall picture is that the company does
not yet have strict policies in place to encour-
age its suppliers towards environment, human
rights and labour rights. Corus does not require
that its suppliers comply with the Core Conven-
tions of the International Labour Organisation.
Neither does the company monitor suppliers
in a systematic way, though some checks are
made. The Corporate Responsibility Report
2007/2008 does mention some multi-stake-
holder initiatives on responsible procurement,
mainly focusing on steel.
Corus does not provide information to the
public, for instance in its CSR report, on the ori-
gin of the mining products the company uses in
its production process, nor any information on
the circumstances under which the mining takes
place.
Questionnaire
As a steel producer, Corus annually purchas-
es large amounts of iron ore and coal. For this
report, Friends of the Earth Netherlands (FoE NL)
only considered Corus’ supply chain responsibil-
ity regarding its tin purchases. Corus filled in the
questionnaire sent by FoE NL and responded to
follow-up questions.208 Representatives of Corus
IJmuiden and FoE NL also met on 9 March 2009.
In addition, Corus responded to the parts of the
draft report that were sent to the company. Of
the seven companies reviewed, Corus provided
FoE NL with the most additional information.
Tin purchasing within the Corus group is cen-
tralised within one business unit, Corus MET BV,
located in the Netherlands. Corus MET trades in
aluminium, zinc, tin and nickel. It has a procure-
ment and risk management function within the
Corus group.209
Corus imports around 3,000 tonnes of tin per
year, utilised by Corus Packaging Plus IJmui-
den for packaging applications, mostly tinplate.
Its non-recycled tin is purchased from traders
and trade agencies. The company states it does
not always know the origin of the tin purchased
40
(mining companies, smelters). The company fur-
ther states that its use of secondary tin (recy-
cled) increased from 30 per cent in 2008 to 65
per cent in 2009. The recycled tin is purchased
directly from a European supplier of secondary
material. Corus does not reveal its suppliers, as
this is considered business-sensitive information.
Corus expects traders and trade agencies to
respect the Corus Purchase Terms when doing
business with tin miners and smelters. Corus
considers control of compliance a difficult task
due to the significant contribution of artisan and
small-scale miners (ASM) to production in emerg-
ing and developing countries. The company
states it does not know of any current social or
environmental issues related to its sources of tin.
Through APEAL (Association of European
Producers of Steel for Packaging), Corus became
aware of assertions that trade in minerals from
the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) was
supporting the civil war, directly or indirectly. As
a result Corus’ tin procurement process excludes
tin originating from the DRC. Corus has shown
FoE NL a Request for Quotation on tin purchase.
The document states: ‘Tin ingots from cassiter-
ite originating from the Democratic Republic of
Congo should be excluded.’ Burma, however, is
not formally excluded and Corus was not aware
that tin from their suppliers might be sourced
from Burmese mines. The company states that its
tin is imported from South America and Asia.210
A coordinated industry response?
Corus finally stated that sustainable sourcing is
important for the tin plating industry and a sub-
ject of discussion within APEAL. Through APEAL,
Corus is in contact with ITRI, the organisation rep-
resenting the world’s major tin producing com-
panies. ITRI has started a Sustainability Project,
focusing on artisanal small miners and the Demo-
cratic Republic of Congo. In its progress paper
of February 2009, ITRI states: ‘Both ITRI and its
members understand the concern of downstream
tin users and other stakeholders regarding the
circumstances surrounding cassiterite production
and trade in, and from, the Democratic Repub-
lic of Congo (DRC) and have committed to take
steps to improve and encourage the adoption of
appropriate due diligence procedures through-
out the supply chain in that region. A working
group has been established, led by ITRI members
Thaisarco and Malaysia Smelting Corporation
Berhad (MSC)’.211 Both companies currently buy
cassiterite from the DRC.212 There was no news on
the proceedings of the working group by the time
this report went to press.
 The draft report was sent to Zalco on 22 April
3.4 Zalco and Aldel aluminium 2009. No response had been made by the time
smelters this report went to press.

General information
Klesch & Company, a British private equity com-
pany, has owned Zalco since May 2007.213 In
February 2009, Aldel was also acquired by Kle-
sch & Company.214
The Zeeland Aluminium Company NV
(Zalco), located near the harbour of Flushing in
the south-east of the Netherlands, is a primary
aluminium smelter. According to its website the
company annually produces 230,000 tonnes of
extrusion billets and rolling slabs. In addition,
about 100,000 tonnes of anodes are manufac-
tured for its own production process and for
third parties.215 In 2007, the production level of
extrusion billets and rolling slabs was 207,000
tonnes.216 In November 2008, Zalco announced
that 141 of the 700 jobs would be cut during the
course of 2009. The company has closed half of
its 512 electrolysis furnaces.217
Aluminium Delfzijl (Aldel), located near the
harbour of Delfzijl in the north-west of the Neth-
erlands, is also a primary aluminium smelter.
Aldel has long been a subsidiary of Corus. Annu-
ally Aldel produces over 115,000 tonnes of new
(or primary) aluminium. By re-melting production
waste and scrap, another 50,000 tonnes of alu-
minium are produced. Aldel employs 450 peo-
ple.218 In March 2009, however, Aldel announced
it would cut production by 40 per cent and 185
people would lose their jobs. In addition, 120
furnaces would be closed down.219

Supply chain policy

In their annual reports, neither company gives
any information on the origin of their bauxite,
nor on the circumstances under which the mining
takes place.
While there may be quite some efforts to
ensure sound practices regarding internal safety,
health and environmental operations, nei-
ther company yet has a policy on supply chain
responsibility including mining products.

Questionnaire
Friends of the Earth Netherlands sent question-
naires to Zalco and Aldel on 15 December 2008.
Zalco did not fill in the questionnaire, because
the company was too busy with a pending reor-
ganisation at that time. Corus/Aldel did not
answer because Aldel was about to be taken
over by Klesch & Company, so Corus was no
longer in a position to fill in the questionnaire.

41

3.5 Draka
General information
Draka is a large cable producer, with an estimat-
ed global market share of 2.5 per cent, making
the company the third-largest cable producer
in Europe. Draka operates 68 companies in 30
countries throughout Europe, North and South
America, Asia and Australia and earned a rev-
enue of 2.8 billion euros in 2007. Draka employs
about 10,000 people worldwide.
Draka has its headquarters in Amsterdam.
In the Netherlands it employs 1,000 people,
including 500 in its cable-producing affiliates in
Emmen, Nieuw Bergen and Amsterdam.220
Draka’s portfolio includes: producing semi-
manufactures (copper drawing, compounding,
optical fibre production); selling cable as a final
product; and selling cable systems/concepts. In
its manufacturing process the Group uses raw
materials like copper, preforms for optical fibre,
aluminium, PVC and other polymers. These raw
materials account for approximately 70 per cent
of total operating costs.221 In its 2005 annual
Wooden report the company stated that purchases of
cable reel
copper and aluminium amounted to 650 mil-
Draka
Mi li eu de f e n si e
42
lion euros in 2005.222 All Draka’s global copper
purchases are arranged by its headquarters in
Amsterdam.
Supply chain policy
Draka is just starting to develop policies regard-
ing corporate social responsibility (CSR). The
company doesn’t produce sustainability reports,
so far preferring to include CSR information in its
annual report. In January 2009, Draka published
a Group Safety, Health & Environment statement
for all its operating companies.223 Almost all
Draka companies have management systems in
place for safety, health and environment. While
its headquarters may be making quite some
efforts to ensure sound health, safety and envi-
ronmental practices at its global operations, Dra-
ka does not yet have policy outlined on supply
chain responsibility including mining products.
The company states that it mainly buys cop-
per from suppliers that are ISO-14001 certified.
ISO-14001 is a standard for environmental man-
agement systems, set by the International Stand-
ards Organisation (ISO). ISO-14001 does how-
ever not take into account the origin of copper
products and mining practices, and these are not
part of the requirements which Draka’s suppliers
have to meet to get the certification.
Questionnaire
Instead of filling in the questionnaire on copper
mining, the company sent a letter to Friends of
the Earth Netherlands including an invitation for
a meeting.224 This meeting between representa-
tives of Draka and Friends of the Earth Nether-
lands took place on 18 March 2009. After the
meeting, additional information was provided by
Draka.
In the Netherlands, Draka processes about
22,000 tonnes of copper annually, accounting for
more than 7 per cent of imports of copper and
copper objects into the Netherlands. To produce
cables, only primary copper is used. Recycled
copper is never used to produce cables. The
company mainly buys copper rods with an eight-
millimetre diameter, to be further processed into
thinner wire in its processing plants in the Neth-
erlands.
Draka states that many processing operations
have been carried out between the mining of
the copper and its purchase of copper rod; this
makes the global supply chain rather complex.
Producers of copper cathodes may purchase
copper ore from several mines and Draka’s cop-
per rod suppliers may get their copper cathodes
from several plants. This supply chain does not
appear to be overly complex to Friends of the
Earth Netherlands.
The company has made enquiries among
its suppliers of 8mm copper rods to the Neth-
erlands. Draka states this survey shows that
the vast majority of the copper their suppli-
ers use originates from European mines. This
is explained by the relatively high costs for
transporting copper ore and copper cathodes.
According to the US Geological Survey, Euro-
pean copper is mostly produced by Russia and
Poland.225 Draka states that a part of its copper
may come from Chile, because this country is the
world’s main producer of copper.
Furthermore, Draka stated it only buys Lon-
don Metal Exchange (LME) Grade A certified
copper and always turns down cheaper offers
lacking LME certification. Therefore, the compa-
ny states it is certain that it does not use copper
mined in the DRC. According to Draka, copper
mined in the DRC does not get LME certification.
3.6 Philips
General information
With a revenue of 27 billion euros in 2008 and
121,000 employees worldwide, the Philips Group
is a giant in the electronics industry. Philips is
headquartered in Amsterdam, the Netherlands.
The company has three main divisions:
Healthcare, Consumer Lifestyle and Lighting.
Philips claims to be number one globally in
home healthcare, lamps, electric shavers, car-
diac ultrasound, cardiovascular X-ray, patient
monitoring systems, professional lighting, light-
ing electronics, automotive lighting, electric
male grooming products and automated exter-
nal defibrillators. 226
Supply chain policy
In its 2008 annual report Philips states: ‘We con-
sider our suppliers as partners in our sustain-
ability initiatives, taking care of the environment
and of workers’ lives.’227 Philips requires its sup-
pliers to comply with its Supplier Sustainability
Declaration of December 2006. This declaration
consists of the Electronic Industry Code of Con-
duct, made by the Electronic Industry Citizenship
Coalition (EICC), plus a Philips annex on Right of
Free Bargaining and Freedom of Association.228
The EICC code of conduct will be renewed in
2009. The present Philips declaration contains,
Philips radio
(1931)
W i ki m e di a Co m m o ns /N i t e _ O wl
43
 among other standards, similarities with the val-
ues stated in the Universal Declaration of Human
Rights and the Core Conventions of the Interna-
tional Labour Organisation.
The company identifies risk suppliers based
on the Maplecroft list229 of risk countries with
regard to human rights. These risk suppliers are
monitored through audits, nearly 60 per cent of
which are conducted by external auditing bod-
ies.
A total of 277 initial and continual conform-
ance audits and 295 resolution audits focus-
ing on zero-tolerance issues were carried out in
2008. The company claims all zero-tolerances
from 2007 and those from the first three quarters
of 2008 have been resolved. Most zero-tolerance
issues in 2008 were: emergency preparedness
(blocked fire exits); occupational safety (immedi-
ate threats to health and safety); working condi-
tions (exposure to hazardous substances); work-
ing hours (continual seven-day work weeks); and
lack of environmental permits. Most limited-tol-
erance issues in 2008 were: improper handling/
processing of chemical waste; working hours
(above legal limits/60 hours a week); wages and
benefits (below minimum wage standards and
absence of legal overtime payment); environ-
mental performance objectives not meeting
legal requirements; lack of industrial hygiene
(lack of personal protective equipment); occu-
pational injury and illness (no medical treatment
facility).
Philips is quite transparent regarding its
efforts to improve labour rights and fulfilment
of environmental requirements by its suppliers.
Regarding the metals Philips uses and on mining
practices, however, the company is less transpar-
ent. In its 2008 annual report it only discloses
that it is also an active member of an Electronic
Industry Citizenship Coalition (EICC) working
group on the health and well-being of people
working in the mining industry.230
Questionnaire
Philips uses several metals in its electronic prod-
ucts. For this report, Friends of the Earth Neth-
erlands (FoE NL) examined only Philips’ supply
chain responsibility regarding its tin purchases.
Philips uses tin mainly as solder in electronic
products, for instance in printed wire boards
and for lighting. Philips filled in the question-
naire sent by FoE NL231 and also met with FoE
NL on 19 January 2009. On Tuesday 28 April,
Philips provided some additional information, in
response to the FoE NL draft report.
Philips states that it uses 400 tonnes of tin
44
per year, in products put on the market world-
wide. This represents about 0.1 per cent of
global tin mining. Philips itself only buys tin for
its lighting products, less than 0.05 per cent of
annual global production. The remainder of the
tin used is mostly for solder (on printed wire
boards, etc.) in electronic assembly. Philips has
been outsourcing all electronic assembly to a
number of suppliers of electronic manufactur-
ing systems. All of these companies source their
tin independently. Philips does not buy tin in the
Netherlands; the manufacturing sites for its light-
ing products are located outside of the Nether-
lands.
Regarding tin originating from the DRC,
Philips states: ‘Our suppliers are required to sign
a declaration on non-sourcing from the DRC.’
The company stated it is not aware at this time
of the origin of primary tin used in its products.
It also has no knowledge of the amount of recy-
cled tin used in its products: ‘Recycled tin goes
back into the chain further than we maintain or
can maintain.’ Philips previously requested and
received a declaration from all its tantalum sup-
pliers that they do not source from the Demo-
cratic Republic of Congo, as part of the compa-
ny’s efforts to encourage suppliers to act respon-
sibly when procuring materials from third parties.
In 2009, Philips will be further investigating its
supply chain with regards to tin sourcing.
Coordinated industry response
Philips stated that the issues raised by FoE NL
are grave and not easily solved due to: the par-
ties involved; the non-transparent way metals
are traded; and the fact that Philips does not
have contractual relationships with the extractive
industry. The company states it is actively seek-
ing a coordinated industry response, considering
this the best way forward. According to the com-
pany, through its active involvement in the EICC
Extractives Working Group, it is contributing to
a concerted effort to increase transparency in
the supply chain with the means and influencing
mechanisms that are available to the company.
Philips thinks the EICC would be interested in
seeing whether there is an analysis for the rank-
ing of tin in front of other metals because of its
problems related to environment, human rights
and labour rights. The EICC has already made a
statement on the sourcing of tantalum from the
DRC in February 2009.232
Philips requested that the Extractive Indus-
tries Transparency Initiative (EITI) be included in
this report. Philips believes the EITI platform is
an important way for EICC to engage in inter-
sectoral dialogue, as the EITI is closer to the min-
ing industry and their initiatives could be a big
help in creating further transparency and social
responsibility.
The EITI is a coalition of governments, com-
panies, civil society groups, investors and inter-
national organisations which aims to strength-
en governance by improving transparency and
accountability in the extractives sector. When
governance is weak, exploitation may result in
poverty, corruption and conflict instead of large
revenues to foster growth and reduce poverty.233
So far EITI has not involved itself much in envi-
ronmental, human rights and labour rights issues
with regard to mining.
3.7 Heineken
General information
Heineken is one of the world’s largest beer
breweries. Its leading brand is Heineken, but the
Group brews and sells more than 200 beers and
ciders. The company has a global network of
distributors and 125 breweries in more than 70
countries. The revenue of Heineken worldwide
totalled 14 billion euros in 2008 and the compa-
ny employed 54,000 people.
The volume of beer sold within the Nether-
lands was 5.4 million hectolitres in 2008, while
consolidated beer volume of the Heineken
Group was 125.8 million hectolitres. Heineken
has about 4,000 employees in the Netherlands,
excluding the 900 people working at its head-
quarters in Amsterdam.234 This report reviews
the use of aluminium and tin in the beer cans
Heineken sells in the Netherlands.
Supply chain policy
Heineken asks suppliers to sign the Heineken
Supplier Code, which urges them to comply with
internationally recognised standards on business
conduct, human rights and the environment,
such as the Universal Declaration of Human
Rights and the Core Conventions of the Interna-
tional Labour Organisation.235
The Supplier Code outlines eleven princi-
ples that Heineken deems most relevant for its
suppliers. The company’s principles related to
human rights are:
Former
Heineken
brewery in
the centre of
Amsterdam
W i ki m e di a Co m m o ns , Ju ly 2 0 08
45
 • Working conditions should allow safe working Friends of the Earth Netherlands consid-
practices and support the occupational health ers Heineken a small player in the Dutch mar-
of the employees; ket regarding tin and aluminium use. On the
• Employees should be treated fairly concerning global market, the picture will be quite different,
reasonable working hours, periodic leave and considering that around 2 billion beer cans are
remuneration for work performed; filled annually in the Netherlands by beer brew-
• Heineken makes allowances for negotiations ers and Heineken is the main exporter of beer in
leading to collective agreements; the Netherlands.237 Globally, therefore, Heineken
• People are employed based on the principle of uses much larger amounts of tin than it uses for
equal opportunity, without distinction to race, the Dutch market. Thus, it is remarkable that the
colour, gender, religion, affiliation or origin; company does not have a supply chain policy
• Heineken does not participate in child, forced in place regarding the use of tin for cans, while
or bonded labour. Philips for instance does have a supply chain
On environmental matters the Supplier Code policy, to some extent, for its global metal use.
states there should be compliance with all appli-
cable legislation and standards. Furthermore,
production processes should be designed to
make efficient use of available resources and to
minimise the environmental impact.
Heineken is working towards meeting its tar-
get of full implementation of the Supplier Code
in the 2010. In 2008, Heineken conducted audits
at 25 per cent of its supplier base; these audits
are part of the regular global quality audits
executed by Heineken personnel and are limited
to its direct suppliers. While most suppliers in
western Europe have already implemented the
Supplier Code, implementation by most of the
suppliers in other parts of the world has yet to
take place.

Questionnaire
Heineken filled in the questionnaire on tin and
aluminium use and provided additional informa-
tion. Packaging materials are centrally purchased
by Heineken and therefore all packaging materi-
als are subject to the Supplier Code and Supplier
Code audits. In the Netherlands, Heineken236
buys ready-made steel and aluminium cans from
Ball, Rexam, Crown and Can Pack can suppliers.
Of the cans Heineken puts on the market in
the Netherlands, 95 per cent are made of tin-
coated steel. Aluminium cans account for the
remaining 5 per cent. Aluminium is used for spe-
cially shaped cans and lids for the steel cans. The
tin content of beer cans put on the Dutch mar-
ket is estimated by Heineken at 12.5 tonnes per
year. The tin content of Vrumona cans, a supplier
of non-alcoholic beverages owned by Heineken,
is estimated at 4.5 tonnes.
Heineken states it is not aware of any social
or environmental problems concerning the min-
ing of bauxite and tin. Nor does the company
know the origin of the mining products, since
only ready-made cans are purchased from vari-
ous can suppliers.

46

3.8 Coca-Cola
General information
Coca-Cola Enterprises Inc. is the world’s larg-
est marketer, producer and distributor of Coca-
Cola products. It operates in 46 US states and
Canada, and is the exclusive Coca-Cola bottler
for all of Belgium, France, Great Britain, Luxem-
bourg, Monaco and the Netherlands. Coca-Cola
Enterprises Inc. has its headquarters in the USA
and is listed on the New York Stock Exchange.238
In 2007, Coca-Cola Enterprises Inc. had a world-
wide revenue of $21 billion and employed
73,000 people. It sold 42 billion bottles and
cans.
Coca-Cola Enterprise Netherlands had a rev-
enue of 473 million euros in 2007; it employed
801 people. It sold 576 million litres of bever-
ages to the Dutch market, a 20 percent market
share of non-alcoholic beverages. Coca-Cola
Enterprise Netherlands sells carbonated soft
drinks, water, fruit juices, sports drinks, energy
drinks and iced tea.239 For this report, the use
of aluminium and tin in the cans Coca-Cola sells
was reviewed.
Supply chain policy
Coca-Cola Enterprises Inc. (CCE) has intro-
duced guidelines for its suppliers. Suppliers are
required to meet the following standards:
• Laws and Regulations: Supplier will comply
with all applicable local and national laws, rules,
regulations and requirements in the manufac-
turing and distribution of our products and sup-
plies and in the provision of services.
• Forced Labor and Abuse of Labor: Supplier will
not use forced, bonded, military or compulsory
labor. Supplier will comply with all applicable
local and national laws on abuse of employees
and will not physically abuse employees.
• Supplier will comply with all applicable local
and national laws on: Freedom of Association
and Collective Bargaining; Discrimination; Wag-
es and Benefits; Work Hours and Overtime;
Health and Safety; Environment; Child Labor.240
All suppliers of cans to Coca-Cola have signed
the guidelines. The guidelines state that sup-
pliers must also ensure that their suppliers and/
or subcontractors comply with the guidelines.
Coca-Cola does not monitor its suppliers. The
company states it has confidence in the way its
suppliers do business.
It is noteworthy that CCE does not ask its
suppliers to uphold the values stated in the Uni-
versal Declaration of Human Rights and the Core
Advertising
poster from
1890: drink
Coca-Cola 5¢
W ik ime d ia Co mmo n s
Conventions of the International Labour Organi-
sation. This, including the lack of montoring,
makes the guidelines rather weak.
CCE Netherlands did not report on the origin
of the mining products Coca-Cola uses for its
cans, nor was any information given on the cir-
cumstances under which the mining takes place
in its 2007 annual sustainability report or in any
other public document.
Questionnaire
CCE filled in the questionnaire on tin and alu-
minium use and provided some additional infor-
mation.
CCE241 buys aluminium, through intermediate
parties, at the London Metal Exchange. These
parties ensure aluminium supplies to manufac-
ture the lids of the steel cans. Tin is used for
steel cans with a protective layer. Purchased tin
is already part of the cans CCE buys from its two
can suppliers, Ball and Rexam. According to its
suppliers approximately 30 per cent of the tin
comes from recycled material.
CCE stated it puts 900 tonnes of alumini-
um and 18 tonnes of tin on the Dutch market
yearly. Friends of the Earth Netherlands consid-
ers Coca-Cola Enterprises a small player on the
Dutch market regarding tin and aluminium use.
Globally, however, the company may use large
amounts of tin. Thus, it is remarkable that the
company does not have a supply chain policy
in place regarding the use of tin for cans, while
Philips for instance does have a supply chain
policy, to some extent, for its global metal use.
47
 Chapter 4
Dutch government policy regarding the
supply chains of companies
An earlier report on mining and trade
links with the Netherlands
In March 2008, Greenpeace Netherlands pub-
lished a report on coal mining with many similari-
ties to this one. Dutch power companies import-
ed 8.5 million tonnes of coal in 2006, of which
some 85 per cent originated from South Africa,
Colombia and Indonesia. In these countries envi-
ronmental and human rights problems exist in
the mining sector. The rights of local communi-
ties and miners are often ignored. Furthermore,
coal mining causes pollution of drinking water,
emissions of the greenhouse gas methane and
brings about forest destruction.242
Following the Greenpeace report, a Dutch
member of parliament questioned the Minister
of Economic Affairs (Ms Maria van der Hoeven)
and the Minister of the Environment and Spatial
Planning (Ms Jacqueline Cramer) on the issue.
The ministers answered: ‘We expect Dutch pow-
er producers to pursue corporate social respon-
sibility (CSR) and attend to issues in the coal sup-
ply chain. We expect them to take action against
situations and circumstances which may be
socially unacceptable. However, at present there
is no monitoring of the level of sustainability that
Dutch companies pursue regarding the coal sup-
ply chain. (…) We encourage Dutch power pro-
ducers to explore opportunities and routes to be
followed.’243
Like the Greenpeace report, this report on
tin, bauxite and copper shows that a clear need
still exists for action by governments and compa-
nies to ensure better mining practices.
Dutch government policy regarding the
supply chains of companies
The Dutch government is increasingly taking
initiative to promote supply chain responsibility
among companies. The most important initia-
tives are reviewed below, with a specific focus
48
on CSR benefits for the mining sector. The
general CSR policy of the Dutch government is
that companies should be encouraged to vol-
untarily improve their transparency and supply
chain responsibility. Although the Dutch govern-
ment is not currently planning to develop more
regulations for companies, they are conducting
research into possibilities for chain accountability.
1) New initiative from the Dutch Social
and Economic Council
The SER, an advisory body to the Dutch govern-
ment, has recently started an initiative, which
has the support of the Dutch government, to
enhance the commitment of enterprises to exert
a positive influence on the social and environ-
mental policy of their suppliers.244 Major employ-
ers’ associations and trade unions are members
of this SER-committee that deals with Corporate
Social Responsibility.
Every year, starting in 2009, the SER will draw
up an annual progress report on the subject of
the supply chain responsibility of Dutch com-
panies. The report will review the number of
companies reporting along described lines, the
various subjects that they cover in their reports,
best practices, and any problems and challenges
encountered. Companies will be encouraged
to issue public reports on CSR, including supply
chain responsibility.
The SER initiative requires that international
enterprises use a normative framework to iden-
tify what should be expected of enterprises with
respect to supply chain responsibility. This frame-
work consists of the following:
• The ILO Declaration on Fundamental Princi-
ples and Rights at Work, reaffirmed in 2008.
This concerns freedom of association, the right
to collective bargaining, and the ban on forced
labour, child labour and discrimination.
• The ILO’s Tripartite Declaration of Principles
 concerning Multinational Enterprises and Social
Policy (2000).
• The OECD Guidelines for Multinational Enter-
prises (2000).
• Recommendations of the International Cham-
ber of Commerce (ICC) on Supply Chain
Responsibility (2007).
The SER also requires that reporting standards
be based on guidelines issued by the Dutch
Accounting Standards Board. The Board will
supplement its guidelines by 1 July 2009 with
recommendations for international supply chain
responsibility.
The SER plans to commence an evaluation of
the initiative in the second half of 2011 and will
complete this evaluation by 1 July 2012. Confi-
dent that the necessary progress will be made
between now and that date, the Council does
not believe there is a need to propose legisla-
tion in this area during that period. However,
Friends of the Earth Netherlands thinks that
although voluntary mechanisms might be a good
way for companies to improve their performance
on supply chain responsibility, regulations are
also needed to ensure all Dutch and European
companies have to abide by the same rules and
regulations.
It is not yet known what the SER initiative
will mean to companies involved with unaccept-
able mining in developing countries. There is no
obligation for companies to map out their supply
chain, identify CSR problems along the chain and
work on solutions for the problems.
2) Transparency benchmark on CSR re-
porting by Dutch companies
In recent years, the largest Dutch companies
have been benchmarked annually on the trans-
parency of their CSR reporting. The latest trans-
parency benchmark, published February 2009,
reviewed the CSR reporting of 170 companies.
One of the ten aspects reviewed was the sup-
ply chain responsibility of the companies. The
report as well as the Minister for Foreign Trade
(Mr Frank Heemskerk) concluded that compa-
nies had paid more attention to supply chain
responsibility compared to the benchmark of a
year ago. However, this could only be concluded
for the 20 leading companies – the remainder of
the companies had scores that left much to be
desired regarding their reporting on supply chain
responsibility.245
Of the seven companies reviewed in this
report on their responsibility towards min-
ing practices, Philips scored highest on supply
chain responsibility, considerably better than
Heineken, which in turn scored considerably
better then Corus. Draka had the lowest score.
Coca-Cola, Cookson and the Klesch Company
were not reviewed, as they are not Dutch com-
panies.
Corus participated voluntarily in the bench-
mark review: it was no longer required to do so,
as since its acquisition by Tata Steel it was no
longer a Dutch-based company. Corus states it
participated even though it knew it would have
a lower overall score than in earlier years, due
to the fact that its financial figures are no longer
separately published, but incorporated into the
Tata figures.
3) Procurement policy of the government
The Dutch government’s objective is that pur-
chases by the State government are 100 per
cent sustainable by 2010. Seventy-five per cent
of purchases by municipalities will be required
to be sustainable by 2010; provinces and water
boards should aim for 50 per cent.
The government already has defined mini-
mum criteria for a range of products, among
other environmental criteria. Social criteria are
still to be defined by the Dutch government. This
is expected to be completed by June 2009. At
the moment, the government is leaning towards
fulfilment of the ILO Fundamental Principles and
Rights at Work and commitment to the Universal
Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR). ILO labour
standards (wages, working hours, working condi-
tions) may provide additional standards for some
products.246 It has not yet been decided how far
Huge
Caterpillar
truck to
transport
copper from
the Grasberg
mine in
Indonesia.
L uca s W i b o w o , Ju ne 2 0 0 8
49
 responsibility reaches in the supply chain and
how verification will take place.
The environmental criteria do not thus far
include criteria related to mining practices. The
social criteria may however have some influence
on companies that use mining components in
their products. For instance, the worst forms of
child labour are found in some mining sectors.
Companies that want to do business with the
government may be required to map out their
supply chain and work on alternatives to child
labour. FoE NL believes social criteria should
include safety and health standards for miners
and communities around mines.
Governmental procurement policies should
set an example. While companies are con-
cerned about sourcing materials fuelling the
war in eastern Congo, procurement standards
for government computers and other electron-
ics still include no criteria regarding tin use from
the DRC. The same lack of attention to mining
practices applies to the aluminium content of
cars bought by the government, or the copper
content of euro coins that are produced in the
Netherlands.

4) Dutch Sustainable Trade Initiative

To supplement several existing market initiatives,
the Dutch government and several stakehold-
ers have started the Dutch Sustainable Trade
Initiative (IDH).247 Government, private sector,
labour unions and non-governmental organisa-
tions want to jointly implement sector improve-
ment programmes for timber and other forest
products, soy, natural stone products, cocoa,
tea and tourism. The government has no special
chain initiatives pending with regards to mining
products.

50
Chapter 5

Preliminary research
on the use of copper and tin resources

Tin: depleting resources? be depleted within 25 years.

The reserve base of tin according to U.S. Geo- The 1,000 million tonnes of copper men-
logical Survey (USGS) data is estimated at 11 tioned above refers to the known reserve base
million tonnes. This means that at the present of copper. The reserve base includes those
consumption level, there are nearly 40 years left resources that are currently economically attrac-
of virgin tin use, calculating a zero economic tive (550 million tonnes) as well as less economi-
growth rate. Assuming a modest annual growth cally attractive to mine.255
of economies at 2 per cent, the well-known sci- The reserve base however does not take into
entific environmentalist Lester Brown has sug- account yet unexplored deposits of copper – a
gested tin resources could be depleted within significant number of these exist. A preliminary
20 years.248 In the period 1998-2007 tin mining assessment indicates that global land-based
production has actually increased 3.7 per cent resources exceed 3,000 million tonnes. Deep-
annually.249 sea nodules are estimated to contain another
700 million tonnes of copper.256 An extensive
The USGS data on the reserve base do not 2008-study concluded that the Andes Mountains
include countries like the Democratic Repub- have 750 million tonnes of undiscovered cop-
lic Congo (DRC), Vietnam and Burma. In 1997,
a reserve base of 0.5 million tonnes was listed Known reserves in the earth’s crust: tin250
for the DRC.251 The organisation ITRI works on
behalf of many of the world’s major tin-produc- Reserve base Percentage
ing companies and is dedicated to expanding (million tonnes)
tin use.252 Concerning tin reserves, ITRI ‘believes
that the supply of tin can be guaranteed for China 3.5 31%
significantly longer than the 15-25 years that is
Brazil 2.5 22%
sometimes quoted in general literature.’ Accord-
ing to ITRI, at present it is not possible to obtain Malaysia 1.2 11%
any more information than the USGS reserve
base. ITRI argues that the tin industry usually Peru 1.0 9%
only confirms reserves for a time period of 10 to
20 years.253 Indonesia 0.9 8%

Bolivia 0.9 8%
Copper: depleting resources?
Globally, only 1,000 million tonnes of copper Russia 0.35 3%
are labelled as having the potential to be mined
in the future. Global copper mining produc- Australia 0.3 3%
tion amounted to almost 16 million tonnes in
2008.254 Does this therefore mean we only have Thailand 0.2 2%
60 more years of copper use to go? Or even
Other countries 0.3 3%
less, as economic growth may again spur great-
er use? Assuming a modest annual 2 per cent around 11
growth of economies, copper resources could

51
 per resources, but it also stated that a significant
amount will not be available (urban areas, high
biodiversity areas, areas with threatened surface
and groundwater supplies).257
Will the future take care of itself?
At the beginning of 2009, the World Bank
released its report ‘Global Economic Prospects,
Commodities at the Crossroads’. The authors
of the World Bank report are rather optimis-
tic about future metal supplies. Here are some
statements from the report:
• Reserves are really a measure of the inventory
that producers have readily available for future
delivery, rather than a measure of the physical
quantity remaining of a commodity.
• The existence of ample (and growing) reserves,
and a history of significant improvements in the
technology with which resources are found and
extracted, suggests that supply will continue to
rise in pace with demand.
• True resource exhaustion is unlikely not least
because, as resources become scarcer, their
prices rise, consumption declines, and alterna-
tives that once may have been uneconomic are
substituted for the scarce (and expensive) com-
modity.
• Although the quality of newly discovered mines
tends to be lower on average than older ones,
technological improvements have reduced the
cost of producing most metals over the past 50
years. For example, production costs of a tonne
of copper between 1985 and 2002 declined by
18 to 28 percent.
• Supply prospects for metals depend on the
competing forces of resource exhaustion and
the declining quality of new sources, on the
one hand, and the pace of new discoveries and
improvements in the technology with which
commodities are discovered and extracted, on
the other.258
Or should we care for the future?
The scientist André Diederen, working for Dutch
research institute TNO, has quite different views
than the ones expressed in the World Bank
report.259 He states that during the next few dec-
ades we will encounter serious problems mining
many important metal minerals at the desired
extraction rates. Amongst these are all precious
metals (gold, silver and platinum-group metals),
zinc, tin, indium, zirconium, cadmium, tungsten,
copper, manganese, nickel and molybdenum.
The implications of metals scarcity might
affect our entire industrial civilization. Firstly,
other metal minerals will not be acceptable sub-
52
stitutes for the scarce metals. Secondly, large-
scale conversion towards more sustainable forms
of energy would be slowed down by a lack of
sufficient platinum-group metals, rare-earth met-
als and scarce metals like gallium. This includes
large-scale application of high-efficiency solar
cells and fuel cells and large-scale electrification
of land-based transport. Finally, to sustain and
increase current production rates, resources have
to be extracted at ever more distant locations
(including deep mining and ocean floor min-
ing) and at ever lower ore grades which require
exponentially more energy to extract.
Diederen believes we should impose a co-
ordinated policy of managed austerity to address
metal minerals. Firstly, he defines ‘the elements
of hope’. This is a group of abundantly avail-
able elements. Iron and aluminium are included,
though required energy to extract these might
grow exponentially due to the availability of
lower ore grades only. The elements of hope are
supposed to replace scarce metals, whereby a
challenging task is to realise the same function-
ality of products. Another part of the toolbox is
reserved for ‘frugal elements’. These elements
should only be applied in mass for applications
in which their unique properties are essential.
Copper is one of the frugal elements. Finally a
small corner of the toolbox is reserved for the
‘critical elements’, which should be saved for the
most essential and critical applications. Tin is one
of these metals.260
Researchers Gordon, Bertram and Graedel
have estimated that around 200 kilograms of
copper per capita is needed to supply the serv-
ices which the residents of wealthy nations such
as Switzerland, Australia or the United States
are accustomed to. Nations such as South Africa
and China would have to increase their aver-
age per capita copper stock-in-use by seven or
eight times to achieve the same level. Gordon,
Bertram and Graedel conclude that, with present
technology, virgin stocks of copper appear inad-
equate to sustain a developed-world service
level for all the Earth’s peoples. There are not
enough copper resources for global adaption of
the lifestyle of wealthy nations.261
Recyclable copper reservoir
The European Copper Institute – representing
the world’s mining companies and the Europe-
an copper industry – states in its press informa-
tion kit of January 2009: ‘Copper is 100 per cent
recyclable, with no loss of its performance. It is
estimated that 80 per cent of the copper pro-
duced by mankind is still in use.’262

Therefore, let us consider how recycling
could contribute to a sustainable cycle. Global
production of copper from mining and recy-
cling in the period 1900-2007 was 500 million
tonnes.263 If 80 per cent of this copper would
indeed still be in use, a maximum global cop-
per reservoir above the ground of around 400
million tonnes exists. Estimates on in-use stock
for North America and Western Europe show
this figure may be too optimistic.264 Much of the
copper in these regions has been disposed of
in landfill: it was not and probably never will be
recycled however.
In a 2007 study, Gómez, Guzmán and Tilton
state that the input of secondary copper dur-
ing the production of copper is not increasing,
though every year more and more copper con-
tent in waste should become available world-
wide. The authors of the study note that recy-
cling rates are declining. According to them this
is caused by decreasing prices of new copper
since the early 1970s, largely driven by primary
copper producers successfully reducing their
production costs. Virgin copper has apparently
become cheaper than recycling home-grown
copper.265
From an environmental point of view, the
recycling of copper is more beneficial than the
R e u t e rs /Ki t t y B u , May 2 0 0 7
The Chinese
extraction of virgin copper. According to the village Guiyu
Bureau of International Recycling, the creation of is one of
secondary raw copper only requires 15 per cent the biggest
e-waste
of the energy needed to produce copper from
centers of
primary raw materials.266 Decisions to recycle the world.
however will be made on the basis of total recy- Copper
cling costs (including personnel costs), compared and tin are
to the costs of virgin copper. The next section recycled
under very
will show that the recyclable copper reservoir is
unhealthy
still being poorly extracted. conditions for
the workers.
Recycling rates for copper
In 2006 the International Copper Study Group
(ICSG) published an extensive study on how
much copper was recycled in Western Europe
in 1999, in comparison with the copper content
of products that entered the recycling system in
Western Europe (exports of used products were
excluded). ICSG determined the so-called ‘end-
of-life recycling efficiency rate’ was between 63
and 67 per cent.267
The following table shows the recycling rates
according to ICSG for all waste categories:
Some factors hinder the recycling of copper:
1. Not recyclable. The copper content of dissi-
pative applications such as powders or chemi-
53
Recycling rates copper, per waste category, Western Europe 1999 268
Available
for ­recycling
(ktons)
C&D: construction and demolition waste 755
IEW: industrial electrical equipment waste 442
INEW: industrial non-electrical equipment waste 506
ELV: end-of-life vehicles 141
WEEE: waste electric and electronic equipment 462
MSW: municipal solid waste 144
Dissipative uses (powders and chemicals) 82
Total 2,532
cals (82,000 tonnes) is, in general, not avail-
able for recycling back into the copper loop.269
Also, small bits of some copper products may
be lost to the environment during use, for
instance due to wear of car brakes and water
pipes.270
2. Lost into metal recycling loops. In the 2006
ICSG study it was estimated that 144,000
tonnes of copper went into steel and alumin-
ium recycling loops in Western Europe. In the
case of aluminium, copper is usually regarded
as a valuable addition to aluminium casting
alloys. In the case of steel, copper trapped in
the steel (for instance, small and medium-sized
electric motors in car-shredding steel) is seen
as decreasing the quality of steel.271 A study
based on samples taken nationwide from scrap
in Japan showed copper content in steel scrap
to be at worrying levels, decreasing the qual-
ity of newly made steel.272 Some new recycling
techniques might be able to increase separa-
tion of copper.273
3. Disposal and other losses. This category
forms the biggest portion, 661,000 tonnes, of
lost recycling in the 2006 ICSG study. Disposal
means landfill. Other losses are mainly incinera-
tion slag used as road fill or construction mate-
rial.
4. Exports. ‘E-waste’ (waste electrical and elec-
tronic equipment) in particular is oftentimes
exported to countries like China, India and
West Africa. Because many of the e-waste
exports are illegal274, it is not clear how many
are exported and how much copper is recycled.
Some e-waste might be eventually dumped.
54
Recycled Not Recycling
copper ­recycled rate
(ktons) (ktons)
535 220 71%
359 83 81%
394 112 78%
86 55 61%
224 238 48%
47 97 33%
0 82 0%
1,645 887 65%
If not dumped, the copper will probably be
recycled to some extent. The Netherlands also
exports used cars to Eastern Europe and Africa,
of which the recycle rate is not known.
5. Not collected. In 2007 there was an extensive
review of the EU directive Waste of Electrical
and Electronic Equipment (WEEE) by United
Nations University.275 The university calculated
how much WEEE waste should have accumulat-
ed in the EU-27 in 2005. It was calculated that
8.3 million tonnes of WEEE waste should have
become available. However, only 2.2 million
tonnes, 27 per cent, were actually collected
within the EU. The collection figures of Norway
and Switzerland were compared with those of
the EU-27 as a reference. The two countries
turned out to have better collection rates than
the EU-27, with the exception of Sweden.
Tin recycling
Recently ITRI announced: ‘We are particularly
pleased to be able to suggest a provisional fig-
ure of 27 per cent for the recycling rate of tin –
something that has not been possible in the past
due to lack of information’.276
The industry-led Intelligent Manufacturing
Systems (IMS) program states: ‘The use of such
scarce metals as silver and tin requires stimu-
lating the collection and recycling of waste of
electric and electronic equipment. Especially the
nowadays low recycling rates of tin call for more
effective technologies to recycle solders from
used printed-wiring-boards.’277
About 14 per cent of tin use is for chemi-
cals.278 Tin chemicals have end uses that are
nearly all dissipative: therefore, the tin content is
not recyclable.279
For the year 2007, the US Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA) states that of all the
TVs, cell phones and computer products ready
for end-of-life management in the USA, 18 per
cent were collected for recycling and 82 per cent
were disposed of, primarily in landfills.280 The
figure for collection however includes exports of
e-waste to developing countries. Greenpeace
estimates that the hidden flow of e-waste escap-
ing responsible recycling in the US may be as
much as 80% or more.281
In the Netherlands, 1.9 billion beer cans and
1.2 billion soft-drink cans were filled in 2006.
Most of the beer was exported. Within the Neth-
erlands, refillable glass makes up 64 per cent of
the beer market, cans 26 per cent and non-refill-
able glass 9 per cent.282 Within Europe 66 per
cent of steel packaging is recycled. The recycling
rate for the Netherlands was 83 per cent (steel
and aluminium packaging).283 Today, the nomi-
nal tin coating on each side of tinplate is only
0.000381 millimetres. Thus, the economics of
de-tinning make it not nearly as profitable as it
once was.284 While production waste of tinplate
is usually recycled, it remained unclear when this
report went to press to what extent the tin of
used cans is actually recycled.

55
 Annex A

Abbreviations

Aldel: Aluminium Delfzijl

APEAL: Association of European Producers of Steel for Packaging
ASM: artisan and small-scale miners
CBG: Compagnie des Bauxites de Guinée
CBK: Compagnie des Bauxites de Kindia
CCE: Coca-Cola Enterprises Inc.
CNDP: Le Congrès National pour la Défense du Peuple
Codeff: Friends of the Earth Chile, National Committee for the Defense of Flora and Fauna
CODELCO: Corporación Nacional del Cobre de Chile, National Copper Corporation of Chile
CSR: Corporate Social Responsibility
DRC: Democratic Republic of Congo
EICC: Electronic Industry Citizenship Coalition
EITI: Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative
FARDC: Forces Armées de la République Démocratique du Congo
FDLR: Forces Democratiques de Liberation du Rwanda
FoE NL: Friends of the Earth Netherlands
GDP: Gross Domestic Product
ICC: International Chamber of Commerce
ICSG: International Copper Study Group
IDH: Dutch Sustainable Trade Initiative
ILO: International Labour Organization
IMS: Intelligent Manufacturing Systems
ISO: International Standards Organisation
ITRI: organisation representing the world’s major tin producing companies
KCM: Konkola Copper Mines
LME: London Metal Exchange
MCM: Mopani Copper Mines
MONUC: United Nations Mission in the Democratic Republic of Congo
MSC: Malaysia Smelting Corporation Berhad
OECD: Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development
SABL: St Ann Bauxite Ltd
SER: Social and Economic Council, an advisory body to the Dutch government
SO2: sulphur dioxide
UDHR: Universal Declaration of Human Rights
UNESCO: United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
USGS: U.S. Geological Survey
WALHI: Wahana Lingkungan Hidup Indonesia or The Indonesian Forum for Environment
WEEE: Waste of Electrical and Electronic Equipment
WHO: World Health Organisation
Zalco: Zeeland Aluminium Company NV
ZCCM-IH: Zambia Consolidated Copper Mines Investment Holdings

56
Annex B
Questionnaires sent to the companies
Questionnaire
Your company and tin mining
December 2008
Your contact details:
Questionnaire:
Please describe or send available documents
about your company’s Corporate Social Respon-
sibility policy, including information on human
rights, labour rights and environmental issues.
How is the purchasing of tin organised within
your company?
What is the amount of the metal tin, processed
in the Netherlands into your products?
How much of the metal tin, processed into your
products in the Netherlands, is recycled tin?
To what level does your company know where
the not-recycled tin has been mined? Please
name countries of origin, mining companies and
mines.
To what level does your company know where
the recycled tin originates from? Please give spe-
cifics on country and factory level.
Could you provide us with a list of the suppliers
of tin to your company?
Does your company ask suppliers to fulfill social
and environmental criteria (based on your
Code of Conduct for example) on the way tin is
mined?
a) If yes: please, describe further.
b) If no: Why not?
Are you aware of any social or environmental
issues concerning the extraction of tin that is
used in your products? If yes, please specify.
How does your company ensure no tin is
obtained from Burma and some mines in the
Democratic Republic of Congo?
What is the position of your company on
resource use (reduce, recycle, cradle to cradle
etc.)? Please elaborate.
Please fill in and reply before January 15th, 2009.
Questionnaire on resource use and
and your companies’ import of alumina
December 2008
Questionnaire:
Please describe or send available documents
about your company’s Corporate Social Respon-
sibility policy, including information on human
rights, labour rights and environmental issues.
How is the purchasing of processed bauxite (alu-
mina) organised within your company?
What is the amount of alumina processed in the
Netherlands into your products?
To what level does your company know where
the bauxite has been mined of the alumina your
company imports? And where is the bauxite
processed into alumina? Please name countries
of origin, mining companies, mines and factories.
Could you provide us with a list of the suppliers
of alumina to your company?
Does your company ask suppliers to fulfill social
and environmental criteria (based on your Code
of Conduct for example) on the way bauxite is
mined and processed?
a) If yes: Please, describe further.
b) If no: Why not?
Are you aware of any social or environmental
problems concerning the mining of bauxite and
processing into alumina, before the alumina is
imported by your company for further process-
ing? If yes, please specify.
How much of the aluminium, processed into your
products in the Netherlands, is recycled alumin-
ium?
If your company also uses recycled aluminium,
can you elaborate where the recycled aluminium
originates from? Please give specifics on country
and factory level.
What is the position of your company on
resource use (reduce, recycle, cradle to cradle
etc.)? Please elaborate.
Please fill in and reply before January 15th, 2009.
57
 Questionnaire resource use
and the mining of copper
December 2008
Your contact details:
Questionnaire:
Please describe or send available documents
about your company’s Corporate Social Respon-
sibility policy, including information on human
rights, labour rights and environmental issues.
How is the purchasing of copper organised with-
in your company?
What is the amount of copper, processed in the
Netherlands into your products?
How much of the copper, processed into your
products in the Netherlands, is recycled copper?
To what level does your company know where
the not-recycled copper has been mined? Please
name countries of origin, mining companies and
mines.
To what level does your company know where
the recycled copper originates from? Please give
specifics on country and factory level.
Could you provide us with a list of the suppliers
of copper to your company?
Does your company ask suppliers to fulfill social
and environmental criteria (based on your Code
of Conduct for example) on the way copper is
mined?
a) If yes: please, describe further.
b) If no: Why not?
Are you aware of any social or environmental
issues concerning the extraction of copper that
is used in your products? If yes, please specify.
What is the position of your company on
resource use (reduce, recycle, cradle to cradle
etc.)? Please elaborate.
Please fill in and reply before January 15th, 2009.
58
Questionnaire on the
mining product aluminium
December 2008
Your contact details:
Questionnaire:
Please describe or send available documents
about your company’s Corporate Social Respon-
sibility policy, including information on human
rights, labour rights and environmental issues.
How is the purchasing of aluminium for cans
organised within your company?
What is the amount of aluminium used into cans
by your company in the Netherlands?
To what level does your company know where
the bauxite has been mined from which the alu-
minium eventually is made? Please name coun-
tries of origin, mining companies and mines.
Could you provide us with a list of the suppliers
of aluminium to your company?
Does your company ask suppliers to fulfill social
and environmental criteria (based on your Code
of Conduct for example) on the way bauxite is
mined and aluminium is produced?
a) If yes: please, describe further.
b) If no: Why not?
Are you aware of any social or environmental
problems concerning the mining of bauxite and
production of aluminium used for the cans of
your company?
If yes, please specify.
How much of the aluminium, processed into cans
in the Netherlands, is recycled aluminium?
If your company also uses recycled aluminium,
can you elaborate where the recycled alumini-
um is obtained? Please give specifics on factory
level.
What is the position of your company on
resource use (reduce, recycle, cradle to cradle
etc.)? Please elaborate.
Please fill in and reply before January 15th, 2009.
Endnotes

All mentioned website links were still working on 16 and 17 April 2009.

1 U.S. Geological Survey, ‘Mineral Commodity Summaries, tin’, January 2009 (the Democratic
Republic of Congo (DRC) was excluded in their figures),
http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/tin/mcs-2009-tin.pdf
Figures from the DRC included through:
1) ITRI (organisation working on behalf of the worlds’ biggest tin producing companies), ‘back-
ground information sheet Cassiterite Production and Trade in the Democratic Republic of Congo,
October 2008, http://www.itri.co.uk/SITE/UPLOAD/Document/Sustainability/ITRI%20DRC%20
information%20sheet%20v1.pdf
2) British Geological Survey, ‘World Mineral Production 2003–2007’,
http://www.bgs.ac.uk/mineralsuk/free_downloads/home.html#WMP
2 ITRI, ‘Long-term Trends in Tin-in-Concentrate Production, 1970 – 2006’,
http://www.itri.co.uk/POOLED/ARTICLES/BF_TECHART/VIEW.ASP?Q=BF_TECHART_288264
3 Sandeep Joon, research analyst with SMC Comtrade Ltd, article ‘Tin: The unsung metal that shines
far too high’, June 2008,
http://www.commodityonline.com/ndtv/news/topstorydetails.php?id=9424&cont=2
4 ITRI, ‘data on tin use in 2007’,
http://www.itri.co.uk/pooled/articles/BF_TECHART/view.asp?Q=BF_TECHART_309008
5 Informations-Zentrum Weißblech, ‘tinplate areas of use’, http://217.113.39.66/Usage.375.0.html
6 Article, ‘China cuts tin export quotas’, 22 October 2008,
http://www.chinamining.org/Policies/2008-10-22/1224640918d18388.html
7 Figures from Statistics Netherlands, http://statline.cbs.nl/StatWeb/dome/?LA=NL as viewed on 10
April 2009
8 Nicholas Garrett, report ‘Walikale – Artisanal Cassiterite Mining and Trade in North Kivu – Impli-
cations for Poverty Reduction and Security’, 1 June 2008, made for Communities and Small-Scale
Mining, http://www.artisanalmining.org/index.cfm
9 United Nations, letter from the Chairman of the Security Council Committee established pursu-
ant to resolution 1533 (2004) concerning the Democratic Republic of the Congo addressed to the
President of the Security Council, 10 December 2008, http://www.undemocracy.com/S-2008-773.
pdf
10 AWR Lloyd, ‘Mining Journal Annual Review, Thailand’, October 2006 and August 2005. http://
www.awrlloyd.com/pdf/MiningJournalAnnualReview%28Oct06%29THAILAND.pdf, http://www.
awrlloyd.com/pdf/ThailandMiningSectorforMiningJournalAnnualReview%28Aug05%29.pdf
11 PT Timah website, ‘Leading Tin Companies’,
http://www.timah.com/images/stories/ir_kontribusi/leading%20tin%20companies.pdf
12 Somchai Thamprasertwong, Thaisarco, phone interview on 23 November 2007. In a report by Finn-
watch ‘Connecting components, dividing communities. Tin Production for Consumer Electronics in
the DR Congo and Indonesia’, December 2007, http://www.finnwatch.org/pdf/DRCwebversio.pdf
13 Figures from Statistics Netherlands,
http://statline.cbs.nl/StatWeb/dome/?LA=NL, as viewed on 10 April 2009.
14 The average price of a ton of refined tin was around $15,000 in 2007. Website London Metal
Exchange, http://www.lme.co.uk/tin_graphs.asp
One Euro was worth 1,37 dollar on average in 2007,
http://www.x-rates.com/d/USD/EUR/hist2007.html

59
 Assumed is that 85% of the 46 million Euro worth raw materials bought by Alpha-Fry, was refined
tin. This results in an estimation of 3,500 tonnes of tin imported by Alpha-Fry in 2007.
15 Corus IJmuiden, ‘answers to questionnaire of Friends of the Earth Netherlands on tin mining’, 6
March 2009.
16 Website European Aluminium Association, ‘A Brief Introduction to Aluminium, 1999, lecture pre-
pared by Toralf Cock, Skanaluminium, Oslo,
http://www.eaa.net/eaa/education/TALAT/lectures/110001.pdf
17 U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries, bauxite and alumina, January 2009,
http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/bauxite/mcs-2009-bauxi.pdf
18 Website aluminium manufacturer RUSAL, ‘Aluminium Industry’,
http://www.aluminiumleader.com/en/serious/industry/
19 U.S. Geological Survey, ‘Mineral Commodity Summaries, aluminum’, January 2009,
http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/aluminum/mcs-2009-alumi.pdf
20 Commodities Now, Jim Steel (Refco), ‘Aluminium: Growing Demand & Fund Activity’, December
2003, http://www.commodities-now.com/content/market-areas/metals-and-mining/ma-article-9.pdf
21 Figures from Statistics Netherlands, http://statline.cbs.nl/StatWeb/dome/?LA=NL, as viewed on
10 April 2009.
22 Figures from Statistics Netherlands, http://statline.cbs.nl/StatWeb/dome/?LA=NL, as viewed on
10 April 2009.
23 Website aluminium manufacturer Alcoa, ‘San Ciprián Smelter’ http://www.alcoa.com/locations/
spain_san_ciprian/en/about/profile.asp
24 U.S. Department of State, Bureau of African Affairs, February 2009,
http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/2824.htm
25 Wikipedia, ‘copper’, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copper
26 Copper Development Association Inc., ‘Copper Supply & Consumption 1987–2007’, copper con-
tent of world mine production 2007,
http://www.copper.org/resources/market_data/pdfs/annual_data.pdf
27 Website International Copper Study Group, ‘The world copper factbook 2007’, calculated from fig-
ures 1960-2007, page 64. http://www.icsg.org/images/stories/pdfs/2007worldcopperfactbook.pdf
28 U.S. Geological Survey, ‘copper statistics’, November 2008,
http://minerals.usgs.gov/ds/2005/140/copper.pdf
29 R. B. Gordon, M. Bertram, and T. E. Graedel, ‘Metal Stocks and Sustainability’, Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America v.103, n.5, 31 January 2006,
http://www.pnas.org/content/103/5/1209.full.pdf+html
30 Website Hoogheemraadschap van Rijnland, http://www.rijnland.net/baggeren_in_rijnland/bagger-
en_algemeen/vervuiling_van/informatie_per_stof/koper
31 United Nations University (UNU), report ‘2008 Review of Directive 2002/96 on Waste Electrical
and Electronic Equipment’, August 2007.
http://ec.europa.eu/environment/waste/weee/pdf/final_rep_unu.pdf
32 United Nations University (UNU), report ‘2008 Review of Directive 2002/96 on Waste Electrical
and Electronic Equipment’, August 2007, page 117.
http://ec.europa.eu/environment/waste/weee/pdf/final_rep_unu.pdf
33 European Copper Institute, Press pack, January 2009.
http://www.eurocopper.org/files/corporatepressinfokit_uk080109(1).pdf
34 Figures from Statistics Netherlands, http://statline.cbs.nl/StatWeb/dome/?LA=NL, as viewed on
10 April 2009.
35 Personal communication Martin de Koning, public affairs manager Draka Holding, 18 March 2009.
36 U.S. Geological Survey, ‘Mineral Commodity Summaries, tin’, January 2009, http://minerals.usgs.
gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/tin/mcs-2009-tin.pdf
37 ITRI, ‘Timah profit and production fell in 2008’, 28 January 2009. Refined tin means pure tin
after smelting. Tin-in-concentrate is a term used for tin before it is smelted. http://www.itri.co.uk/

60
 pooled/articles/BF_NEWSART/view.asp?Q=BF_NEWSART_309480
38 ITRI, ‘PT Timah invests in offshore production’, 5 Nov 2007, http://www.itri.co.uk/pooled/articles/
BF_NEWSART/view.asp?Q=BF_NEWSART_295869
39 Reuters, ‘Indonesian police stop Timah’s suction dredge vessels’, 18 March 2009, http://in.reuters.
com/article/rbssIndustryMaterialsUtilitiesNews/idINJAK47393220090318
40 The Jakarta Post, article ‘Timah to spend $21.3 million to buy new vessels’, 6 January 2009,
http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2009/01/06/timah-spend-213-million-buy-new-vessels.html
41 Reuters, ‘Indonesia’s Timah slows investment on project delays’, 28 January 2009,
http://uk.reuters.com/article/rbssIndustryMaterialsUtilitiesNews/dUKJAK36890220090128?sp=true
42 Ocean Engineering, article ‘A bucket wheel dredge system for offshore tin mining beyond the 50
m water depth’, 2002.
43 Website IHC Holland, ‘Cutter Suction Dredger PULAU TUJUH latest in a long tin line’, 2005,
http://www.ihcholland.com/fileadmin/documents/news/news_archieve3/pd163_18_19.pdf
44 ITRI, ‘PT Timah invests in offshore production’, 5 Nov 2007, http://www.itri.co.uk/pooled/articles/
BF_NEWSART/view.asp?Q=BF_NEWSART_295869
45 BusinessWeek, Special Advertisement section ‘Indonesia, sustaining the commodity dividend’, 2008.
46 Website PT Timah, ‘Integrated Tin Mining’,
http://timah.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=28&Itemid=38
47 PT Timah (Persero) TBK and its subsidiaries, consolidated financial statements for the years ended
december 31, 2008 and 2007 and independent auditor’s report, 20 March 2009.
48 Reuters, Ed Davies and Fitri Wulandari, ‘Indonesian tin industry hits a slump’, 21 October 2008.
49 ITRI, ‘Koba Tin boosts mine production’, 6 January 2009, http://www.itri.co.uk/pooled/articles/BF_
NEWSART/view.asp?Q=BF_NEWSART_308912
50 Reuters, ‘Indonesia’s Koba Tin faces 2nd illegal mining probe’, 29 February 2008, http://www.reu-
ters.com/article/environmentNews/idUSJAK16405120080229
51 PT Timah (Persero) TBK and its subsidiaries, consolidated financial statements for the years ended
december 31, 2008 and 2007 and independent auditor’s report, 20 March 2009.
52 ITRI, article ‘New Bangka smelter starts commissioning’, September 2007, http://www.itri.co.uk/
pooled/articles/BF_NEWSART/view.asp?Q=BF_NEWSART_294306
53 Reuters, ‘Indonesian tropical island torn apart by tin mining’, 8 April 2007, http://www.reuters.
com/article/environmentNews/idUSSP9517220070410?sp=true
54 Clive Aspinall, M.Sc., P.Eng. PT., report ‘Small-Scale Mining in Indonesia’, on behalf of the Institute
for Environment and Development (IIED) and the World Business Council for Sustainable Develop-
ment (WBCSD), September 2001.
55 Antara news, ‘Coral reef in Bangka Belitung damaged’, 9 April 2007, http://www.antara.co.id/en/
arc/2007/9/4/coral-reef-in-bangka-belitung-damaged/
56 Clive Aspinall, M.Sc., P.Eng. PT., report ‘Small-Scale Mining in Indonesia’, on behalf of the Institute
for Environment and Development (IIED) and the World Business Council for Sustainable Develop-
ment (WBCSD), September 2001.
57 Wikipedia, ‘coral reefs’, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coral_reef
58 Agribusinessweek, ‘Philippines’ Coral Reefs on the Verge of Extinction’, 12 July 2008,
http://www.agribusinessweek.com/philippines-coral-reefs-on-the-verge-of-extinction/
59 University of Bangka Belitung, Indra Ambalika Syari, head of fisheries research, article ‘Stop the
environmental damage to land and Sea in Bangka-Belitung now’, 23 January 2009, http://www.
ubb.ac.id/menulengkap.php?judul=Hentikan%20Kerusakan%20Lingkungan,%20di%20Darat%20
dan%20Laut%20Bangka%20Belitung%20Sekarang%20Juga&&nomorurut_artikel=267
60 Walhi, press release ‘Menghisap Timah Memanen Bencana’, 6 March 2009,
http://www.walhi.or.id/websites/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=66:menghisap-
timah-memanen-bencana&catid=53:pembuangan-limbah-tambang-ke-laut&Itemid=14
61 Resource Consulting Services, Nicholas Garrett and Harrison Mitchell, report ‘ Trading Conflict
for Development, Utilising the Trade in Minerals from Eastern DR Congo for Development’, April

61
 2009.
62 International Rescue Committee (IRC) , factsheet ‘Congo Crisis’, 2007,
http://www.theirc.org/resources/2007/congo_onesheet.pdf
63 United Nations, ‘United Nations Organization Mission in the Democratic Republic of the Congo
(MONUC), mandate’, http://www.un.org/Depts/dpko/missions/monuc/mandate.html
64 Global Witness, ‘Recommendations on due diligence for buyers and companies trading in minerals
from eastern Democratic Republic of Congo and for their home governments’, November 2008.
65 Nicholas Garrett, report ‘Walikale – Artisanal Cassiterite Mining and Trade in North Kivu – Impli-
cations for Poverty Reduction and Security’, 1 June 2008, made for Communities and Small-Scale
Mining, http://www.artisanalmining.org/index.cfm
66 Resource Consulting Services, Nicholas Garrett and Harrison Mitchell, report ‘Trading Conflict
for Development, Utilising the Trade in Minerals from Eastern DR Congo for Development’, April
2009. Email from Carina Tertsakian (Global Witness), 29 April 2009.
67 Nicholas Garrett, report ‘Walikale – Artisanal Cassiterite Mining and Trade in North Kivu – Impli-
cations for Poverty Reduction and Security’, 1 June 2008, made for Communities and Small-Scale
Mining, http://www.artisanalmining.org/index.cfm
68 United Nations, letter from the Chairman of the Security Council Committee established pursu-
ant to resolution 1533 (2004) concerning the Democratic Republic of the Congo addressed to the
President of the Security Council, 10 December 2008, http://www.undemocracy.com/S-2008-773.
pdf
69 United Nations, letter from the Chairman of the Security Council Committee established pursu-
ant to resolution 1533 (2004) concerning the Democratic Republic of the Congo addressed to the
President of the Security Council, 10 December 2008, http://www.undemocracy.com/S-2008-773.
pdf
70 Reuters, ‘DR Congo’s curious peace deal with ex-Nkunda rebels’, 26 March 2009,
http://www.nation.co.ke/News/africa/-/1066/553236/-/item/1/-/7ehe1tz/-/index.html
71 Nicholas Garrett, report ‘Walikale – Artisanal Cassiterite Mining and Trade in North Kivu – Impli-
cations for Poverty Reduction and Security’, 1 June 2008, made for Communities and Small-Scale
Mining, http://www.artisanalmining.org/index.cfm
72 Nicholas Garrett, The Extractives Industries Transparency Initiatiative (EITI) & Artisanal and small
scale mining, EITI, Draft, October 2007.
73 United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP) and World Conservation Monitoring Centre
(WCMC), Factsheet ‘Kahuzi-Biéga national park, Democratic Republic of the Congo’,
http://www.unep-wcmc.org/sites/wh/pdf/Kahuzi-Biega.pdf
74 Robbins, M. & Williamson, L. 2008. Gorilla beringei. In: IUCN 2008. 2008 IUCN Red List of Threat-
ened Species, www.iucnredlist.org
75 U.S. Geological Survey, ‘2006 Minerals Yearbook, Bolivia’, October 2008,
http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/country/2006/myb3-2006-bl.pdf
76 ITRI, ‘Bolivian government supports tin production’, 27 January 2009,
http://www.itri.co.uk/pooled/articles/BF_NEWSART/view.asp?Q=BF_NEWSART_309421
77 U.S. Geological Survey, ‘2006 Minerals Yearbook, Bolivia’, October 2008,
http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/country/2006/myb3-2006-bl.pdf
78 ITRI, ‘Bolivian state tin companies could merge’, 6 April 2009,
http://www.itri.co.uk/pooled/articles/BF_NEWSART/view.asp?Q=BF_NEWSART_311385
79 IPS, article ‘Labour-Bolivia: Childhood in the Pits’, José Luis Alcázar, 4 October 2005,
http://ipsnews.net/news.asp?idnews=30525
80 Anti-Slavery International, ‘Compliance with ILO Convention No.182 on the Worst Forms of Child
Labour (ratified in 2003), The worst forms of child labour in Bolivia, July 2006, www.antislavery.org/
archive/briefingpapers/ilo2006bolivia_childlabour.pdf
81 International Labour Organization (ILO), International Programme on the Elimination of Child
Labour (IPEC), ‘Worst forms of child labour’,

62
 http://www.ilo.org/ipec/facts/WorstFormsofChildLabour/lang--en/index.htm
82 Center for International Studies and Cooperation (Canada) and Fundacion MEDMIN (Bolivia),
report, ‘Child labourers in the Bolivian mining sector: their perspective’, March 2006.
83 Official Journal of the European Union L 66/1, ‘Council regulation (EC) No 194/2008 of 25 Febru-
ary 2008, renewing and strengthening the restrictive measures in respect of Burma/Myanmar and
repealing Regulation (EC) No 817/2006’, 10 March 2008,
http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:L:2008:066:0001:0087:EN:PDF
84 Friends of the Earth Netherlands, report ‘Sanctioned but not stopped. Research on timber trade
between the European Union and Burma’, February 2009,
http://www.milieudefensie.nl/english/publications/Birmarapportdefinitief.pdf
85 ITRI, ‘China production slumps in December’, 22 January 2009,
http://www.itri.co.uk/pooled/articles/BF_NEWSART/view.asp?Q=BF_NEWSART_309315
86 Asian Metal Ltd., ‘2008 Annual Report on Tin Market’, http://www.asianmetal.com/report/
en/2008xi_en.pdf
87 Of the refined tin exports in 2008 by China 41 per cent went to the Netherlands and 36 per cent
to Japan, http://www.asianmetal.com/report/en/2008xi_en.pdf
Of the refined tin exports in 2007 by China 27 per cent went to the Netherlands and 27 per cent
to Japan, http://www.asianmetal.com/report/en/2007Sn_en.pdf
88 U.S. Geological Survey, ‘2007 Minerals Yearbook, Singapore’, August 2008,
http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/country/2007/myb3-2007-sn.pdf
89 The new light of Myanmar, article ‘Secretary-1 attends opening of OG ward at Lashio General
Hospital, Lonni Tin Smelting Plant in Longhtan’, 28 January 2003, http://www.myanmar.gov.mm/
NLM-2003/enlm/jan28_head1.html
Online Burma/Myanmar Library, http://www.burmalibrary.org/docs2/copperMetal.pdf
90 Online Burma/Myanmar Library, http://www.burmalibrary.org/docs6/NLM2009-01-17.pdf
91 U.S. Geological Survey, ‘2006 Minerals Yearbook, Burma’, April 2009,
http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/country/2006/myb3-2006-bm.pdf
92 Reuters, ‘Singapore’s Tin opens smelter in Indonesia’, 14 february 2008,
http://in.reuters.com/article/asiaCompanyAndMarkets/idINJAK24365320080214?sp=true\
93 Reuters, ‘interview-Thai Tongkah sees higher ‘09 profit, hunts for mines’, 14 April 2009,
http://news.alibaba.com/article/detail/markets/100066660-1-interview-thai-tongkah-sees-high-
er-%252709.html
94 U.S. Geological Survey, ‘Mineral Commodity Summaries, Bauxite and Alumina’, January 2009,
http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/bauxite/mcs-2009-bauxi.pdf
95 U.S. Geological Survey, ‘Minerals Information’,
http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/bauxite/
96 Jamaica Bauxite Institute, ‘Jamaica’s bauxite & alumina industry’, 2008,
http://www.bunting.org.jm/pdfs/JBI_An%20Overview_of_Jamaica%27s_Bauxite_Industry.pdf
97 Dr. Carlton E. Davis, Cabinet Secretary of the Government of Jamaica, Speech ‘The Global Eco-
nomic and Financial Crisis and the Jamaican Bauxite and Alumina Industry’ at the ILO Tripartite
Caribbean Conference on the Theme: Promoting Human Prosperity beyond the Global Financial
Crisis - Seeking Sustainable Solutions Through Social Dialogue, Kingston, Jamaica, April 1 – 2,
2009,
http://www.ilocarib.org.tt/portal/images/stories/contenido/pdf/ILOinCaribbean/Meetings/GFC09/
Davis2-GFC.pdf
98 Website Alcoa, ‘Alcoa’s roots in Jamaica’, http://www.alcoa.com/jamaica/en/home.asp
99 Website RUSAL, ‘Windalco’, http://www.rusal.ru/en/windalco.aspx
Website Windalco, http://www.windalco.com/About%20Us/history.htm
100 Website Hydro, ‘Temporary production shutdown at Alpart’, 18 March 2009.
http://www.hydro.com/en/Press-room/News/Archive/2009/03/Temporary-production-shutdown-at-
Alpart/
101 Website Noranda Aluminum Holding Corporation, http://www.norandaaluminum.com/StAn-

63
 nBauxite/
102 Government of Jamaica, Ministry of Mining and Telecommunications, ‘The National Minerals Poli-
cy: Sustainable Development of the Minerals Industry’ , DRAFT January 2009.
103 House of Representatives Jamaica, Economy and Production Committee, findings and recom-
mendations of examining of the Bauxite/Alumina Industry in Jamaica during 7 meetings in the
period December 2007 – December 2008, http://www.bunting.org.jm/pdfs/ECON%20&%20
PRODN%20REPORT%202008%20BauxiteAlumina.pdf
104 Inter Press Service, ‘Environment-Jamaica: Bauxite Mining Blamed for Deforestation’, 6 April
2001, http://forests.org/archive/samerica/bauxmini.htm
105 Tommy Johansson, ‘Jamaican Deforestation and Bauxite mining, applying the Coase theorem’,
Master’s Thesis, Lulea University of Technology, 2003.
106 Marbek Resource Consultants in association with Claude Davis & Associates, ‘Country Environ-
mental Assessment for Jamaica’, submitted to the Inter-American Development Bank, DRAFT,
January 2007, www.iadb.org/IDBDocs.cfm?docnum=871957
107 Website Petroleum Corporation of Jamaica, http://www.pcj.com/dnn/Statisticsbyactivity/
tabid/143/Default.aspx
108 Jamaica Observer, Karyl Walker, ‘Dust, stench and claim of impotence: Pollution killing us, say
communities near bauxite plants - Firms insist waste not toxic’, 11 February 2007, http://www.cor-
pwatch.org/article.php?id=14348
109 Conrad Douglas & Associates Ltd., ‘Environmental Impact Assesment for Proposed Construction
of New Dry Residue Disposal Area by Jamalco’, 20 April 2007, on website of National Environment
and Planning Agency (NEPA) of Jamaican Government,
http://www.nepa.gov.jm/eias/Clarendon/Jamalco-DRDA6/EIA%20for%20Proposed%20Construc-
tion%20of%20New%20Dry%20Residue%20Disposal%20Area%20%28DRDA%206%29%20by%20
Jamalco%20-%20April%202007.pdf
110 Environmental Engineering Science, Sameer Khaitan, David A. Dzombak and Gregory V. Lowry.
‘Chemistry of the Acid Neutralization Capacity of Bauxite Residue’ Volume 26, Number 00, 2009.
Windalco, presentation ‘Introduction to Windalco’, June 2008, http://www.bunting.org.jm/pdfs/
WINDALCO%20Presentation%20to%20MCOC%20%28Membership%20Mtg%20-%205%20
June%202008%29.pdf
111 US Army Corps of Engineers, ‘Water Resources Assessment of Jamaica’, February 2001,
http://www.sam.usace.army.mil/en/wra/Jamaica/Jamaica%20WRA%20-%20English.pdf
112 RPS Group plc and Alcan inc., ‘Mount Rosser Rehabilitation Project’, November 2006.
113 Jamaican government, Jamaica Information Service, press release ‘Red Mud Pond at
Mount Rosser to be Rehabilitated’, 6 June 2007, http://www.jis.gov.jm/development/
html/20070606t120000-0500_12173_jis_red_mud_pond_at_mount_rosser_to_be_rehabilitated.asp
114 House of Representatives Jamaica, Economy and Production Committee, findings and recom-
mendations of examining of the Bauxite/Alumina Industry in Jamaica during 7 meetings in the
period December 2007 – December 2008, http://www.bunting.org.jm/pdfs/ECON%20&%20
PRODN%20REPORT%202008%20BauxiteAlumina.pdf
115 Conrad Douglas & Associates Ltd., Environmental impact assessment for 2.8 million metric tonne
per year efficiency upgrade at Jamalco, 2004, on website of National Environment and Planning
Agency (NEPA) of Jamaican Government, http://www.nrca.org/eias/Clarendon/Jamalco/cover.pdf
116 Cockpit Country Stakeholders Group in association with Jamaica Environmental Advocacy Net-
work (JEAN) , fact sheet ‘ save Cockpit Country’, 2007, www.jamentrust.org
A lot of information on Cockpit Country, including a petition to save the area from bauxite mining
can also be found at www.cockpitcountry.org
117 U.S. Department of State, Bureau of African Affairs, February 2009,
http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/2824.htm
118 BBC news, ‘Guinea announces mining reforms’, 15 January 2009,
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/7831850.stm
119 Website Halco Mining, http://halcomining.com/en/home.asp

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120 Website Alcoa, ‘Alcoa in Guinea’, http://www.alcoa.com/guinea/en/home.asp
121 UNEP-inlay on Google Earth and UNEP, ‘Africa: Atlas of Our Changing Environment’, 2008, pag-
es 192 and 193 http://www.unep.org/dewa/Africa/AfricaAtlas/PDF/en/Africa_Atlas_Full_en.pdf
122 Website Mining Technology, ‘CBG Bauxite (Aluminium Ore) Mining Operations, Guinea’,
http://www.mining-technology.com/projects/cbg/
123 UNEP-inlay on Google Earth and UNEP, ‘Africa: Atlas of Our Changing Environment’, 2008, pages
192 and 193, http://www.unep.org/dewa/Africa/AfricaAtlas/PDF/en/Africa_Atlas_Full_en.pdf
124 Website Global Alumina Corporation, http://www.globalalumina.com/oper_overview.php
The Social and Environmental Assessment (SEA) for the project be found on:
http://www.guineaalumina.com/index.php?id=40
125 Website Conservation International, Centre for Environmental Leadership in Business,
http://www.celb.org/xp/CELB/programs/energy-mining/alcoa.xml
126 Website Alcoa, ‘Alcoa in Guinea’, http://www.alcoa.com/guinea/en/refinery_project/background.asp
127 U.S. Geological Survey, ‘2007 Minerals Yearbook, Guinea’, December 2008,
http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/country/2007/myb3-2007-gv.pdf
128 Website RUSAL, ‘Compagnie des Bauxites de Kindia (CBK)’,
http://www.rusal.ru/en/kindia_factory.aspx
129 Website RUSAL, ‘Friguia alumina refinery (Guinea)’, http://www.rusal.ru/en/fria_factory.aspx
130 Bloomberg, ‘Guinea Weighs Action Against Rusal Over Alumina Plant’, 13 April 2009,
http://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=20601116&sid=aEnL3CUu63gY&refer=africa
131 Website RUSAL, ‘UC RUSAL and China in the global aluminium industry: potential for co-opera-
tion’, September 2008, http://www.rusal.ru/UploadedFiles/22.09.2008_CRU_Eng.pdf
132 Website Navasota Resources Ltd., http://www.navasota.com/s/Overview.asp
133 Reuters, ‘Guinea wants more benefit from bauxite, PM says’ , 13 February 2008,
http://www.reuters.com/article/companyNews/idUSL1317093520080213
134 Mining Top News, ‘Japan, Brazil cos win Guinea bauxite permits’, 9 August 2006,
http://www.miningtopnews.com/japan-brazil-cos-win-guinea-bauxite-permits.html
135 Navasota Resources Ltd., brochure ‘Developing a World Class Bauxite Deposit in Guinea,West
Africa’, Fall 2008, http://www.navasota.com/i/pdf/NAV-4pgr-Feb4-09.pdf
136 SOFOFA, Federation of Chilean Industry, ‘Chilean Economy in figures 1987 – 2007’,
http://www.sofofa.cl/english/figures_2008.pdf
137 COCHILCO, Chilean Copper Commission , ‘Investment in the Chilean Copper and Gold Mining
Sector Estimations for 2008-2012, Revised to August 2008’,
http://www.cochilco.cl/Archivos/destacados/20081211230704_918-investment-chilean-copper-
gold-mining.pdf
138 Ana Zúñiga, Chilean Copper Commission, Director of the Research and Policy Planning Division,
‘Water and Energy Management in the North of Chile’, April 2008,
http://www.ctwmi.com/ppt/s2/Ana_Zuniga_Cochilco.pdf
139 Reuters, ‘Chile calls on miners to further cut water use’, 6 April 2009,
http://www.reuters.com/article/rbssEnergyNews/idUSN0648821120090406
140 Ana Zúñiga, Chilean Copper Commission, Director of the Research and Policy Planning Division,
‘Water and Energy Management in the North of Chile’, April 2008,
http://www.ctwmi.com/ppt/s2/Ana_Zuniga_Cochilco.pdf
141 Reuters, ‘As South American rivers dry up, miners tap ocean’, 21 February 2008,
http://www.reuters.com/article/latestCrisis/idUSN21383591
142 New York Times, ‘Chilean Town Withers in Free Market for Water’, by Alexei Barrionuevo, 14
March 2009, http://www.nytimes.com/2009/03/15/world/americas/15chile.html?_r=1
143 Ana Zúñiga, Director of the Research and Policy Planning Division Chilean Copper Commission,
‘Water and Energy Management in the North of Chile’, april 2008,
http://www.ctwmi.com/ppt/s2/Ana_Zuniga_Cochilco.pdf
144 Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency, Statistics Netherlands, and University of Wage-

65
 ningen, ‘Compendium on environment and nature, Household energy consumption per capita,
1950-2007’. Energy use within households in the Netherlands (gas, electricity) was 34,0 gigajoule
per capita in 2007.
http://www.milieuennatuurcompendium.nl/indicatoren/nl0036-Huishoudelijk-energieverbruik-per-
inwoner.html?i=6-40
145 New York Times, editorial ‘Patagonia Without Dams’, 1 April 2008,
http://www.nytimes.com/2008/04/01/opinion/01tue3.html?ex=1364702400&en=f02daaa4c1685e3
0&ei=5088&partner=rssnyt&emc=rss
146 International Rivers, fact sheet, ‘Patagonia’s Wild Rivers at Risk’, February 2009,
http://internationalrivers.org/files/Patagonia_factsheet_FINAL0209.pdf
147 Website Patagonia Sin Represas (Patagonia Without Dams), http://www.patagoniasinrepresas.cl
148 Inter Press Service, Daniela Estrada, article ‘Patagonia dams on hold’, 20 November 2008, http://
www.probeinternational.org/index.php?q=latest-news/news-and-opinion/patagonia-dams-hold
149 Website Natural Resources Defense Council, http://www.savebiogems.org/patagonia/
150 Jaime A. Solari, Ph. D. Metallurgy, Imperial College London, ‘Environmental Management of Chil-
ean Copper Smelters: Economic and Technical Options’, ICSG meeting, Lisbon, April 2008,
www.icsg.org/index.php?option=com_docman&task=doc_download&gid=65&Itemid=62
151 U.S. Geological Survey, ‘2007 minerals yearbook, Peru’, April 2009,
http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/country/2007/myb3-2007-pe.pdf
152 Reuters, ‘UPDATE 1-Peru’s key metals production rises in 2008’, 22 January 2009,
http://uk.reuters.com/article/rbssIndustryMaterialsUtilitiesNews/idUKN2254412820090122
153 Oxfam America, report ‘Mining conflicts in Peru: Condition critical’, March 2009,
http://www.oxfamamerica.org/newsandpublications/publications/briefing_papers/mining-conflicts-
in-peru-condition-critical/Mining-Conflicts-in-Peru-Condition-Critical.pdf
154 U.S. Geological Survey, ‘2007 minerals yearbook, Peru’, April 2009,
http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/country/2007/myb3-2007-pe.pdf
155 Peru Support Group, report ‘Mining and Development in Peru With Special Reference to The Rio
Blanco Project, Piura’, March 2007,
http://www.perusupportgroup.org.uk/pdfs/Mining%20and%20Development%20in%20Peru.pdf
156 London Mining Network, ‘News about Monterrico Metals’ Rio Blanco project, Peru’ from
the Vicaría del Medio Ambiente de Jaén VIMA, 8 April 2009, http://londonminingnetwork.
org/2009/04/news-about-monterrico-metals-rio-blanco-project-peru/
157 Peru Support Group, report ‘Mining and Development in Peru With Special Reference to The Rio
Blanco Project, Piura’, March 2007,
http://www.perusupportgroup.org.uk/pdfs/Mining%20and%20Development%20in%20Peru.pdf
158 Oxfam America, report ‘Mining conflicts in Peru: Condition critical’, March 2009,
http://www.oxfamamerica.org/newsandpublications/publications/briefing_papers/mining-conflicts-
in-peru-condition-critical/Mining-Conflicts-in-Peru-Condition-Critical.pdf
159 Blacksmith Institute, report ‘The World’s Worst Polluted Places, The Top Ten of The Dirty Thirty’,
September 2007, http://www.blacksmithinstitute.org/wwpp2007/finalReport2007.pdf
160 Website Renco group, http://www.rencogroup.net/companies/doerunperu.html
161 Website Doe Run Peru, http://www.doerun.com.pe
162 Jubilee Debt Campaign, ‘A new debt crisis? Assessing the impact of the financial crisis on devel-
oping countries’, written by Sarah Edwards, March 2009.
163 U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries, copper, January 2009,
http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/copper/mcs-2009-coppe.pdf
164 Konkola Copper Mines plc, http://www.kcm.co.zm/
165 U.S. Geological Survey, ‘2007 Minerals Yearbook, Zambia’, March 2009,
http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/country/2007/myb3-2007-za.pdf
166 Reuters, ‘Zambia’s Konkola shuts Nkana smelter’, 19 February 2009,
http://in.reuters.com/article/oilRpt/idINLJ31631520090219?sp=true

66
167 Website Konkola Copper mines, http://www.kcm.co.zm/expansion_projects.php
Reuters, ‘African copper belt, future of the industry?, 3 April 2009, ‘At Konkola Deep the copper
content is as high as 3,5 percent with low sulfur and low iron,’ Tim Smith, manager of the copper
division at SNC-Lavalin Group, a Canadian engineering company active in the region,
http://www.miningweekly.com/article/african-copper-belt-future-of-the-industry-2009-04-03
168 Website Equinox Minerals Ltd., http://www.equinoxminerals.com/
169 Website ZCCM Investments Holdings Plc (ZCCM-IH),
http://www.zccm-ih.com.zm/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=17&Itemid=7
170 Reuters, ‘Zambia dam among IFC’s first casualties of the financial crisis’, 16 December 2008,
http://www.bicusa.org/en/Article.10986.aspx
171 Open Society Institute of Southern Africa (Johannesburg), Third World Network Africa (Accra),
Tax Justice Network Africa (Nairobi), Action Aid International (Johannesburg), Christian Aid (Lon-
don), report ‘Breaking the Curse: How Transparent Taxation and Fair Taxes can Turn Africa’s Min-
eral Wealth into Development’, March 2009.
172 Government of Zambia, Ministry of finance and national planning, ‘copperbelt environment
project’, 12 August 2008.
173 Lusaka Times, ‘Mufulira water contamination victims in stable condition’, 4 January 2008,
http://www.lusakatimes.com/?p=1824
174 Personal communication Anne-Sophie Simpere, campaigner financial sector, Friends of the Earth
France, 9 april 2009.
175 Bench Marks Foundation in collaboration with the Peace, Principles and Participation Initiative
(PPP) and supported by the Netherlands Institute for Southern Africa (NIZA)‘ report ‘Corporate
social responsibility in the Zambian mining industry’, 2008.
176 Scotland’s aid agency SCIAF, Christian Aid and Simon Chase at ACT South-Africa, ‘Undermining
development?, Copper mining in Zambia, October 2007.
177 Occupational Medicine, short report ‘Injuries and fatalities in copper mining in Zambia’, by Pru-
dence Michelo, Magne Bratveit and Bente E. Moen, University of Bergen, Norway, 13 March 2009.
178 Financial Times, ‘China’s Africa embrace evokes imperialist memories’, John Reed, 27 September
2006.
179 Dow Jones Newswires, ‘Zambia’s Miners Pay High Price For Copper Boom’, by Jackie Range, 12
October 2005.
180 FREEPORT-McMoRan COPPER & GOLD INC., Annual Report 2008.
181 FREEPORT-McMoRan COPPER & GOLD INC., Annual Report 2008.
182 AFP, ‘Norway’s pension fund blacklists Rio Tinto over environment’, 9 September 2008,
http://afp.google.com/article/ALeqM5jip-1kPtccs5AlGL3uu-zDcsRa9Q
183 Office of the New York City comptroller William C. Thompson, Jr., ‘New York City Pension Funds
call for review of Freeport McMoran’s environmental policies in Indonesia’, 5 December 2006,
http://www.comptroller.nyc.gov/press/2006_releases/pr06-12-092.shtm
184 WALHI - Indonesian Forum for Environment, report ‘the environmental impacts of Freeport-Rio
Tinto’s copper and gold mining operation in Papua’, Jakarta, 2006.
185 Ministry of Finance Norway, press release ‘The Government Pension Fund divests its holdings
in mining company’ Oslo, September 9, 2008. http://www.minesandcommunities.org/article.
php?a=8809
186 Ministry of Finance Norway, press release ‘The Government Pension Fund divests its holdings in
mining company’ Oslo, September 9, 2008.
http://www.minesandcommunities.org/article.php?a=8809
187 AFP, ‘US mining giant still paying Indonesia military, 22 March 2009.
188 New York Times, ‘Below a Mountain of Wealth, a River of Waste ‘, By Jane Perlez and Raymond
Bonner, 27 December 2005, http://www.nytimes.com/2005/12/27/international/asia/27gold.html
189 Freeport-McMoRan Copper & Gold Inc. (FCX), annual report 2008, page 10 and 78,
http://www.fcx.com/ir/AR/2008/FCX_AR_2008.pdf

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 190 Website Freeport, July 2006.
191 Cookson Group plc, ‘2008 Results’, 9 March 2009. http://www.cooksongroup.co.uk/cookson/
uploads/results/presentation/1CooksonGroupplc2008PreliminaryResults_090309.pdf
192 Buetow, Mike, “Tin Men, Or Why ‘Pb-Free Isn’t Free’,” Circuits Assembly, vol. 15 no. 11, 27
October 2004, http://circuitsassembly.com/cms/magazine/95/218
193 PT Timah (Persero) TBK and its subsidiaries, consolidated financial statements for the years end-
ed december 31, 2008 and 2007 and independent auditor’s report, 20 March 2009.
194 Cookson Group plc, website and Annual Reports 2007 and 2008, http://www.cooksongroup.co.uk
195 Alpha-Fry Technologies B.V., financial report 2007 to the shareholders, 23 January 2009.
196 The average price of a ton of refined tin was around $15,000 in 2007. Website London Metal
Exchange, http://www.lme.co.uk/tin_graphs.asp
One Euro was worth 1,37 dollar on average in 2007,
http://www.x-rates.com/d/USD/EUR/hist2007.html
Assumed is that 85% of the 46 million Euro worth raw materials bought by Alpha-Fry, was refined
tin. This results in an estimation of 3,500 tonnes of tin imported by Alpha-Fry in 2007.
197 website Vereniging Nederlandse Metallurgische Industrie, Information on tin,
http://www.vnmi.nl/Smartsite.shtml?id=57767
198 Metaal Recycling Federatie, interview ‘Metaal Recycling Actueel, op werkbezoek bij Alpha Fry
Technologies’, December 2004.
199 Cookson Drijfhout, Amsterdam, annual report 2007, 18 June 2008.
200 Cookson Group plc, Annual Reports 2007 and 2008, http://www.cooksongroup.co.uk
201 Website Corus group: http://www.corusgroup.com
202 Website Corus Packaging Plus, ‘Corus in the packaging industry’,
http://www.coruspackaging.com/company.html
203 Corus, brochure ‘Packaging Plus news’, January 2009,
http://www.coruspackaging.com/assets/files/CPP200810030_CPPNews_01.pdf
204 Eindhoven University of Technology, Master’s Degree Thesis by Philippe Bronckers, ‘Performance
Evaluation of Manufacturing Systems at Corus Packaging Plus, 29 March 2008, http://alexandria.
tue.nl/extra2/afstversl/tm/Bronckers2008.pdf
205 Website Corus, www.corus.com
206 Corus UK Limited, ‘Purchase Terms for the Purchase of Goods and Services, July 2007,
http://www.corusgroup.com/file_source/StaticFiles/Purchase%20Terms%20for%20the%20Pur-
chase%20of%20Goods%20and%20Services%20July%202007.pdf
207 Tata Steel, code of conduct, http://www.tatasteel.com/images/Tata-COC-2008.pdf
208 Corus IJmuiden, ‘answers to questionnaire of Friends of the Earth Netherlands on tin mining’, 6
March 2009.
209 Corus MET B.V. , annual report 2007/2008 for the 15 months period ending 31 March 2008, 27
June 2008.
210 Personal communication by Eric van der Oest (manager public affairs Corus Netherlands) and
René Boulonois (manager sustainable development Corus Netherlands), 9 March 2009.
211 ITRI, ‘Statement of Progress: Towards a Responsible Cassiterite Supply Chain’ , February 2009,
http://www.itri.co.uk/SITE/UPLOAD/Document/ITRI%20statement%20of%20progress%20DRC%20
Feb%202009%20FINAL.pdf
212 Nicholas Garrett, report ‘Walikale – Artisanal Cassiterite Mining and Trade in North Kivu – Impli-
cations for Poverty Reduction and Security’, 1 June 2008, made for Communities and Small-Scale
Mining, http://www.artisanalmining.org/index.cfm
213 PRNewswire, ‘Alcan Inc. reaches agreement in principle for the sale of its Vlissingen smelter to
Klesch & Company Limited’, Paris, 31 May 2007,
http://www.prnewswire.co.uk/cgi/news/release?id=199328
214 Klesch & Company Ltd, press release ‘Klesch & Company Ltd finalizes acquisition of aluminium
smelters’, 5 February 2009,

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 http://www.klesch.com/downloads//Corus%20Press%20Release%20050209.pdf
215 Website Zalco, http://www.zalco.nl/index_en.php
216 Zalco, Financial report 31 December 2007.
217 Provinciale Zeeuwse Courant, Ben Jansen, ‘Zalco schrapt 141 banen’, 19 November 2008,
http://www.pzc.nl/regio/zeeland/4066436/Zalco-schrapt-141-banen.ece
218 Aldel, Sustainability report 2007 (in Dutch), http://www.aldel.nl/Inhoud/Frame-nl.htm
219 ANP (Netherlands national news agency), ‘Aluminium Delfzijl schrapt 185 banen’, 21 March 2009,
http://www.nu.nl/economie/1936396/aluminium-delfzijl-schrapt-185-banen.html
220 Newsletter Van de Groep & Olsthoorn, interview with Klaas Roskam, director human resources of
the Draka cable companies in the Netherlands, October 2007,
http://www.vandegroep.nl/images/Nieuwsbrief%20okt.%202007.pdf
221 Draka, Annual report 2007.
222 Draka, Annual report 2005.
223 Draka, Group Safety, Health & Environment Statement, January 2009, http://www.draka.com/dra-
ka/lang/en/nav/Sustainable_business/Corporate_Social_Responsibility/SHE_statement.pdf
224 Draka, letter Annette Schermer (manager safety, health and environment) to Friends of the Earth
Netherlands ‘Questionnaire copper mining’, 12 February 2009.
225 U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries, copper, January 2009,
http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/copper/mcs-2009-coppe.pdf
226 Philips, annual report 2008.
227 Philips, chapter from annual report 2008, http://www.annualreport2008.philips.com/downloads/
files/Philips2008_WeCareAbout_PeoplePlanetPartners.pdf
228 Philips, ‘Supplier Sustainability Declaration’, December 2006,
http://www.philips.com/about/company/businesses/suppliers/suppliersustainability.page
229 Maplecroft website, Maplecroft is a source of quantitative and comprehensive ‘extra-financial’
and global risks indices, maps and data. This includes human rights, political risk, government
risk, climate change, resource security, health and other areas of macroeconomic and societal risk,
http://www.maplecroft.com
230 Philips, chapter from annual report 2008, http://www.annualreport2008.philips.com/downloads/
files/Philips2008_WeCareAbout_PeoplePlanetPartners.pdf
231 Philips, mr. Jan Roodenburg, senior vice-president supply, development and sustainability,
‘answers to questionnaire of Friends of the Earth Netherlands on tin mining’, 7 April 2009.
232 Global eSustainability Initiative (GeSI) and Electronic Industry Citizenship Coalition (EICC), ‘GeSI
and EICC Statement on Mining of Metals’, February 2009.
233 Website Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative (EITI), http://eitransparency.org/eiti/summary
234 Heineken N.V., Sustainability report 2008, http://www.heinekeninternational.com/content/live/
files/downloads/CorporateResponsibility/8773_Heineken_Sust_090409_FINAL.pdf
235 Heineken Supplier Code, 21 December 2005, http://www.heinekeninternational.com/content/
live/files/downloads/CorporateResponsibility/Heineken%20Supplier%20Code.pdf
236 Heineken, Hans Kroes, safety, health and environment manager Heineken Nederland Supply
‘answers to questionnaire of Friends of the Earth Netherlands on tin and bauxite mining’, 9 March
2009.
237 BCME (Beverage Can Makers Europe), ‘European can market report 2006/2007’. BCME repre-
sents the three major beverage can producers in Europe: Ball Packaging Europe; Crown; Rexam
Beverage Can Europe + Asia, http://www.bcme.org/upl_dnl/1101/Pages%2048-62.pdf
238 Website Coca-Cola Enterprises Inc, http://www.cokecce.com/pages/homeContent.asp
239 Coca-Cola in Nederland, Maatschappelijk jaarverslag 2007.
240 Coca-Cola Enterprises Inc., Supplier Guiding Principles
241 Coca-Cola Enterprises Nederland, Robert Seegers, Public affairs and communication manager
Nederland, ‘answers to questionnaire of Friends of the Earth Netherlands on tin and bauxite min-

69
 ing’, 16 March 2009.
242 Greenpeace Netherlands, report ‘De wereld achter kolenstroom. De dubieuze herkomst van
steenkool voor Nederlandse kolencentrales’, 2008, (The world behind coal power, the question-
able origin of coal used in Dutch electric power plants).
http://www.greenpeace.nl/news/steenkool-laat-wereldwijd-spoo
243 Dutch minister of Economic Affairs and Dutch minister of Environment and Spatial Planning,
‘answers to the questions raised by the Dutch parliamentarian Ms Wiegman-Van Meppelen Schep-
pink (ChristenUnie)’, in Dutch language, 18 April 2008, http://static.ikregeer.nl/pdf/KVR31800.pdf
244 The Social and Economic Council of the Netherlands (SER), ‘Statement on International Corpo-
rate Social Responsibility’, December 2008, http://www.ser.nl/en/Publications/Publications/2008/~/
media/Files/Internet/Talen/Engels/2008/b27428/b27428_en_statement.ashx
245 Dutch minister of Foreign Trade, Letter to the Dutch parliament, 29 January 2009, 26485:64
Report PricewaterhouseCoopers on behalf of the Ministry of Economic Affairs, ‘Transparency
Benchmark 2008, CSR-reporting’, January 2009.
246 Ministry of Environment and Spatial Planning, ‘sustainable procurement, operationalization Social
Criteria (draft)’, 9 March 2009,
http://www.senternovem.nl/duurzaaminkopen/Criteria/sociale_criteria/index.asp
247 English part of website Dutch Sustainable Trade Initiative (IDH),
http://www.duurzamehandel.com/page/Information_in_English
248 Lester R. Brown, ‘Plan B 2.0: Rescuing a Planet Under Stress and a Civilization in Trouble’, Earth
Policy Institute, 2006, http://earth-policy.org/Books/PB2/PB2ch6_ss4.htm
249 U.S. Geological Survey, ‘tin statistics’, 30 October 2008,
http://minerals.usgs.gov/ds/2005/140/tin.pdf
250 U.S. Geological Survey, ‘Mineral Commodity Summaries, tin’, January 2009,
http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/tin/mcs-2009-tin.pdf
251 U.S. Geological Survey, ‘Mineral Commodity Summaries, tin’, February 1997. In 1998, this reserve
base wasn’t included in the data anymore, while it could not have been produced or appeared in
the category ‘other countries’. http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/tin/660397.pdf
252 ITRI, brochure ‘Working with the Tin industry for a prosperous and sustainable future’, 2008,
http://www.itri.co.uk/SITE/UPLOAD/Document/ITRI_Brochure_12pp.pdf
253 ITRI website, ‘Long-term Availability of Tin’,
http://www.itri.co.uk/POOLED/ARTICLES/BF_PARTART/VIEW.ASP?Q=BF_PARTART_296468
254 U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries, copper, January 2009.
http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/copper/mcs-2009-coppe.pdf
255 U.S. Geological Survey, ‘Mineral Commodity Summary, appendixes’,
http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/mcs/2008/mcsapp2008.pdf
256 U.S. Geological Survey, ‘Mineral Commodity Summary, appendixes’,
http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/mcs/2008/mcsapp2008.pdf
257 U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 2008-1253, ‘Quantitative mineral resource assessment
of copper, molybdenum, gold, and silver in undiscovered porphyry copper deposits in the Andes
Mountains of South America’, 2008. http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2008/1253/
258 The World Bank, ‘Global Economic Prospects, Commodities at the Crossroads’, 2009.
259 Dr. A.M. Diederen, Msc., TNO Defence, Security and Safety, ‘Metal minerals scarcity: A call for
managed austerity and the elements of hope’, 10 March 2009.
260 Dr. A.M. Diederen, Msc., TNO Defence, Security and Safety, ‘Metal minerals scarcity: A call for
managed austerity and the elements of hope’, 10 March 2009.
261 R. B. Gordon, M. Bertram, and T. E. Graedel, ‘Metal Stocks and Sustainability’, PNAS v.103, n.5,
31 january 2006, http://www.pnas.org/content/103/5/1209.full.pdf+html
262 European Copper Institute, Press pack, January 2009.
http://www.eurocopper.org/files/corporatepressinfokit_uk080109(1).pdf
263 U.S. Geological Survey, ‘copper statistics’, November 2008,

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 http://minerals.usgs.gov/ds/2005/140/copper.pdf
and Website International Copper Study Group, ‘The world copper factbook 2007’, page 64.
http://www.icsg.org/images/stories/pdfs/2007worldcopperfactbook.pdf
264 It was estimated that in 1999 Western Europe (EU-15 included Switzerland and Norway) had
a copper reservoir in use of around 78 million tonnes of copper and alloys. In 1999, the copper
reservoir increased by around 2 million tonnes of copper and alloys. (source: Martin Ruhrberg,
ICSG, ‘Assessing the recycling efficiency of copper from end-of-life products in Western Europe’,
Resources, Conservation and Recycling 48 (2006) 141–165.
The copper stock in use in North America (USA, Canada and Mexico) for the year 1999 was cal-
culated on 70 million tonnes of copper, being in use providing services. Around 56 million tonnes
were estimated to have been placed in landfills. (source: R. B. Gordon, M. Bertram, and T. E.
Graedel, ‘Metal Stocks and Sustainability’, PNAS v.103, n.5, 31 january 2006,
http://www.pnas.org/content/103/5/1209.full.pdf+html
265 Resource Policy, article ‘Copper recycling and scrap availability’, Fernando Gómez, Juan Ignacio
Guzmán, John E. Tilton, August 2007.
266 Bureau of International Recycling, http://www.bir.org/aboutrecycling/index.asp
267 Martin Ruhrberg, International Copper Study Group (ICSG), ‘Assessing the recycling efficiency of
copper from end-of-life products in Western Europe’, Resources, Conservation and Recycling 48
(2006) 141–165. Western Europe included the EU 15 member countries, Norway and Switzerland.
268 The recycling rate of C&D scored low due to disposal before entering recycling treatment. The
recycling rate of ELV scored probably low due the reuse instead of recycling of some copper com-
ponents. WEEE scored low due to disposal before entering recycling treatment. MSW suffered
mainly disposal but also poor recycling performance.
269 Martin Ruhrberg, International Copper Study Group (ICSG), ‘Assessing the recycling efficiency of
copper from end-of-life products in Western Europe’, Resources, Conservation and Recycling 48
(2006) 141–165. Western Europe included the EU 15 member countries, Norway and Switzerland.
270 Lars Landner and Rudolf Reuther, book ‘Metals in Society and in the Environment: A Critical
Review of Current Knowledge on Fluxes, Speciation, Bioavailability and Risk for Adverse Effects of
Copper, Chromium, Nickel and Zinc, 2004, chapter 3. Metal Cycles in Defined Geographical Areas,
table 3.1. Principal uses of copper in the world, in 1990 (Joseph, 1999, Graedel et al., 2002).
271 Martin Ruhrberg, International Copper Study Group (ICSG), ‘Assessing the recycling efficiency of
copper from end-of-life products in Western Europe’, Resources, Conservation and Recycling 48
(2006) 141–165. Western Europe included the EU 15 member countries, Norway and Switzerland.
272 Luben Savov, Elena Volkova, Dieter Janke from Institute of Iron and Steel technology in Freiberg
(Germany), article ‘Copper and tin in steel scrap recycling’, in RMZ – Materials and Geoenviron-
ment, 2003.
273 Website information on a Clean Scrap Machine, http://www.resteel.nl/en/index.htm
274 The European Union Network for the Implementation and Enforcement of Environmental Law
(IMPEL Network), ‘Enforcement of EU Waste Shipment Regulation, learning by doing’, final report,
June 2008. And:
Greenpeace International, report ‘Toxic Tech: Not in Our Backyard, uncovering the Hidden Flows of
e-Waste’, February 2008.
275 United Nations University (UNU), report ‘2008 Review of Directive 2002/96 on Waste Electrical
and Electronic Equipment’, August 2007.
276 ITRI website, ‘ITRI reports new data on global tin use and recycling’, December 2008,
http://www.itri.co.uk/pooled/articles/BF_NEWSART/view.asp?Q=BF_NEWSART_308811
277 The Intelligent Manufacturing Systems (IMS) program is an industry-led, global, collaborative
research and development program. Its members are drawn from eminent representatives from
both industry and academia in each region. Government observers and the knowledgeable person-
alities in manufacturing, also participate. The IMS organisation is currently comprised of five regions
including the European Union, Japan, Korea, Switzerland, and the United States of America.
http://www.ims.org/sites/default/files/254.4.4.18%202006%20March%20IMS%20Newsletter.pdf
278 ITRI website, ‘ITRI reports new data on global tin use and recycling’, December 2008,

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 http://www.itri.co.uk/pooled/articles/BF_NEWSART/view.asp?Q=BF_NEWSART_308811
279 1) U.S. Geological Survey, ‘Tin recycling in the United States in 1998’, James F. Carlin jr., 2001,
http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2001/of01-433/of01-433.pdf
2) Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR). ATSDR is a federal public health agen-
cy of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. It states: ‘The major commercial applica-
tions of tin chemicals are as PVC heat stabilizers, biocides, catalysts, agrochemicals and glass coat-
ings,’ http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/toxprofiles/tp55-c5.pdf
280 U.S. Environmental protection Agency, website, ‘Statistics on the Management of Used and End-
of-Life Electronics’, http://www.epa.gov/epawaste/conserve/materials/ecycling/manage.htm
281 Greenpeace, report ‘toxic Tech: Switching On to Green Electronics’, February 2008,
http://www.greenpeace.org/raw/content/international/press/reports/Switching-on-Green-Electron-
ics.pdf
282 BCME (Beverage Can Makers Europe), ‘European can market report 2006/2007’. BCME repre-
sents the three major beverage can producers in Europe: Ball Packaging Europe; Crown; Rexam
Beverage Can Europe + Asia, http://www.bcme.org/upl_dnl/1101/Pages%2048-62.pdf
283 APEAL, the association of European producers of steel for packaging, represents 92 % of the
total steel production for packaging in Europe. Its members are ArcelorMittal Packaging, Corus
Packaging Plus, Rasselstein and US Steel Kosice.
http://www.apeal.org/file.asp?filetype=doc/04/003/002/2007_apeal_recycling_press_release_-_
uk.pdf
284 U.S. Geological Survey, ‘Tin recycling in the United States in 1998’, James F. Carlin jr., 2001,
http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2001/of01-433/of01-433.pdf

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