Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
OF
THE UNIVERSITY
OF CALIFORNIA
PRESENTED BY
KOFOID AND
PROF. CHARLES A.
MRS. PRUDENCE W. KOFOID
THE
LIFE
OF
GALILEO GALILEI,
WITH
OF
EXPERIMENTAL PHILOSOPHY.
MDCCCXXX.
LONDON.
GIFT
LIFE OF GALILEO
WITH ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE ADVANCEMENT
OF EXPERIMENTAL PHILOSOPHY.
question touching the scientific acquire- taking the more rational, and it should
ments of eastern nations at a remote seem, the more obvious, method of cor-
period, it is certain that some among recting the theory by the result of his
the early Greeks were in possession of observations, and considering the one
several truths, however acquired, con- merely as the general and abbreviated
nected with the economy of the universe, expression of the other. But natural
which were afterwards suffered to fall phenomena were not then valued on
into neglect and oblivion. But the phi- theirown account, and for the proofs
losophers of the old school appear in which they afford of a vast and benefi-
general to have confined themselves at cent design in the structure of the uni-
the best to observations very few traces
; verse, so much as for the fertile topics
remain of their having instituted experi- which the favourite mode of viewing the
ments, properly so called. This putting subject supplied to the spirit of scholas-
of nature to the tor.ture, as Bacon calls tic disputation : and it is a humiliating
it, has occasioned the principal part of reflection that mankind never reasoned
modern philosophical discoveries. The so ill as when they most professed to
experimentalist may so order his exami- cultivate the art of reasoning. How-
nation of nature as to vary at pleasure ever specious the objects, and alluring
the circumstances in which it is made, the announcements of this art, the then
often to discard accidents which com- prevailingmanner ot studying it curbed
plicate the general appearances, and and corrupted all that is free and noble
at once to bring any theory which he in the human mind. Innumerable falla-
may form to a decisive test. The pro- cies lurked every where among the
vince of the mere observer is necessarily most generally received opinions, and
limited the power of selection among
: crowds of dogmatic and self-sufficient
the phenomena to be presented is in pedants fully justified the lively defini-
"
great measure denied to him, arid he tion, that logic is the art of talking un-
may consider himself fortunate if they intelligibly on things of which we are
are such as to lead him readily to a ignorant."*
knowledge of the laws which they fol- The error which lay at the root of the
low. philosophy of the middle ages was this :
Perhaps to this imperfection of me- from the belief that general laws and
thod it may be attributed that natural universal principles might be discovered,
philosophy continued to be stationary, of which the natural phenomena were
effects, it was thought
or even to decline, during a long series that the proper
of ages, until little more than two cen- order of study was, first to detect the
turies ago. Within this comparatively general cause, and then to pursue it into
short period it has rapidly reached a its consequences it was considered ab-
;
degree of perfection so different from its surd to begin with the effect instead of
former degraded state, that we can the cause whereas the real choice lay
;
hardly institute any comparison between between proceeding from particular facts
the two. Before that epoch, a- few insu-
lated facts, such as might first happen *
Menage.
M8797'77
GALILEO.
to general facts, or from general facts the Florentine
ignorant of geometry :
to particular facts ; and it was under revived that science, excelled in it, and
this
misrepresentation of the real ques- was the first that applied it, together
sophistry lurked. As
tion that all the with experiment, to natural philosophy.
soon as it is well understood that the The former rejected with the most posi-
general cause is no other than a single tive disdain the system of Copernicus:
fact, common to a great number of phe- the latter fortified it with new proofs
nomena, it is necessarily perceived that derived both from reason and the
an accurate scrutiny of these latter must senses."*
precede any safe reasoning with respect If we compare them from another
to the former. But at the time of which point of view, not so much in respect of
we are speaking, those who adopted this their intrinsic merit, as of the influence
order of reasoning, and who began their which each exercised on the philosophy
inquiries by a minute and sedulous in- of his age, Galileo's superior talent or
vestigation of facts, were treated with better fortune, in arresting the attention
disdain, as men who degraded the of his contemporaries, seems indis-
lofty name of philosophy by bestowing putable. The fate of the two writers is
it upon mere mechanical operations. directly opposed the one to the other ;
Among the, earliest and noblest of these Bacon's works seem te be most studied
was Galileo. and appreciated when his readers have
It is common, especially in this coun- come to their perusal, imbued with
try, to name Bacon as the founder of knowledge and a philosophical spirit,
the present school of experimental phi- which, however, they have attained inde-
losophy we speak of the Baconian or
; pendently of his assistance. The proud
inductive method of reasoning as syno- appeal to posterity which he uttered in
nimous and convertible terms, and we " For name and I
his will, my memory,
are apt to overlook what Galileo had leave it to men's charitable
speeches,
already done before Bacon's writings and to foreign nations, and the next
appeared. Certainly the Italian did not ages," of itself indicates a consciousness
range over the circle of the sciences with of the fact that his contemporary coun-
the supreme and searching glance of trymen were but slightly affected by his
the English philosopher, but we find in philosophical precepts. But Galileo's
every part of his writings philosophical personal exertions changed the general
maxims which do not lose by com- character of philosophy in Italy at the :
parison with those of Bacon ; and time of his death, his immediate pupils
Galileo deserves the additional praise, had obtained possession of the most ce-
that he himself gave to the world a lebrated universities, and were busily en-
splendid practical illustration of the gaged in practising and enforcing the
value of the principles which he con- lessons which he had taught them ; nor
stantly recommended. In support of was it then
easy to find there a single
this view of the comparative deserts of student of natural philosophy who did
these two celebrated men, we are able not readily ascribe the formation of his
to adduce the authority of Hume, who principles to the direct or remote influ-
will be readily admitted as a competent ence of Galileo's example. Unlike Ba-
judge of philosophical merit, where his con's, his reputation, and the value of
prejudices cannot bias his decision. Dis- his writings, were higher among his
cussing the character of Bacon, he says, contemporaries than they have since be-
" If we consider the come. This judgment perhaps awards
variety of talents
displayed by this man, as a public the highest intellectual prize to him
speaker, a man of business, a wit, a whose disregarded services rise in esti-
courtier, a companion, an author, a mation with the advance of knowledge ;
philosopher, he is justly the object of but the praise due to superior usefulness
great admiration. If we consider him belongs to him who succeeded in train-
merely as an author and philosopher, ing round him a school of imitators,
the light in which we view him at pre- and thereby enabled his imitators to
sent, though very estimable, he was yet surpass himself.
inferior to his contemporary Galileo, The biography of men who have de-
perhaps even to Kepler. Bacon pointed voted themselves to philosophical pur-
out at a distance the road to true phi- suits seldom affords so various and stri-
losophy Galileo both pointed it out to
:
king a succession of incidents as that
others, and made himself considerable
advances in it. The Englishman was * Hume's England, James I.
GALILEO.
of a soldier or statesman. The life of and ancient Florentine family, which,
a man who shut up during the greater
is in the middle of the fourteenth century,
part of his time in his study or labora- adopted this surname instead of Bona-
tory supplies but scanty materials for juti, under which several of their an-
personal details and the lapse of time
;
cestors filled distinguished offices in the
rapidly removes from us the opportuni- Florentine state. Some misapprehen-
ties of preserving such peculiarities as sion has occasionally existed, in conse-
might have been worth recording. An quence of the identity of his proper
account of it will therefore consist chiefly name with that of his family his most ;
GALILEO GALILEI was born at Pisa, on the close of the sixteenth century, and it is
since she too is bent upon coming out dened with a large family, and was
to prove the miseries of this world." unable to provide expensive instructors
As Livia was at the date of Ihis for his son ;
but. Galileo's own ener-
letter in a convent, the last expression getic industry rapidly supplied the want
seems to denote that she had been of better opportunities and he acquired,
;
destined to take the veil. This pro- under considerable disadvantages, the
posed marriage never took place, but ordinary rudiments of a classical educa-
Livia was afterwards married to Taddeo tion, and a competent knowledge of the
Galletti her sister Virginia married
: other branches of literature which were
Benedetto Landucci. Galileo mentions then usually studied. His leisure hours
one of his sisters, (without naming her) were applied to music and drawing for ;
cated from Germany some observations a favourite recreation during the whole
on natural history.* He finally settled of his life. He was also passionately
in the service of the Elector of Bavaria ; fond of painting, and at one time he
in what situation is not known, but wished to make it his profession and :
upon his death the Elector granted a and judgment of pictures were
his skill
pension to his family, who then took up highly esteemed by the most eminent
their abode at Munich. On the taking contemporary artists, who did not scru-
of*that city in 1636, in the course of ple to own publicly their deference to
the bloody thirty years' war, which was young Galileo's criticism.
then raging between the Austrians and When he had reached his nineteenth
Swedes, his widow and four of his year, his father, becomingdailymore sen-
children were killed, and every thing sible of his superior genius, determined,
which they possessed was either burnt although at a great personal sacrifice, to
or carried away. Galileo sent for his give him the advantages of an university
two nephews, Alberto and a younger education. Accordingly, in 1581, he
brother, to Arcetri near Florence, where commenced his academical studies in
the university of his native town, Pisa,
* De his quae diu vivunt, his father at this time intending that
Patavii, 1612.
GALILEO.
he should adopt the profession of me- employed in ascertaining the rate of the
dicine. In the matriculation lists at Pisa, pulse, and its variation from day to
he is styled Galileo, the son of Vincenzo day. He
immediately carried the idea
Galilei, a Florentine, Scholar in Arts. into execution, and it was for this sole
It is dated 5th November, 1581. Vi- and limited purpose that the first pen-
viani, his pupil, friend, and panegy- dulum was constructed. Viviani tells
rist, declares that, almost from the us, that the value of the invention was
first day of his being enrolled on the rapidly appreciated by the physicians of
lists of the academy, he was noticed the day, and was in common use in
for the reluctance with which he lis- 1654, when he wrote.
tened to the dogmas of the Aristote- Santorio, who was professor of medi-
lian philosophy, then universally taught; cine at Padua, has given representa-
and he soon became obnoxious to tions of four different forms of these
the professors from the boldness with
.TV? 2. i
which he promulgated what they styled
=^z:z^f-
his philosophical paradoxes. His early
habits of free inquiry were irrecon-
cileable with the mental quietude of
7 -\ro o ^-rrrrrr^
openly to encourage him in this new mentioned to Ferdinand de' Medici, the
sessed of the reasons of the other side, part, owed his emancipation from popu-
I found them all to be very ready and lar prejudices to the writings of Gior-
perfect in them, so that I could not truly dano Bruno, an unfortunate man, whose
say that they took this opinion out of unsparing boldness in exposing fallacies
ignorance, vanity, or to show the acute- and absurdities was rewarded by a judi-
ness of their wits. On the contrary, of cial murder, and by the character of
as many of the Peripatetics and Ptole- heretic and infidel, with which his exe-
means as I have asked, (and out of cu- cutioners endeavoured to stigmatize him
riosity I have talked with many,) what for the purpose of covering over their
pains they had taken in the book of own atrocious crime. Bruno was burnt
Copernicus, I found very few that had at Home in 1600, but not, as Montucla
so much as superficially perused it, but supposes, on account, of his '* Spaccio
of those who I thought had under- della Bestia trionfante." The title of
stood the .same, not one and, moreover, this book has led him to suppose that it
:
I have inquired amongst the followers of was directed against the church of
the Peripatetic doctrine, if ever any of Rome, to which it does not in the slight-
them had held the contrary opinion, and est degree relate. Bruno attacked the
likewise found none that had. Where- fashionable philosophy alternately with
upon, considering that there was no reason and ridicule, and numerous pas-
man who followed the opinion of Coper- sages in his writings, tedious and obscure
nicus that had not been first on the as they generally are, show that he had
contrary side, and that was not very completely outstripped the age in which
well acquainted with the reasons of he lived. Among his astronomical opi-
Aristotle and Ptolemy, and, on the con- nions, he believed that the universe con-
trary, that there was not one of the follow- sisted of innumerable systems of suns
ers of Ptolemy that had ever been of the with assemblages of planets revolving
judgment of Copernicus, and had left round each of them, like our own earth,
that to embrace this of Aristotle ; con- the smallness of which, alone, prevented
sidering, I say, these things, I began to their being observed by us. He re-
think that one who leaveth an opinion marked further, " that it is by no means
imbued with his milk and followed by improbable that there are yet other
very many, to take up another, owned planets revolving round our own sun,
by very few, and denied by all the which we have not yet noticed, either on
schools, and that really seems a great account of their minute size or too re-
paradox, must needs have been moved, mote distance from us." He declined
not to say forced, by more powerful asserting that all the apparently fixed
reasons. For this cause I am become stars are really so, considering this as
"
very curious to dive, as they say, into riot sufficiently proved, because at such
the bottom of this business." It seems enormous distances the motions become
improbable that Galileo should think difficult to estimate, and it is only by
GALILEO. 9
the heroes of the world, but I will not which few possessed instruments to
credit them without sufficient reason verify, or talents to appreciate
;
but it ;
and if you were not both blind and deaf, is difficult to find terms for stigmatizing
you would understand that I must dis- the obdurate folly of those who preferred
believe their absurd and contradictory the evidence of their books to that of
* 11
assertions. Bruno's works, though in their senses, in judging of phenomena so
general considered those of a visionary obvious as those, for instance, presented
and madman, were in very extensive by the fall of bodies to the ground.
circulation, probably not the less eagerly Aristotle had asserted, that if two dif-
sought after from being included among ferent weights of the same material were
the books prohibited by the Romish let fall from the same height, the heavier
church; and although it has been re- one would reach the ground sooner than
served for later observations to furnish the other, in the proportion of their
complete verification of his most daring weights. The experiment is certainly not
speculations, yet there was enough,
ab- a very difficult one, but nobody thought
stractedly taken, in the wild freedom of of that method of argument, and con-
his remarks, to attract a mind like Gali- sequently this assertion had been long
leo's ; and it is with more satisfaction received, upon his word, among the
that we refer the formation of his opinions axioms of the science of motion. Gali-
to a man of undoubted though eccentric leo ventured to appeal from the au-
genius, like Bruno, than to such as thority of Aristotle to that of his own
Maestlin, who, though a diligent and senses, and maintained that, with the
careful Observer, seems seldom to have exception of an inconsiderable differ-
taken any very enlarged views of the ence, which he attributed to the dis-
science on which he was engaged. proportionate resistance of the air, they
With a few exceptions similar to would fall in the same time. The Aris-
those above mentioned, the rest of Gali- totelians ridiculed and refused to listen
leo's contemporaries well deserved the to such an idea. Galileo repeated his
contemptuous epithet which he fixed on experiments in their presence from the
them of Paper Philosophers, for, to use famous leaning tower at Pisa and with :
his own words, in a letter to Kepler on the sound of the simultaneously falling
" this sort of men fancied
this subject, weights still ringing in their ears, they
philosophy was to be studied like the could persist in gravely maintaining that
JEneid or Odyssey, and that the true a weight of ten pounds would reach the
reading of nature was to be detected by ground in a tenth part of the time taken
the collation of texts." Galileo's own by one of a single pound, because they
method of philosophizing was widely were able to quote chapter and verse in
different ;
seldom omitting to bring with which Aristotle assures them that such
every new assertion the test of experi- is the fact. A temper of mind like this
ment, either directly in confirmation of could not fail towards
to produce ill will
it,or tending to show its probability and him who no scruples in exposing
felt
consistency. We
have already seen that their wilful folly and the watchful ma-
;
by a second more peremptory, which brought the instrument which you in-
banished them entirely from the Vene- vented for measuring heat into several
tian territory. Galileo would of course convenient and perfect forms, so that
find his fellow-professors much embit- the difference of temperature between
two rooms is seen as far as 100 de-
Riccuboni, Comment arii de Gymnasio Patavino,
Nelii. Nelli.
GALILEO. 11
grees."* This date is anterior to the ding the first notice which we find of
claims both of Santorio and Drebbel, a his having embraced the doctrines of
Dutch physician, who was the first to the Copernican astronomy. Most of
introduce it into Holland. our readers are aware of the principles
Galileo's thermometer, as we have just of the theory of the celestial motions
seen, consisted merely of a glass tube which Copernicus restored but the num- ;
ending in a bulb, the air in which, being ber of those who possess much know-
partly expelled by heat, was replaced ledge of the cumbrous and unwieldy
by water from a glass into which the system which it superseded is perhaps
open end of the tube was plunged, and more limited. The present is not a tit
the different degrees of temperature .opportunity to enter into many details
were indicated by the expansion of the respecting it ; these will find their proper
air which yet remained in the bulb, so place in the History of Astronomy: but
that the scale would be the reverse of a brief sketch of its leading principles
that of the thermometer now in use, for is necessary to render what follows in-
the water would stand at the highest level telligible.
in the coldest weather. It was, in truth, The earth was supposed to be im-
a barometer also, in consequence of the moveably fixed in the centre of the uni-
communication between the tube and verse, and immediately surrounding it
external ^lir, although Galileo did not the atmospheres of air and fire, beyond
intend it for this purpose, and when which the sun, moon, and planets, were
he attempted to determine the relative thought to be carried round the earth,
weight of the air, employed a contri- fixed each to a separate orb or heaven
vance still more imperfect than this rude of solid but transparent matter. The
barometer would have been. A
passage order of distance in which they were
among his posthumous fragments inti- supposed to be placed with regard to
mates that he subsequently used spirit the central earth was as follows The :
Cosmo, reigning duke of Florence. It 'question was one on which the astro-
was still further improved by Ferdi- nomical theorists were then chiefly
nand's younger brother, Leopold de' divided.
Medici, who invented the modern process We possess at this time a curious
of expelling all the air from the tube record of a former belief in this arrange-
by boiling the spirit of wine in it, and ment of the Sun and planets, in the
of hermetically sealing the end of the order in which the days of the week have
tube, whilst the contained liquid is in been named from them. According to
this expanded state, which deprived it the dreams of Astrology, each planet
of barometrical character, and first
its was siipposed to exert its influence in
made it an accurate thermometer. The succession, reckoning from the most
final improvement was the employment distant down to the nearest, over each
of mercury instead of spirit of wine, hour of the tw enty-four. The planet
r
called,) and on the outside of all, the centre." might be doubtful, upon
It
this passage alone, whether the
primum mobile or first moveable, which Pytha-
sphere was supposed to revolve round gorean theory embraced more than the
the earth in twenty-four hours, and by diurnal motion of the earth, but a lit-
its friction, or rather, as most of the phir tle farther, we
find the following passage :
"
losophers of that day chose to term it, by Some, as we have said, make the earth
the sort of heavenly influence which it to be one of the stars others say that
:
and by considering the difficulty with manner they have imbued themselves
which the laws of their apparent mo- with this notion, since not only reason,
tions could be traced, if we were to but the very senses, inform us that all
attempt to refer these changes to a real the stars are carried round fastened to
motion of the trees instead of the tra- solid spheres." What ideas Fracastoro
veller. The apparent complexity in entertained of the evidence of the " senses"
the heavens is still greater than in the it is not now easy to guess, but he
" rea-
case suggested ; because, in addition to goes on to give a specimen of the
the earth's motions, with which all the soning" which appeared to him so in-
"
stars appear to be impressed, each of controvertible. The planets are ob-
the planets has also a real motion of served to move one while forwards, then
its own, which of course greatly con- backwards, now to the right, now to
tributes to perplex and complicate the the left, quicker and slower by turns ;
general appearances. Accordingly the which variety is consistent with a com-
heavens rapidly became, under this sys- pound structure like that of an animal,
tem, which possesses in itself various springs
" With centric and eccentric scribbled and principles of action, but is totally
o'er,
Cycle and epicycle, orb in orb ;"* at variance with our notion of a
simple
crossing and penetrating each other and undecaying substance like the hea-
in every direction. Maestlin has given vens and heavenly bodies. For that
a concise enumeration of the prin- which is simple, is altogether single,
cipal orbs which belonged to this and singleness is of one only nature,
theory. After warning the readers that and one nature can be the cause of
"
they are not mere iictions which only one effect and therefore it is alto-
;
have nothing to correspond with them gether impossible that the stars of them-
out of the imagination, but that they selves should move with such
variety
exist really, and bodily in the hea- of motion. And besides, if the stars
vens,"i he describes seven principal move by themselves, they either move in
spheres belonging to each planet, which an empty space, or in a fluid medium
he classes as Eccentrics, Epicycles, and like the air. But there cannot be such
Concentrepicycles, and explains their a thing as empty space, and if there
use in accounting for the planet's re- were such a medium, the motion of the
volutions, motions of the apogee, and star would occasion condensation and
nodes, &c. &c. In what manner this rarefaction in different parts of it, which
multitude of solid and crystalline orbs is the property of corruptible bodies
were secured from injuring or interfe- and where they exist some violent mo-
ring with each other was not very closely tion is going on ; but the heavens are
inquired into. incorruptible and are not susceptible
The reader will cease 1o expect any of violent motion, and hence, and from
very intelligible explanation of this many other similar reasons, any one
and numberless other difficulties which who is not obstinate may satisfy him-
belong to this unwieldy machinery self that the stars cannot have
any
when he introduced to the reasoning
is independent motion."
by which it was upheld. Gerolamo Fra- Some persons may perhaps think that
* Paradise arguments of this force are unnecessarily
Lost, b. viii. v. 83.
f Itaque tarn circulosprimi motus quam orbes s-e-
dragged from the obscurity to which
cundoruin mobilinm revera in coelesti corpore essecon- they are now for the most part happily
cludimus, &c. Non ergo sunt meratigmenta, quibus
extra mentem nibil correspondeat.
consigned ; but it is essential, in order
M. Maestlini,
De Astronomies Hypothesibu-, disputatio, Heidelbergse, to set Galileo's character and merits in
their true light, to show how low at this
14 GALILEO.
time philosophy had fallen. For we know to be most false."* Instances of
shall form a very inadequate notion of extravagant suppositions and premature
his powers and deserts if we do not generalizations are to be found in al-
contemplate him in the midst of men most every page of his other great con-
who, though of undoubted talent and temporary, Kepler.
ingenuity, could so far bewjlder them- It is with pain that we observe De-
selves as to mistake such a string of lambre taking every opportunity, in his
unmeaning phrases for argument we : admirable History of Astronomy, to un-
must reflect on the difficulty every one dervalue and sneer at Galileo, seem-
experiences in delivering himself from ingly for the sake of elevating the
the erroneous impressions of infancy, character of Kepler, who appears his
which will remain stamped upon the principal favourite, but whose merit as a
imagination in spite of all the eiforts of philosopher cannot safely be brought
matured reason to erase them, and con- into competition with that of his illus-
sider every step of Galileo's course as a trious contemporary. Delambre is es-
triumph over difficulties of a like nature. pecially with Galileo, for
dissatisfied
We ought to be fully penetrated with this taking no notice, in his
*'
System of
feeling before we sit down to the pe- the World," of the celebrated laws
rusal of his works, every line of which of the planetary motions which
Kep-
will then increase our admiration of ler discovered, and which are now
the penetrating acuteness of his inven- inseparably connected with his name.
tion and unswerving accuracy of his The analysis of Newton and his suc-
judgment. In almost every page we cessors has now identified those
ap-
discover an allusion to some new ex- parently mysterious laws with the ge-
periment, or the germ of some new neral phenomena of motion, and has
theory; and amid all this wonderful thus entitled them to an attention of
fertility it rarely indeed that we find
is which,beforethat time, they were scarcely
the exuberance of his imagination worthy at any rate not more than is at
;
seducing him from the rigid path of present the empirical law which includes
philosophical induction. This is the the distances of all the planets from the
more remarkable as he was surrounded sun (roughly taken) in one algebraical
by friends and contemporaries of a formula. The observations of Kepler's
different temperament and much less day were scarcely accurate enough to
cautious disposition. A
disadvantageous prove that the relations which he disco-
contrast is occasionally furnished even vered between the distances of the planets
by the sagacious Bacon, who could so far from the sun and the periods of their
deviate from the soundprinciples of induc- revolutions around him were neces-
tive philosophy, as to write, for instance, sarily to be received as demonstrated
in the following strain, bordering upon truths; and Galileo surely acted most
the worst manner of the Aristotelians :
prudently and philosophically in hold-
**
Motion in a circle has no limit, and ing himself altogether aloof from Kep-
seems to emanate from the appetite of ler's fanciful devices and numeral con-
the body, which moves only for the sake cinnities, although, with all the extra-
of moving, and that it may follow itself vagance, they possessed much of the
and seek its own embraces, and put in genius of the Platonic reveries, and al-
action and enjoy its own .nature, and though it did happen that Galileo, by
exercise its peculiar operation on the :
systematically avoiding them, failed to
contrary, motion in a straight line see.i:s recognise some important truths. Ga-
lileo probably was
transitory, and to move towards a limit thinking of those
of cessation or rest, and that it may very laws, when he said of Kepler,
" He
reach some point, and then put off' its possesses a bold and free genius,
motion."* Bacon rejected ail the ma- perhaps too much so; but his mode
of philosophizing is widely different from
chinery of the primum mobile and the
solid spheres, the eccentrics and the mine." We
shall have turther occasion
in the sequel to recognise the
epicycles, and carried his dislike of justice of
these doctrines so far as to assert this remark.
that nothing short of their gross ab- In the treatise on the Sphere which
bears Galileo's name, and which, if he
surdity could have driven theorists to
the extravagant supposition of the mo- be indeed the author of it, was composed
"
tion ot the earth, which, said he, we during the early part of his residence at
* "Nobis constat
falsissiuiu'm esse." De AUK. Sci
Opusoula Philosophic*, Thema Coeli, eat.Ub, m, c.3, 1623.
GALILEO. 15
Padua, he also adopts the Ptolemaic although there were not wanting per-
system, placing the earth
immoveable sons envious of their good understand-
in the centre, and adducing against its ing, who exerted themselves to provoke
motion the usual arguments, which in coolness and quarrel between them.
his subsequent writings he ridicules Thus Brutlus writes to Kepler in 1602*:
" Galileo tells me
and refutes. Some doubts have been he has written to you,
expressed of its authenticity ; but,
how- and has got your book, which however
ever this may be, we have it under he denied to Magini, and I abused him
Galileo's own hand that he taught the for praising you with too many qualifi-
Ptolemaic system, in compliance with cations. I know it to be a fact that,
popular prejudices, for some time after both in his lectures, and elsewhere, he
he had privately become a convert is publishing your inventions as his
to the contrary opinions. In a letter, own but I have taken care, and shall
;
apparently the first which he wrote to continue to do so, that all this shall
Kepler, dated from Padua, 1597, he redound not to his credit but to yours."
says, acknowledging the receipt of
Kep- The only notice which Kepler took of
" I
ler'sMysterium Cosmographicum, these repeated insinuations, which ap-
have as yet read nothing beyond the pear to have been utterly groundless,
preface of your book, from which how- was, by renewed expressions of respect
ever catch a glimpse of your meaning,
I and admiration, to testify the value he
and joy on meeting with so
feel great set upon his friend and fellow-labourer
powerful an associate in the pursuit of in philosophy.
truth, and consequently such a friend to
truth itself, for it is deplorable that there CHAPTER V.
should be so few who care about truth,
Galileo re-elected Professor at Padua
and who do not persist in their perverse
mode of philosophizing but as this is
New star Compass of propor-
;
tion Capra Gilbert Proposals to
not the fit time for lamenting the me-
return to Pisa Lost writings Ca-
lancholy condition of our times, but valieri.
for congratulating you on your elegant
GALILEO'S reputation was now rapidly
discoveries in confirmation of the truth,
I shall only add a promise to peruse increasing: his lectures were attended
your book dispassionately, and with a by many persons of the highest rank ;
conviction that I shall find in it much among whom w eie the Archduke Fer- r
most disastrous to him. He contracted a reproaches his auditors with their ge-
sort of chronic complaint, which showed neral insensibility to the magnificent
itself in acute
pains in his limbs, chest, wonders of creation daily exposed to
and back, accompanied with frequent their view, in no respect less admirable
haemorrhages and loss of sleep and ap- than the new prodigy, to hear an ex-
petite ; and this painful disorder thence- planation of which they had hurried in
forward never left him entirely, but re- crowds to his lecture room. He showed,
curred intermittingly, with greater or from the absence of parallax, that the
less violence, as long as he lived. Others new star could not be, as the vulgar
of the party did not even escape so well, hypothesis represented, a mere meteor
but died shortly after committing this engendered in our atmosphere and
imprudence. nearer the earth than the moon, but
In 1604, the attention of astronomers must be situated among the most re-
was called to the contemplation of a mote heavenly bodies. This was in-
new star, which appeared suddenly with conceivable to the Aristotelians, whose
great splendour in the constellation notions of a perfect, simple, and un-
Serpentarius, or Ophiuchus, as it is now changeable sky were quite at variance
more commonly called. Maestlin, who with the introduction of any such new
was one of the earliest to notice it, relates body; and we may perhaps consider
his observations in the following words : these lectures as the first public decla-
"
How wonderful is this new star ! I ration of Galileo's hostility to the old
am certain that I did not see it before Ptolemaic and Aristotelian -astronomy.
the 29th of September, nor indeed, on In 1606 he was reappointed to the
account of several cloudy nights, had I a lectureship, and his salary a second
good view till the 6th of October. Now time increased, being raised to 520
that it is on the other side of the sun, florins. His public lectures were at
instead of surpassing Jupiter as it did, this period so much thronged that the
and almost rivalling Venus, it scarcely ordinary place of meeting was found
matches the Cor Leonis, and hardly insufficient to contain his auditors, and
surpasses Saturn. It continues how- he was on several occasions obliged to
ever to shine with the same bright and adjourn to the open air, even from the
strongly sparkling light, and changes its school of medicine, which was calculated
colours almost with every moment ; first to contain one thousand persons.
tawny, then yellow, presently purple and About time he was considerably
this
red, and, when it has risen above the annoyed by a young Milanese, of the
vapours, most frequently white." This name of Balthasar Capra, who pirated
was by no means an unprecedented an instrument which Galileo had in-
phenomenon and the curious reader
;
vented some years before, and had called
may find inRiccioli* a catalogue of the the geometrical and military compass.
principal new stars which have at dif- The original offender was a German
ferent times appeared. There is a tra- named Simon Mayer, whom we shall
dition of a similar occurrence as early meet with afterwards arrogating to
as the times of the Greek astronomer himself the merit of one of Galileo's as-
Hipparchus, who is said to have been tronomical discoveries ; but on this oc-
stimulated by it to the formation of his ca- casion, as soon as he found Galileo
talogue of the stars ; and only thirty-two disposed to resent the injury done to
years before, in 1572, the same remark- him, he hastily quitted Italy, leaving his
able phenomenon in the constellation friend Capra to bear alone the shame of
Cassiopeia was mainly instrumental in the exposure which followed. The in-
detaching the celebrated Tycho Brahe strument is of simple construction, con-
from the chemical studies, which till sisting merely of two straight rulers,
then divided his attention with astro- connected by a joint ; so that they can
nomy. Tycho's star disappeared at the be set to any required angle. This
simple and useful instrument, now called
*
Alnrtgestuui Nyvuui, vol. i. the Sector, is to be found in almost every
GALILEO. 17
f Constructio Circini Proportionum. Moguntiae, mediately after, he first turned his atten-
1605. tion towards the loadstone, on which our
c
18 GALILEO.
countryman Gilbert had already pub- greater and more frequent service to
lished his researches, conducted in the students than in the rest of my life I
true spirit of the inductive method. Very could personally afford them. Greater
littlethat is original is to be found in leisure than I have here I doubt if I
Galileo's works on this subject, except could meet with elsewhere, so long as I
some allusions to his method of arming am compelled to support my family
magnets, in which, as in most of his from my public and private
lectures,
practical and mechanical operations, he (nor would willingly lecture in any
I
appears to have been singularly success- other city than this, for several reasons
ful. Sir Kenelm Digby* asserts, that which would be long to mention) never-
the magnets armed by Galileo would theless not even the liberty I have here
support twice as great a weight as one where I am obliged to spend
is sufficient,
of Gilbert's of the same size. Galileo many, and often the best hours of the
was well acquainted, as appears from day at the request of this and that man.
his frequent allusions in different parts My public salary here is 520 florins,
of his works, with what Gilbert had which 1 am almost certain will be ad-
" I
done, of whom he says, extremely vanced to as many crowns upon my re-
raise, admire, and envy this author ; election, and these I can greatly increase
? think him, moreover, worthy of the by receiving pupils, and from private lec-
greatest praise for the many new and tures, toany extent that I please. My
true observations that he has made to public duty does not confine me during
the disgrace of so many vain and fabling more than 60 half hours in the year, and
authors, who write, not from their own even that not so strictly but that I may,
knowledge only, but repeat every thing on occasion of any business, contrive to
they hear from the foolish vulgar, with- get some vacant days ; the rest of my
out attempting to satisfy themselves of time is absolutely at my own disposal ;
the same by experience, perhaps that but because my private lectures and do-
they may not dimmish the size of their mestic pupils are a great hindrance and
books." interruption of my studies, I wish to
Galileo's reputation being now greatly live entirely exempt from the former,
increased, proposals were made to him, and in great measure from the latter :
Treatise of the Nature of Bodies, London, 1665. position of continuous quantity On the ;
GALILEO.
motions of animals ; And others besides. supposed that many were burnt by his
I have also an idea of writing some infatuated grandson Cosimo, who con-
books relating to the military art, giving ceived he was thus offering a proper
not only a model of a soldier, but teach- and pious sacrifice before devoting him-
ing with very exact rules every thing self to the life of a missionary. A
Trea-
which it is his duty to know that de- tiseon Fortification, by Galileo, was
pends upon mathematics ; as the know- found in 1793, and is contained among
ledge of castrametation, drawing up the documents published by Venturi.
battalions, fortifications, assaults, plan- Galileo does not profess in it to give much
ning, surveying, the knowledge of artil- original matter, but to lay before his read-
lery, the use of instruments, &c.
I ers a compendium of the most approved
also wish to reprint the Use of my Geo-
'
then already known. It has
metrical Compass,' which is dedicated een supposed that
Erinciples Gustavus Adolphus
to his highness, and which is no longer of Sweden attended Galileo's lectures on
to be met with ;
for this instrument has this subject, whilst in Italy but the fact
;
experienced such favour from the public, isnot satisfactorily ascertained. Galileo
that in fact no other instruments of this himself mentions a Prince Gustavus of
kind are now made, and I know that up Sweden to -whom he gave instruction in
to this time several thousands of mine mathematics, but the dates cannot well
have been made. I say nothing as to be made to agree. The question de-
the amount of my salary, feeling con- serves notice only from its having been
vinced that as I am to live upon it, made the subject of controversy.
the graciousness of his highness would The loss of Galileo's Essay on Conti-
not deprive me of any of those com- nuous Quantity is particularly to be
forts, which, however, I feel the want regretted, as would be highly interest-
it.
of less than many others ; and there- ing to see how far he succeeded in
fore I say nothing more on the subject. methodizing his thoughts on this import-
Finally, on the title and profession of ant topic. It is to his pupil Cavalieri
my service, I should wish that to the (who refused to publish his book so
name of Mathematician, his highness long as he hoped to see Galileo's printed)
that we owe
" The
would add that of Philosopher, as I Method of Indivisi-
profess to have studied a greater num- bles," which is universally recognized as
ber of years in philosophy than months one of the first germs of the powerful
in pure mathematics ;
and how I have methods of modern analysis. Through-
profited by it, and if I can or ought to out Galileo's works we find many indi-
deserve this title, I may let their high- cations of his having thought much on
nesses see as often as it shall please the subject, but his remarks are vague,
them to give me an opportunity of dis- and bear little, if at all, on the appli-
cussing such subjects in their presence cation of the method. To this the
with those who are most esteemed in chief part of Cavalieri's book is devoted,
this knowledge." It may perhaps be though he was not so entirely regardless
seen in the expressions of this letter, of the principles on which his method
that Galileo was not inclined to under- of measuring spaces is founded, as he
value his own merits, but the peculiar is sometimes represented. This method
nature of the correspondence should be consisted in considering lines as made
taken into account, which might justify up of an infinite number of points, sur-
his indulging a little more than usual in faces in like manner as composed of
self-praise, and it would have been per- lines, and solids of surfaces ; but there
haps almost impossible for him to have is an observation at the
beginning of
remained entirely blind to his vast supe- the 7th book, which shews clearly that
riority over his contemporaries. Cavalieri had taken a much more pro-
Many of the treatises which Galileo found view of the subject than is implied
here mentions, as well as another on in this superficial exposition, and had
have been irrecoverably lost,
dialling, approached very closely to the appa-
through the superstitious weakness of rently mure exact theories of his suc-
some of his relations, who after his cessors. Anticipating the objections to
death suffered the family confessor to his hypothesis, he argues, that " there
examine his papers, and to destroy isno necessity to suppose the conti-
whatever seemed to him objectionable ;
nuous quantities made up of these in-
a portion which, according to the notions divisibleparts, but only that they will
then prevalent, was like to comprise the observe the same ratios as those parts
most valuable part of the papers sub- do:' It ought not to be omitted, that
mitted to this expurgation. It is also Kepler also had given an impulse to
c 2
20 GALILEO.
" New
method of Gua- humoured and by prosecuting
Cavalieri in his retorts,
ging," which is work with
the earliest his observations with renewed assiduity
which we are acquainted, where prin- and zeal.
ciples of this sort are employed.* The use of single lenses in aid of the
sight had been long known. Spectacles
CHAPTER VI. were in common use at the beginning
of the fourteenth century, arid there are
Invention of the telesccpeFracastoro
several hints, more or less obscure, in
Porta Reflecting telescope Ro-
ger Bacon Digges De Dominis many early writers, of the effects which
Jans en Galileo con- might be expected from a combination
Lipperhey of glasses but it does not appear with
Microscopes Re-
;
structs telescopes
elected Professor at Padua for life. certainty that any of these authors had
attempted to reduce their ideas to prac-
THE year 1609 was signalized by tice. After the discovery of the tele-
Galileo's discovery of the telescope, scope, almost every country endeavoured
which, in the minds of many, is the prin- to find in the writings of its early
cipal,
if not the sole invention associated
philosophers traces of the knowledge of
with his name. It cannot be denied such an instrument, but in general with
that his fame, as the founder of the success very inadequate to the zeal of
school of experimental philosophy, has their national prepossessions- There
been in an unmerited degree cast into are two authors especially to whom the
the shade by the splendour of his astro- attention of Kepler and others was
nomical discoveries; yet Lagrangef turned, immediately upon the promulga-
surely errs in the opposite extreme, when tion of the discovery, as containing the
he almost denies that these form any germ of it in their works. These are
Baptista Porta, and Gerolamo Fracas
-
real or solid part of the glory of this
great man ; and MpntuclaJ omits an im- toro. We
have already had occasion
portant ingredient in his merit, when he to quote the Homocentrica of Fracas-
(in other respects very justly) remarks, toro, who died in 1553 the follow-
;
that it required far less genius to point ing expressions, though they seem to
a telescope towards the heavens than to refer to actual experiment, yet fall short
trace the unheeded, because daily re- of the meaning with which it has been
curring, phenomena of motion up to its attempted to invest them. After ex-
simple and primary laws. are toWe plaining and commenting on some phe-
remember that in the days of Galileo nomena of refraction through different
a telescope could scarcely be pointed to media, to which he was led by the
the heavens with impunity, and that a ( necessity of reconciling his theory with
courageous mind was required to con- the variable magnitudes of the planets,
tradict, and a strong one to bear down, he goes on to say " For which rea-
a party, who, when invited to look on son, those things which are seen at the
any object in the heavens which Aris- bottom of water, appear greater than
totle had never suspected, immediately those which are at the top ; and if any
refused all credit to those senses, to one look through two eyeglasses, one
which, on other occasions, they so confi- placed upon the other, he" will see every
*
dently appealed. It surely is a real thing much larger and nearer." It should
and solid part of Galileo's glory that he seem that this passage (asDelambrehas
consumed his life in laborious and inde- already remarked) rather refers to the
and that he per-
fatigable observations, close application of one glass upon an-
severed in announcing his discoveries other, and it may fairly be doubted
undisgusted by the invectives, and un- whether any thing analogous to the
dismayed by the persecutions, to which composition of the telescope was in the
they subjected him. Plagiarist ! liar ! writer's thoughts. Baptista Porta
impostor heretic ! were among the ex-
! writes on the same subject more fully ;
" Concave lenses show distant
pressions of malignant
hatred lavished objects
upon him, and although he also was most clearly, convex those which are
not without some violent and foul- nearer, whence they may be used to
mouthed partisans, yet it must be told assist the sight. With a concave glass
to his credit that he himself seldom distant objects will be seen, small, but
condescended to notice these torrents distinct with a convex one those near
;
know rightly how to combine one of placed directly in front, but with its axis
each sort, you will see both far and near inclined, must be adapted to that focus :
* These and
objects larger and clearer," let obtuse angled or right angled
words show, if Porta really was then triangles be cut out with two "cross lines
unacquainted with the telescope, how on each side drawn from the centre, and
close it is possible to pass by an inven- aglass (specillum) will be completed.fit for
tion without lighting on it, for of pre- the purposes we mentioned. If it were not
1 '
cisely such a combination of a convex for the word " specillum" which, in the
and concave lens, fitted to the ends of passage immediately preceding this,
Porta* contrasts with " speculum" and
1
an organ pipe by way of tube, did the
whole of Galileo's telescope consist. which he afterwards explains to mean a
If Porta had stopped here he might glass lens, it would be very clear that
more securely have enjoyed the repu- the foregoing passage (supposing it to
tation of the invention, but he then pro- have any meaning) must be referred to
fesses to describe the construction of a reflecting telescope, and it is a little
his instrument, which has no relation singular that while this obscure passage
whatever to his previous remarks. " I has attracted universal attention, no
shall now endeavour to show in what one, so far as we are aware, has taken
manner we may contrive to recognize any notice of the following unequivocal
our friends at the distance of several description of the principal part of
miles, and how those of weak sight may Newton's construction of the same in-
read the most minute letters from a strument. It is in the 5th chapter
distance. It is an invention of great of the 17th book, where Porta explains
utility, and grounded on optical prin- by what device exceedingly minute let-
ciples,nor is it at all difficult of execu- ters may be read without difficulty.
tion but it must be so divulged as not "
; Place a concave mirror so that the
to be understood by the vulgar, and yet back of it may lie against your breast ;
be clear to the sharpsighted." The opposite to it, and within the burning
description which follows seems far point, place the writing; put a plane
enough removed from the apprehended mirror behind it, that may be under your
danger of being too clear, and in- eyes. Then the images of the letters
deed every writer who has hitherto which are in the concave mirror, and
quoted it has merely given the passage which the concave has magnified, will
inits original Latin,
apparently despair. be reflected in the plane mirror, so that
ing of an intelligible translation. With you may read without difficulty."
some alterations in the punctuation, We have not been able to meet with
which; appear necessary to bring it into the Italian translation of Porta' s Na-
any grammatical construction,-}- it may tural Magic, which was published in
be supposed to bear something like the 1611, under his own superintendence;
" Let a view
following meaning : be but the English translator of 1(558
contrived in the centre of a mirror, would probably have known if any
where it is most effective. All the solar intelligible interpretation there were
rays are exceedingly dispersed, arid do given of the mysterious passage above
not in the least come together (in the quoted, and his 'translation is so devoid
true centre) ; but there is a concourse of of meaning as strongly to militate against
all the rays in the central Porta, indeed, claimed the
part of the this idea.
said mirror, half way towards the other invention as his own, and is believed to
centre, where the cross diameters meet. have hastened his death, (which hap-
This view is contrived in the following pened in 1615, he being then 80 years
manner. A concave cylindrical mirror old,) by the fatigue of composing a
Treatise on the Telescope, in which he
* Si
utrumqne recte componere noveris, et longin- had promised to exhaust the subject. We
qua et proxima majora et clara videbis. Mag. Nat. do not know whether this is the same
lib. 17.
t The passage in the original, which is printed work which was published after his
alike in the editions of 1598, 1607, 16L9, and 1650, is death by Stelliola,t but which contains
as follows : Visus constituatur centre valentissimus
no allusion to Porta's claim, and pos-
speculi, ubi fief, et valentissime universales solares
radii disperguntur, et coeunt minime, sed centro prae-
sibly Stelliola may have thought it most
dicti speculi in illius medio, ubi diametri transver-
for his friend's reputation to suppress
sales, omnium ibi concursus. Constituitur hoc modo
speculum concavum columnare sequidistantibus late- it.
Schott^ says, a friend of his had
ribus, sed lateri
uno obliquo sectionibus illis accomo-
detur, trianguli vero obtusiauguli, vel orthogonii * Diximusde Ptolemaei
speculo,sive specillo potius,
secentur, hijic inde duobus transversy-libus lineis, ex- quo per saxcentena millia pervementes naves conspi :
centro eductis. Et coijfectum erit speciUum, ad. id, oiebat. )
II Telescopio, itiJj?.
GALILEO.
seen Porta's book in manuscript, and scription thereof, cast by some of his
that it did at that time contain the as- freends of purpose, upon downes in
sertion of Porta's title to the invention. open fields ; but also, seuen miles off,
After all it is not improbable that he declared what hath beene doone at that
may have derived his notions of mag- instant in priuate places. He hath also
nifying distant objects from our cele- sundrie times, by the sunne beames, fired
brated countryman Roger Bacon, who powder and dischargde ordnance halfe
died about the year 1300. He has been a mile and more distante which things
;
supposed, not without good grounds, I am the boulder to report, for that
to have been one of the first who re- there are yet living diverse (of these his
cognised the use of single lenses in dooings) occulati testes, (eye witnesses)
producing distinct vision, and he has and many other matters farre more
some expressions with respect to their strange and rare, which I omit as im-
combination which promise effects ana- pertinent to this place."
logous to those held out by Porta. In We find another pretender to the ho-
" The Admirable Force of Art and Na-
nour of the discovery, of the telescope in
ture," he says, "Physical figurations the celebrated Antonio de Dominis,
are far more strange, for in such manner Archbishop of Spalatro, famous in the
may we frame perspects and looking- annals of optics for being one of the first
glasses that one thing shall appear to explain the theory of the rainbow.
to be many, as one man shall seeme Montucla, following P. Boscovich, has
a whole armie ; and divers sunnes and scarcely done justice to De Dominis,
moanes, yea, as many as we please, whom he treats as a mere pretender
shall appeare at one time, &c. And so and ignorant person. The indisposition
may the perspects be framed, that things of Boscovich towards him is suffi-
most farre off may seeme most nigh ciently accounted for by the circumstance
unto us, and clean contrarie, soe that we of his being a Catholic prelate who had
may reade very small letters an incredi- embraced the cause of Protestantism.
ble distance from us, and behold things His nominal reconciliation with the
how soever they be, and make
little Church of Rome would probably not
stars to appeare wheresoever we will, have saved him from the stake, had not
&c. And, besides all these, we may so a natural death released him when im-
frame perspects that any man entering prisoned on that Rome.
account at
into a house he shall indeed see gold, Judgment was pronounced upon him
and silver, and precious stones, and what notwithstanding, and his body and books
else he will, but when he maketh haste were publicly burnt in the Campo de'
to the place he shall find just nothing." Fiori, in 1624. His treatise, De Radiis,
It seems plain, that the author is here (which is very rarely to be met with)
speaking solely of mirrors, and we must was published by Bartolo after the ac-
not too hastily draw the conclusion, be- knowledged invention of the telescope
cause in the first and last of these asser- by Galileo but Bartolo tells us, in the
;
tions he is, to a certain extent, borne out preface, that the manuscript was com-
that he therefore was in posses- municated to him from a collection of
by facts,
sion of a method of accomplishing the papers written 20 years before, on his
middle problem also. In the previous inquiring the Archbishop's opinion with
chapter, he gives a long list of notable respect to the newly discovered instru-
things, (much in the style of the Mar- ment, and that he got leave to publish
"
quis of Worcester's Century of Inven- it, with the addition of one or two
tions) which if we can really persuade chapters." The treatise contains a
ourselves that he was capable of accom- complete description of a telescope,
plishing, we must
allow the present age which, however, is professed merely to
to be still immeasurably interior to him be an improvement on spectacles, and
in science. if the author's intention had been to
Thomas Digges, in the preface to interpolate an afterwritten account, in
his Pantometria, (published in 159 1 ) de- order to secure to himself the undeserved
" honour of the invention, it seems im-
clares, My
father, by his continuall
painfull practises,
assisted with de- probable that he would have suffered
monstrations mathematical!, was able, an acknowledgment of additions, pre-
and sundry times hath by proportional! vious to publication, to be inserted in
glasses, duely
situate in convenient the preface. Besides, the whole tone
angles, not only discouered things
farre of the work is that of a candid and
off, read letters, numbered peeces of truth-seeking philosopher, very far
money, with the verye coyne and super- indeed removed from being, as Mon-
GALILEO.
tucla calls him, conspicuous for igno- dated Padua, 31st August, 1609.*
" We have
rance even among the ignorant men of no news, except the return
his age. He gives a drawing of a con- of His Serene Highness, and the re-
vex and concave lens, and traces the election of the lecturers,
among whom
passage of the rays through them ; to Sign. Galileo has contrived to get 1000
which he subjoins, that he has not florins for life ; and it is said to be on
satisfied himself with any determination account of an eyeglass, like the one
of the precise distance to which the which was sent from Flanders to Car-
glasses should be separated, according dinal Borghese. We have seen some
to their convexity and concavity, but here, and truly they succeed well."
recommends the proper distance to be It is allowed by every one that the
found by actual experiment, and tells Dutchman, or rather Zealander, made his
us, that the effect of the instrument will discovery by mere accident, which
be to prevent the confusion arising from greatly derogates from any honour
the interference of the direct and re- attached to it ; but even this diminished
fracted rays, and to magnify the object degree of credit has been fiercely dis-
by increasing the visible angle under puted. According to one account,
which it is viewed. These, among the which appears consistent and probable,
many claimants, are certainly the au- it had been made for sometime before
glasses had been sent to Italy. It is t Borelli, De vero Telescopii inventore, 1655,
24 GALILEO.
mentioned) saw it many years after- convex magnifies, but it renders them
wards, when ambassador from the confused and indistinct; consequently,
United Provinces to England, and got one glass is insufficient to produce the
from Drebbel this account of the quar- desired effect. Proceeding to consider
ter whence it came. Lipperhey after- two glasses, and bearing in mind that
wards, in 1609, accidentally hit upon the plane glass causes no change, I de-
the telescope, and on the fame of this termined that the instrument could not
discovery it would not be difficult for consist of the combination of a plane
Jansen, already in possession of an glass with either of the other two. I
instrument so much resembling it, to therefore applied myself to make expe-
perceive the slight difference between riments on combinations of the two
them, and to construct a telescope in- other kinds, and thus obtained that of
dependently of Lipperhey, so that each, which I was in search." It has been
with some show of reason, might claim urged against Galileo that, if he really
the priority of the invention. notion A invented the telescope on theoretical
of this kind reconciles the testimony of principles, the
same theory ought at
many conflicting witnesses on the sub- once to have conducted him to a more
ject, some of whom do not seem to perfect instrument than
that which he
distinguish very accurately whether the at first constructed ;* but it is plain, from
telescope or microscope is the instru- this statement, that he does not profess
ment to which their evidence refers. to have theorized beyond the determi-
Borelli arrives at the conclusion, that nation of the species of glass which he
Jansen was the inventor but not satis-
; should employ in his experiments, and
fied with this, he endeavours, with a the rest of his operations he avows to
glaring partiality which makes his for- have been purely empirical. Besides, we.
mer determination suspicious, to secure must take into account the difficulty of
for him and his son the more solid re-
grinding the glasses, particularly
when fit
and in this sense the letter has since not improbable that he might be as-
been quoted,* although it appears from sisted in his inquiries by some recollec-
John's own deposition, preserved in the tion of it, and the same passage seems,
same collection, that at the time of their in like manner, to have recurred to the
discovery he could not have been more mind of Kepler, as soon as he heard of
than six years old. An oversight of the invention. Galileo's telescope con-
'this sort throws doubt on the whole of sisted of a plano-convex and plano-con-
the pretended observations, and indeed cave lens, the latter nearest the eye,
the letter has much the air of being the distant from each other by the differ-
production of a person imperfectly in- ence of their focal lengths, being, in
formed on the subject on which he principle,exactly the same with the mo-
writes, and probably was compiled to dern opera-glass. He seems to have
suit Borelli's purposes, which were to
thought that the Dutch glass was the
make Galileo's share in the invention same, but this could not be the case,
appear as small as possible. if the above quoted particular of the in-
Galileo himself gives a very intelli- verted weathercock, which belongs to
gible
account of the process of reason- most traditions of the story, be correct ;
ing, by which he detected the secret. because it is the peculiarity of this kind
*'I argued in the following manner. of telescope not to invert objects, and
The contrivance consists either 'of one we should be thus furnished with a de-
glass or of more one is not sufficient, monstrative proof of the falsehood of
since.it must be either convex, concave, Fuccarius's insinuation in that case
:
convex glasses distant from each other and discovered the true nature of the
by the sum of their focal lengths. This imprisoned fiend.
supposition is not controverted by
the As soon as Galileo's first telescope was
fact, that this sort of telescope was never completed, he returned with it to Ve-
employed by astronomers till long after- nice, and the extraordinary sensation
wards for the fame of Galileo's obser-
;
which itexcited tends also strongly to
vations, and the superior excellence of refute Fuccarius's assertion that the
the instruments constructed under his Dutch glass was already known there.
superintendence, induced every one in During more than a month Galileo's
the first instance to imitate his con- whole time was employed in exhibiting
structions as closely as possible. The his instrument to the principal inhabit-
astronomical telescope was however ants of Venice, who thronged to his
eventually found to possess superior ad- house to satisfy themselves of the truth
vantages over that which Galileo ima- of the wonderful stories in circulation ;
gined, and it is on this latter principle and at the end of that time the Doge,
that all modern refracting telescopes Leonardo Donati, caused it to be in-
are constructed; the inversion being timated to him that such a present
counteracted in those which are intended would not be deemed unacceptable by
for terrestrial observations, by the intro- the senate. Galileo took the hint, and
duction of a second pair of similar his complaisance was rewarded
by a
glasses, which restore the inverted mandate confirming him for life in his
image to its original position. For fur- professorship at Padua, at the same
ther details on the improvements which time doubling his yearly salary, which
have been subsequently introduced, and was thus made to amount to 1000 flo-
on the reflecting telescope, which was rins.
not brought into use till the latter part It was long before the phrenzy of
of the century, the reader is referred public curiosity abated. Sirturi de-
to the Treatise on OPTICAL INSTRU- scribes a ludicrous violence which was
MENTS. done to himself, when, with the first
Galileo, about the same time, con- telescope which he had succeeded in.
structed microscopes on the same prin- making, he went up into the tower of
ciple, for we find that, in 1612,
he pre- St. Mark, at Venice, in the vain hope of
sented one to Sigisraund, King of Po- being there entirely unmolested. Un-
land ; but his attention being principally luckily he was seen by some idlers in
devoted to the employment and perfec- the street a crowd soon collected round
:
tion of his telescope, the microscope him, who insisted on taking possession
remained a long time imperfect in his of his instrument, and, handing it one
hands twelve years later, in 1624,
: to the other, detained him there for se-
he wrote to P. Federigo Cesi, that he veral hours till their
curiosity was sa-
had delayed to send the microscope, the tiated,when he was allowed to return
use of which he there describes, because home. Hearing them also inquire
he had only just brought it to perfec- eagerly at what inn he lodged, he thought
tion, having experienced some difficulty it better to quit Venice early the next
in working the glasses. Schott tells an morning, and prosecute his observations
"
amusing story, in his Magic of Na- in a less inquisitive neighbourhood.* In-
ture," of a Bavarian philosopher, who, struments of an inferior description were
travelling in the Tyrol with one of the soon manufactured, and vended every
newly invented microscopes about him, where as philosophical playthings, much
was taken ill on the road and died. in the way in which, in our own time, the
The authorities of the village took pos- kaleidoscope spread over Europe as fast
session of his baggage, and were pro- as travellers could carry them. But the
ceeding to perform the last duties to his fabrication of a better sort was long
body, when, on examining the little confined, almost solely, to Galileo and
glass instrument in his pocket, which those whom he immediately instructed ;
chanced to contain a flea, they were and so late as the year 1637, we find
struck with the greatest astonishment Gaertner, or as he chose to call him-
and terror, and the poor Bavarian, self, Hortensius, assuring Galileo that
condemned by acclamation as a sor- none could be met with in Holland suf-
cerer who was in the habit of using ficiently good to show Jupiter's disc
a portable familiar, was declared un- well defined and in 1634 Gassendi begs
;
the singular position of three small stars, astonishment, according to their respec-
near the body of that planet, which ap- tive opinions, either at the new view of
peared almost in a straight line with it, the universe thus offered to them, or at
and in the direction of the ecliptic. The the daring audacity of Galileo in in-
following evening he was surprised to venting such fables. We
shall proceed
find that two of the three which had to extract a few passages from contem-
been to the eastward of the planet, now porary writers relative to this book, and
appeared on the contrary side, which he the discoveries announced in it.
could not reconcile with the apparent Kepler deserves precedence, both
motion of Jupiter among the fixed stars, from his own celebrity, and from the
as given by the tables. Observing these livelyand characteristic account which
night after night, he could not fail to he gives of his first receiving the in-
remark that they changed their relative telligence "I was sitting idle at
:
positions. A
fourth also appeared, and home, thinking of you, most excellent
in a short time he could no longer re- Galileo, and your letters, when the
fuse to believe that these small stars news was brought me of the dis-
were four moons, revolving round Ju- covery of four planets by the help
piter in the same manner in which our
of the double eye-glass. Wachenfels
earth is accompanied by its single at- stopped his carriage at my door to tell
tendant. In honour of his patron Cos- me, when such a fit of wonder seized
mo, he named them the Medicaean me at a report which seemed so very
stars. As they are now hardly known absurd, and I was thrown into such
by this appellation, his doubts, whether agitation at seeing an old dispute be-
he should call them Medicaean, after tween us decided in this way, that
Cosmo's family, or Cosmical, from his
between his joy, my colouring, and the
individual name, are become of less laughter of both, confounded as we
interest. were by such a novelty, we were hardly
An extract from a letter which Gali- capable, he of speaking, or I of listening.
leo received on this occasion from the My amazement was increased by the
court of France, will serve to show assertion of Wachenfels, that those who
how highly the honour of giving a sent this news from Galileo were cele-
name to these new planets was at that brated men, far removed by their learn-
time appreciated, and also how much ing, weight, and character, above vulgar
was expected from Galileo's first success folly ;
that the book was actually in the
" The second and would be published immedi-
in examining the heavens. press,
ately. On our separating, the authority
* De phsenomeais in orbe Lunse. Venetiis, 1612. of Galileo had the greatest influence on
GALILEO. 27
me, earned by the accuracy of his judg- wrong; it is our judgment whteh is
ment, and excellence of his understand- sometimes deceived, because we are ex-
ing ; so I immediately fell to thinking pecting results which experiment refuses
how there could he any addition to the to give. We must consult experiment,
number of the planets without over- and vary the circumstances, till we have
turning my Mysterium Cosmographi-
deduced general rules, for it alone can
cum, published thirteen years ago, ac- furnish us with them. But you will
cording to which Euclid's five regular ask, what is the use of these general
solids do not allow more than six pla- rules? I answer, that they direct us
nets round the sun." in our inquiries into nature and the
This was one of the many wild notions operations of art. They keep us from
of Kepler's fanciful brain, among which deceiving ourselves and others, by pro-
he was lucky enough at length to hit mising ourselves results which we can
upon the real and principal laws of the never obtain."
planetary motions. His theory may
be In the instance before us, it is well
" The
briefly given in his
own words : known that, adopting some of the opi-
orbit "of the earth is the measure of the nions of Bruno and Brutti, Galileo, even
rest. About it circumscribe a dodecahe- before he had seen the satellites of Jupi-
dron. The sphere including this will be ter, had allowed the possibility of the
that of Mars. About Mars' orbit de- discovery of new planets and we can
;
fixed stars through the great vault of increase the number of the planets this
heaven, I believe he would have disposed whole system falls to the ground." To
them with beautiful arrangements of these remarks Galileo calmly replied,
squares, hexagons, and octagons; he that whatever their force might be, as a
would have dispersed the larger ones reason for believing beforehand that no
among the middle sized and the less, more than seven planets would be dis-
so as to correspond exactly with each covered, they hardly seemed of sufficient
other ; and then he would think he had weight to destroy the new ones when
contrived admirable proportions but :
actually seen.
God, on the contrary, has shaken them Others, again, took a more dogged
out from His hand as if by chance, and line of opposition, without venturing
we, forsooth, must think that He has into the subtle analogies and arguments
scattered them up yonder without any of the philosopher just cited. They con-
regularity,symmetry, and elegance." tented themselves, and satisfied others,
It is worth remarking that the dan-
gerous ideas of aptitude and congruence * Pmnoia Astronomies, Yejjetijs, 16J.Q.
GALILEO. 29
with the simple assertion, that such in the manner which some houses
in
things were not, and could not be, and are discovered to be haunted by evil
the manner in which they maintained spirits, not by seeing them, but from the
themselves in their incredulity was suf- extravagant pranks which are played
"
ficiently ludicrous. Oh, my dear there. I replied, that he
ought to recon-
Kepler,"* says Galileo, "how I wish sider the hundred or thousand opinions
that we could have one hearty laugh which, in the course of his life, he might
together. Here, at Padua, is the prin- have given, and particularly to examine
cipal professor of philosophy,
whom I well the events which he had predicted
have repeatedly and urgently requested with the help of Jupiter, and if he
to look at the moon and planets through should find that all had succeeded con-
my srlass, which he pertinaciously refuses formably to his predictions, I bid him
to do. Why you not here ? what
are prophecy merrily on, according to his
shouts of laughter we should have at old and wonted rules; for I assured
this glorious folly and to hear the pro-
! him that the new planets would not in
fessor of philosophy at Pisa labouring any degree affect the things which are
before the grand duke with logical ar- already past, and that in future he
guments, as if with magical incantations, would not be a less fortunate conjuror
to charm the new planets out of the than he had been but if, on the con-
:
ideas better than our laborious and in- past they had not acquired knowledge
dustrious correction of the heavens. with little labour, at the expense of
Nature abhors so horrible a chaos, and others, from written books, but that the
to the truly wise such vanity is detest- first inventors acquired the most excel-
Kepler'sbook Maestlin found all this, Maestlin, as having destroyed the little
for it is one continued encomium credit which, according to his view,
upon Galileo insomuch that Kepler
; Kepler's publication had left him.
almost apologizes the preface for
in This book professes to contain the ex-
what may seem his intemperate admi- amination of four principal questions
" Some
ration of his friend. might touching the alleged planets ; 1st, Whe-
wish I had spoken in more moderate ther they exist ? 2nd, What they are ?
terms in praise of Galileo, in conside- 3rd, What they are like? 4th, Why
ration of the distinguished men who they are ? The first question is soon
are opposed to his opinions, but I have disposed of, by Horky's declaring
written nothing fulsome or insincere. positively that he has examined the
I praise him, for myself ; I leave other heavens with Galileo's own glass, and
men's judgments free; and shall be that no such thing as a satellite about
ready to join in condemnation when Jupiter exists. To the second, he
some one wiser than myself shall, by declares solemnly, that he does not more
sound reasoning, point out his errors." surely know that he has a soul in his
However, Maestlin was not the only body, than that reflected rays are the
one who misunderstood Kepler's in- sole cause of Galileo's erroneous ob-
tentions :the Martin Horky of whom servations. In regard to the third
he speaks, a young German, also sig- question, he says, that these planets are
nalized himself by a vain attack upon like the smallest fly compared to an
the book which he thought his patron elephant ; and, finally, concludes on the
Kepler condemned. He was then travel- fourth, that the only use of them is to
" thirst
ling in Italy, whence he wrote to Kepler gratify Galileo's of gold," and
his first undetermined thoughts about the to afford himself a subject of discussion.*
new discoveries. " They are wonderful ; Galileo did not condescend to notice
they are stupendous ; whether they are this impertinent folly ;
it was answered
true or false I cannot tell." * He seems by Roffini, a pupil of Magini, and by a
soon to have decided that most repu- young Scotchman of the name of Wed-
tation was to be gained on the side of derburn, then a student at Padua, and
Galileo's opponents, and his letters afterwards a physician at the Court of
accordingly became filled with the most Vienna. In the latter reply we find it men-
rancorous abuse of him. At the same tioned, that Galileo was also using his
time, that the reader may appreciate telescope for the examination of insects,
Horky's own character, we shall quote more unpretending station, once came under the
a short sentence at the end of one of writer's own observation. A farmer in Cambridge-
his letters, where he writes of a paltry shire, who had acquired some confused notions of
the use of the quadrant, consulted him. ou a new
piece of dishonesty with as great glee method of determining the distances and magnitudes
as if he had solved an ingenious and of the sun and moon, which he declared were far
After mentioning different from the quantities usually assigned to them.
scientific problem.
After a little conversation, the root of his error, cer-
his meeting Galileo at Bologna, and tainly sufficiently gross, appeared to be that he had
being indulged with a trial of his tele- "
confounded the angular measure of a degree, with
69 miles, the linear measure of a degree on the
scope, which, he says, does wonders earth's surface. As a short way of showing his.mis-
upon the earth, but represents celestial take, he was desired to determine, in the same man-
he concludes with ner, the height of his barn which stood about 30 yards
objects falsely ;"t distant ; he lifted the quadrant to his eye, but per-
*
Kepleri Epistolse. ceiving, probably, the monstrous size to which his
"
fit may seem extraordinary that any one could principles were forcing him, he said, Oh, Sir, the
support an argument by this partial disbelief in thein- quadrant's only true lor the sky." He must have
btrumeiit, whicu wa allowed on aii hands to if present been an objector of this kind, wiio said to Galileo.
terresliai objects correctly. A
similar instance of "
Uh,',Sir, the telescope's only true for the earth."
* Venturi.
obstinacy, in au almost identical case though in a
GALILEO. 31
&c.* Horky sent his performance tri- me at Pisa during 'the last months,
umphantly to Kepler, and, as he returned made me a present, at parting, worth
home before receiving an answer, he more than a thousand florins, and has
presented himself before his patron in now invited me to attach myself to him
1he same misapprehension under which with the annual salary of one thousand
he had written, but the philosopher re- and with the title of Philosopher
florins,
ceived him with a burst of indignation and Principal Mathematician to His
which rapidly undeceived him. The Highness without the duties of any
;
conclusion of the story is characteristic office to perform, but with the most
enough to be given in Kepler's own ac- complete leisure so that I can com-
;
revolve regularly about him. perplex the wise with fruitless conjec-
Perhaps we cannot better wind up tures, and harass the weak with fears
this account of the discovery of Jupi- as idle as their theories."*
ter's satellites, and of the intense interest * Hersehel'a Address to the Astronomical So-
* Sherbunie's
sphere of Mauilius. London, 1675. , ciety, 1&27.
GALILEO. 33
thological poem, by Marini.* We are thing could console them for the de-
told, that, in the opinion of some, the struction of their smooth unalterable
dark shades on the moon's surface arise and to such an absurd length
surface,
from the interposition of opaque bodies was one
this hallucination carried, that
floating between her and the sun, which opponent of Galileo, Lodovico delle
prevents his light from reaching those Colombe, constrained to allow the evi-
parts :others thought, that on account dence of the sensible inequalities of the
of her vicinity to the earth, she was moon's surface, attempted to reconcile
partly tainted with the imperfection of the old doctrine with the new observa-
our terrestrial and elementary nature, tions,by asserting, that every part of the
and was not of that entirely pure and moon, which to the terrestrial observer
refined substance of which the more appeared hollow and sunken, was in
remote heavens consist: a third party fact entirely and exactly filled up with
looked on her as a vast mirror, and a clear crystal substance, perfectly im-
maintained that the dark parts of her perceptible by the senses, but which
surface were the reflected images of our restored to the moon her accurately
earthly forests and mountains. spherical and smooth surface. Galileo
Galileo's glass taught him to believe met the argument in the manner most
that the surface of this planet, far from fitting, according to one of Aristotle's
being smooth and polished, as was gene- own maxims, that " it is foolish to re-
rally taken for granted, really resembled fute absurd opinions with too much
our earth in its structure ; he was able dis- " " the
curiosity." Truly," says he,
tinctly to trace on it the outlines of moun- idea is admirable, its only fault is that
tains and other inequalities, the summits it is neither demonstrated nor demonstra-
of which reflected the
rays of the sun ble : but I am perfectly ready to believe
before these reached the lower parts, it, provided that, with equal courtesy,
and the sides of which, turned from his I may be allowed to raise upon your
beams, lay buried in deep shadow. He smooth surface, crystal mountains(which
recognised a distribution into something nobody can perceive) ten times higher
similar to continents of land, and than those which I have actually seen
oceans of water, which reflect the sun's and measured." By threatening to pro-
light to us with greater or less vivacity, ceed to such extremities, he seems to
according to their constitution. These have scared the opposite party into mo-
conclusions were utterly odious to the deration, for we do not find that the
Aristotelians ; they had formed a pre- crystalline theory was persevered in.
conceived notion of what the moon In the same essay, Galileo also ex-
ought to be, and they loathed the doc- plained at some length the cause of that
trines of Galileo, who took
delight, as part of the moon being visible, which is
they said, in distorting and ruining the unenlightened directly by the sun in her
fairest works of nature. It was in vain first and last quarter. Maestlin, and be-
he argued, as to the imaginary perfection forehim Leonardo da Vinci, had already
declared this to arise from what may
;
during a total eclipse of the moon, point- at a much later date,) and inviting all
ing out that it is occasioned by those astronomers to declare, within a certain
rays of the sun, which reach the moon, time, if they had noted any thing new
after being bent round the sides of in the heavens worthy of observation.
the earth by the action of our atmo- The transposed letters which he published
sphere.* were
Galileo also announced the detection " Smaismrmilme
poeta leumi bvne nugttaviras."
of innumerable stars, invisible to the
Kepler, in the true spirit of his riddling
unassisted sight; and those remark-
philosophy, endeavoured to decypher the
able appearances in the heavens, ge-
meaning, and fancied he had succeeded
nerally called nebulae, the most con- when he formed a barbarous Latin
siderable of which is familiar to all
verse,
under the name of the milky way, when " Salve umbistineum
geminatum Martia proles,"
examined by his instrument, were found
to resolve themselves into a vast collec- conceiving that the discovery, whatever
tion of minute stars, too closely congre-
it
might be, related to the planet Mars,
to which Kepler's attention had before
gated to produce a separate impression been particularly directed. The reader,
upon the unassisted eye.t Benedetti, however, need not weary himself in
who divined that the dark shades on the
moon's surface arose from the constitu- seeking a translation of this solution,
for at the request of the Emperor Ro-
tion of those parts which suffered much
of the light to pass into them, and con- dolph, Galileo speedily sent to him the
real reading
sequently reflected a less portion of it, Altissimum planetam tcrgeminum observavi
had maintained that the milky way was " I
;
the result of the converse of the same that is, have observed that the most
distant planet is triple," or, as he further
phenomenon, and declared, in the^lan- " I have with
guage of his astronomy, that it was a explains the matter, great
admiration observed that Saturn is not
part of the eighth orb, which did not,
like the rest, allow the sun's light to a single star, but three together, which
traverse it freely, but reflected a small as it were touch each other ; they have no
relative motion, and are constituted in
part feebly to our sight*
The Anti-Copernicans would probably this form oQo the middle being some-
have been well pleased, if by these eter- what larger than the lateral ones. If
we examine them with an eye-glass which
nally renewed discussions and disputes,
they could have occupied Galileo's time magnifies the surface less than 1000
*
times, the three stars do not appear
Speculat. Lib Venetiis, 1585, Epistolae.
This
j-
with respect to the milky way, had very distinctly, but Saturn has an ob-
opinion,
been held by some of the ancient astronomers. See long appearance, like the appearance of
Manillas. Lib. i. v. 753.
" an olive, thus O. Now 1 have dis-
Anne mngis densu stcllarum turba corona
~
Cuntexitjtaittmas, et cnmsu lumine candct,
covered a court for Jupiter, and two
JUtfulgore nitet collato clarior orbis." servants for this old man, who aid his
GALILEO. 35
stepsand never quit his side." Galileo seeing the enlightened portion in each
was, however, no match in this style position assume the form appropriate to
of writing for Kepler, who disapproved that hypothesis. It was with reason,
his friend's metaphor, and, in his usual therefore, that he laid stress on the im-
"
fanciful and amusing strain, I will portance of this observation, which also
" make an old man of established another doctrine
not," said he, scarcely less
Saturn, nor slaves of his attendant obnoxious to the Anti - Copernicans,
globes, but rather let this tricorporate namely, that a new point of resemblance
form be Geryon, so shall Galileo be was here found between the earth and
Hercules, and the telescope his club; one of the principal planets ; and as the
armed with which, he has conquered reflection from the earth
upon the moon
that distant planet, and dragged him had shewn it to be luminous like the
from the remotest depths of nature, and planets when subjected to the rays of
exposed him to the view of all." Gali- the sun, so this change of apparent
leo's glass was not of sufficient power to figure demonstrated that one of the
shew him the real constitution of this planets not near the earth, and there-
extraordinary planet; it was reserved fore probably all, were in their own
for Huyghens, about the year 1656, to nature not luminous, and only reflected
declare to the world that these supposed the sun's light which fell upon them;
attendant stars are in fact part of a an inference, of which the probability
ring which surrounds, and yet is com- was still farther increased a few years
pletely distinct from the body of Saturn ;* later by the observation of the transit of
and the still more accurate observations Mercury over the sun's disc.
of Herschel have ascertained that it It is curious that
only twenty-five
consists of two concentric rings revolv- years before this discovery of the phases
ing round the planet, and separated (or appearances) of Venus, a commen-
from each other by a space which our tator of Aristotle, under the name of
most powerful telescopes scarcely enable Lucillus Philalthaeas, had advanced the
us to measure. doctrine that all the planets except the
Galileo's second statement concluded moon are luminous of themselves, and
with the remark, that " in the other pla- in proof of his assertion had urged,
nets nothing new was to be observed ;"
" that if the other
planets and fixed
but a month had scarcely elapsed, before stars received their light from the sun,
he communicated to the world another they would, as they approached and re-
enigma, ceded from him, or as he approached and
receded from them, assume the same
Hcec immatura d me jamfrustra leguntur oy,
phases as the moon, which, he adds,
which, as he said, contained the an- we have never yet observed." He fur-
nouncement of a new phenomenon, in ther remarks, " that Mercury and Ve-
the highest degree important to the truth nus would, in the supposed case of their
of the Copernican system. The inter- being nearer the earth than the sun,
pretation of this is, eclipse it occasionally, just as eclipses
are occasioned by the moon."
Cynthice Jiguras cemulatur muter amorum, Perhaps
it is still more remarkable, that these
very
that is to say, Venus rivals the ap- passages, in which the reasoning is so
pearances of the moon for Venus correct, though the facts are too hastily
being now arrived at that part of her taken for granted, (the common error of
orbit in which she is placed between the that school,) are quoted by Benedetti, ex-
earth and the sun, and consequently, pressly to shew the ignorance and pre-
with only a part of her enlightened sur- sumption of the author. Copernicus,
face turned towards the earth, the tele- whose want of instruments had pre-
scope shewed her in a crescent form, like vented him from observing the horned
the moon in a similar position, and tra- appearance of Venus when between
cing her through the whole of her orbit the earth and sun, had perceived how
round the sun, or at least so long as she formidable an obstacle the non-appear-
was not invisible from his overpowering ance of this phenomenon presented to
light, Galileo had the satisfaction of his system; he
endeavoured, though
* account for it by
unsatisfactorily, to
Huyghens announced his discovery in this form :
adopting the system, which, on the whole, much dissatisfaction to all -those who
appeared to agree best with the phe- were connected with that university.
nomena, by meeting with some \vhich it Perhaps not fully appreciating his de-
did not enable him to explain. Milton, sire of returning to his native country,
whose poem is filled with allusions to and the importance to him and to the
Galileo and his astronomy, has not suf- scientific world in general, of the com-
fered this beautiful phenomenon to pass plete leisure which Cosmo secured to
unnoticed. After describing the creation him at Florence, (for by the terms of his
of the Sun, he adds :
diploma he was not even required to re-
Hither, as to their fountain, other stars side at Pisa, nor to give any lectures,
Repairing, in their golden urns draw light,
except on extraordinary occasions, to
"
And hence the morning planet gilds her horns.*
Galileo also assured himself, at the sovereign princes and other strangers of
distinction,) the Venetians remembered
same time, that the fixed stars did not
receive their light from the sun. This he only that they had offered him an ho-
nourable asylum when almost driven
ascertained by comparing the vividness
of their light, in all positions, with the
from Pisa ; that they had increased his
feebleness of that of the distant planets, salary to four times the sum which any
and by observing the different degrees previous professor had enjoyed and, ;
his 18th year, when, in 1603, he formed be learned from the habits of constant
the plan of a philosophical society, correspondence with each other, and
which in the first instance consisted alternate offices of counsel and assist-
only of himself and three of his most ance. Let the first fruits of wisdom be
intimate friends, Hecke, a Flemish phy- love ; and so let the Lynceans love each
sician, Stelluti, and Anastasio de Filiis. other as if united by the strictest ties,
Cesi's father, the Duca d' Acquasparta, nor suffer any interruption of this sin-
who was of an arbitrary and extravagant cere bond of love and faith,
emanating
temper, considered such pursuits and from the source of virtue and philosophy.
associates as derogatory to his son's Let them add to their names the title
rank; he endeavoured to thwart the de- of Lyncean, which has been
advisedly
sign by the most violent and unjusti- chosen as a warning and constant sti-
fiable proceedings, in consequence of mulus, especially when they write on
which, Cesi in the beginning of 1605 any literary subject, also in their private
privately quitted Rome, Hecke was letters to their associates, and in gene-
obliged to leave Italy altogether from ral when any work comes from them
fear of the Inquisition, which was excited wisely and well performed. The Lyn-
against him, and the academy was for ceans will pass over in silence all poli
a time virtually dissolved. The details tical controversies and
quarrels of every
of these transactions are foreign to the kind, and wordy disputes, especially
present narrative it will be enough to
:
gratuitous ones, which give occasion
mention that, in 1609, Cesi, who had to deceit, unfriendliness, and hatred;
never altogether abandoned his scheme, like men who desire peace, and seek to
found the opposition decaying which he preserve their studies free from molesta-
at first experienced, and with better suc- tion, and to avoid every sort of disturb-
cess he renewed the plan which he had ance. And if any one by command of
sketched six years before. A
few extracts his superiors, or from some other ne-
from the Regulations will serve to shew cessity, is reduced to handle such mat-
the spirit ill which this distinguished ters, since they are foreign to physical
society was conceived : and mathematical science, and conse-
"
The Lyncean Society desires for its quently alien to the object of the Aca-
academicians, eager for
philosophers demy, let them be printed without the
real knowledge, who will give them- *
Lyncean name."
selves to the study of nature, and espe- The society which was eventually or-
cially to mathematics ; at the same time ganized formed but a very trifling part
it will not neglect the ornaments of ele- of the comprehensive scheme which
gant literature and philology, which Cesi originally proposed to himself; it
like a graceful garment adorn the whole had been his wish to establish a scien-
tific Order which should have corre-
body of science. In the pious love of
wisdom, and to the praise of the most sponding lodges in the principal towns of
good and most high God, the Lyn-let Europe, and in other parts of the glcrbe,
ceans give their minds, first to obser- each consisting of not more than five nor
vation and reflection, and afterwards less than three members, besides an un-
to writing and publishing. It is not limited number of Academicians not
within the Lyncean plan to find leisure restricted to any particular residence or
for recitations and declamatory assem- regulations. The mortifications and
blies the meetings will neither be fre-
;
difficulties to which he was subjected
quent nor full, and chiefly for transact- from his father's unprincipled behaviour,
it most
ing the necessary business of the society: render extraordinary and admi-
but those who wish to enj oy such exercises rable that he should have ventured to
will inno respect be hindered, provided undertake even so much as he actually
they attend them as accessory studies, carried into execution. He promised to
decently and and without furnish to the members of his society
quietly,
making promises and professions of such assistance as they might require in
how much they are about to do. For the prosecution of their respective re-
there is
ample philosophical employment searches, and also to defray the charges
for everyone by himself, particularly
*
ifpains are taken in travelling and in Perhaps it was to deprecate the hostility of the
Jesuits that, at the close of these Regulations, the
the observation of natural phenomena,
Lyuceans are directed to address their prayers,
and in the book of nature which every among other Saints, especially to Ignatius Loyola,
as to one who greatly favoured the interests of learn-
one has at home, that is to the
say, ing. Odescalchi, Memorie dell' Acad. de' Lincei,
heavens and the earth ; and enough may Roma. 1806.
38 GALILEO.
of publishing such of their" works as lonna, Lucas Valeric, Guiducci, Welser,
should be thought worthy of appearing Giovanni Fabro, Terrentio, Vira^nio Ce-
with the common sanction. Such libe- sarini, Ciampoli, Molitor, Cardinal Bar-
ral offerswere not likely to meet with berino, (nephew of Pope Urban VIII.)
an unfavourable reception they were :
Stelliola, Salviati, &c.
thankfully accepted by many well quali The principal monument still remain-
fied to carry his design into execution, ing of the zeal and industry to which
and Cesi was soon enabled formally to Cesi incited his academicians is the
open his academy, the distinctive title Phytobasanos, a compendium of the
of which he borrowed from the natural history of Mexico, which must
Lynx,
with reference to the piercing sight be considered a surprising performance
which that animal has been supposed to for the times in which it appeared. It
possess. This quality seemed to him an was written by a Spaniard named Her-
appropriate emblem of those which he nandez ; and Reecho, who often has the
desired to find in his academicians, for credit of the whole work, made great ad-
the purpose of investigating the secrets ditions to it. During fifty years the ma-
of nature and although, at the present
; nuscript had been neglected, when Cesi
day, the name may appear to border on discovered it, and employed Terrentio,
the grotesque, it was conceived in the Fabro, and Colonna, all Lynceans, to
spirit of the age, and the fantastic names publish it enriched with their notes and
of the numberless societies which were emendations. Cesi himself published
rapidly formed in various parts of Italy several treatises,two of which are extant ;
far exceed whatever degree of quaint- his Tdbulce Phytosophicce, and a Disser-
ness may be thought to belong to the tation on Bees entitled Apiarium, the
Lyncean name. The Inflamed the only known copy of which last is in the
Transformed the Uneasy the Hu- library of the Vatican. His great work,
morists the Fantastic the Intricate Theatrum Natures, was never printed ;
the Indolent the Senseless the Un- a circumstance which tends to shew that
deceived the Valiant the ^Etherial he did not assemble the society round
Societies are selected from a vast num- him for the
purpose of minist'ering to his
ber of similar institutions, the names of own vanity, but postponed the publica-
which, now almost their sole remains, tion of his own productions to the la-
are collected by the industry of Morhof bours of his coadjutors. This, and many
and Tiraboschi*. The Humorists are other valuable works belonging to the
named by Morhof as the only Italian academy existed in manuscript till lately
philosophical society anterior to the in the Albani Library at Rome. Cesi
Lynceans; their founder was Paolo collected, not a large, but an useful li-
Mancino, and the distinctive symbol brary for the use of the academy, (which
which they adopted was rain dropping was afterwards augmented on the pre-
from a cloud, with the motto Redit ag- mature death of Cesarini by the dona-
mine duld ; their title is derived from tion of his books) ; he filled a botanical
the same metaphor. The object of their garden with the rarer specimens of
union appears to have been similar to plants, and arranged a museum of natu-
that of the Lynceans, but they at no ral curiosities his palace at Rome was
;
time attained to the celebrity to which constantly open to the academicians his ;
Cesi's society rose from the moment of purse and his influence were employed
its incorporation. Cesi took the
presi- with equal liberality in their service.
dency for his life, and the celebrated Cesi's death, in 1632, put a sudden
Baptista Porta was appointed vice pre- stop to the prosperity of the society, a
sident at Naples. Stelluti acted as the consequence which may be attributed
legal representative of the society, with to the munificence with which he had
the title of procuratore. Of the other from the first sustained it: no one
two original members Anastasio de Filiis could be found to fin his place in the
was dead, and although Hecke returned princely manner to which the academi-
to Italy in 1614, and rejoined the Aca- cians were accustomed, and the society,
demy, yet he was soon afterwards struck after lingering some years under the no-
off the list in consequence of his
lapsing
minal patronage of Urban VIII., gra-
dually decayed, till, by the death of
into insanity. Among the academicians its
we find the names of Galileo, Fabio Co- principal members, and dispersion of the
*
PolyhistorLiterarius, &e. Storia della Letterat. rest, it became entirely extinct*. Bianchi,
Ital. The still existing: society of Chaff, more pene-
rally known by its Italian title, DeflaCrusca, belongs * F. Colonnae
Phytobasanus Jano Planco Auctore.
to the same period. Florent, 1?44.
GALILEO. 39
whose sketch of the academy was with the laws and history of their fellow-
almost the only one till the appearance ship; and I hope the like in due time
of Odescalchi's history, made an attempt from our Royal Society; that so such as
to revive it in the succeeding century, envie their fame and felicity, and such
but without any permanent effect. A as suspect their ability and candor, may
society under the same name has been be silenced and disappointed in their de-
formed since 1784, and is still flourish- tractions and *
expectations."
ing in Rome. Before leaving the sub-
ject it may be mentioned, that one of the
earliest notices that Bacon's works were
CHAPTER X.
known in Italy is to be found in a letter Spots on the Sun Essay on Floating
to Cesi, dated 1625 in which Pozzo,
; Bodies Scheiner Change in Sa-
who had gone to Paris with Cardinal turn.
Barberino, mentions having seen them
there with great admiration, and sug- GALILEO did not indulge the curiosity
gests that Bacon would be a fit person of his Roman friends by exhibiting only
to be proposed as a member of their the wonders already mentioned, which
society. After Galileo's death, three of now began to lose the gloss of novelty,
his principal followers, Viviani, Torri- but disclosed a new discovery, which ap-
celli, and Aggiunti formed the plan of es- peared still more extraordinary, and, to
tablishing a similar philosophical society, the opposite faction, more hateful than
and though Aggiunti and Torricelli died anything of which he had yet spoken.
before the scheme could be realized, This was the discovery, which he first
Viviani pressed it forward, and, under made in the month of March, 1611, of
the auspices of Ferdinand II., formed a dark spots on the body of the sun. A
society, which, in 1657, merged in the curious fact, and one which well serves to
famous Academia del Cimento, or Ex- illustrate Galileo's superiority in seeing
perimental Academy. This latter held things simply as they are, is, that these
its occasional meetings at the palace of spots had been observed and recorded
Ferdinand's brother, Leopold de' Medici : centuries before he existed, but, for want
it was of careful observation, their true nature
composed chiefly, if not entirely,
of Galileo's pupils and friends. During had been constantly misapprehended.
the few years that this society lasted, one One of the most celebrated occasions
of the principal objects of which was was in the year 807 of our era, in which
declared to be the repetition and deve- a dark spot is mentioned as visible on
lopement of Galileo's experiments, it the face of the sun during seven or eight
kept up a correspondence with the prin- days. It was then supposed to be Mer-
spots announced, than he, with that figures were very irregular, some being
candour which as much as his flighty very dark, and others not so black that ;
disposition certainly characterized him one would often divide into three or four,
at all times, retracted his former opinion, and, at other times, two, three, or more
and owned his belief that he had been would unite into one besides which,
;
mistaken. In fact it is known from the that they had all a common and regular
more accurate theory which we now pos- motion, with which they revolved ground
sess of Mercury's motions, that it did not with the sun, which turned upon its axis
pass over the sun's face at the time when in about the time of a lunar month.
Kepler thought he perceived it there. Having by these prefatory observa-
Galileo's "observations were in their tions assuaged the public thirst for as-
consequences to him particularly unfor- tronomical novelties, he ventures to in-
tunate, as in the course of the contro- troduce the principal subject of the trea-
versy in which they engaged him, he first tise above mentioned. The question of
became personally embroiled with the floating bridges had been discussed at
powerful party, whose prevailing influ- one of the scientific parties, assembled
ence was one of the chief causes of his at the house of Galileo's friend Salviati,
subsequent misfortunes. Before we enter and the general opinion of the com-
upon that discussion, it will be proper to pany appearing to be that the floating
mention another famous treatise which or sinking of a body depended princi-
Galileo produced soon after his return pally upon its shape, Galileo undertook
from Rome to Florence, in 1612. This to convince them of their error. If he
is, his Discourse on Floating Bodies, had not preferred more direct arguments,
which restored Archimedes' theory of he might merely have told them that in
hydrostatics, and has, of course, met
with this instance they were opposed to their
the opposition which few of Galileo's favourite Aristotle, whose words are very
works failed to encounter. In the com- unequivocal on the point in dispute.
" Form is not the cause
mencement, he thought it necessary to why a body
apologize for writing on a subject so dif- moves downwards rather than upwards,
ferent from that which chiefly occupied but it does affect the swiftness with
"
the public attention, and declared that he which it moves ; * which is exactly the
had been too closely occupied in calcu- distinction which those who called them-
lating the periods of the revolutions of selves Aristotelians were unable to per-
Jupiter's satellites to permit
him to pub- ceive, and to which the opinions of Aris-
lish anything earlier. These periods he totle himself were not always true. Ga-
had succeeded in determining during the lileo statesthe discussion to have imme-
preceding year, whilst at Rome, and he diately arisen from the assertion of some
now announced them to complete their one in the company, that condensation is
circuits, the first in about 1 day, 18 the effect of cold, and ice was mentioned
hours the second in 3 days, 13 hours,
;
as an instance. On this, Galileo observed,
20 minutes the third in 7 days, 4 hours ;
;
that ice is rather water rarefied than con-
and the outermost in 16 days, 18 hours. densed, the proof of which is, that ice
All these numbers he gave merely as always floats upon water/}- It was re-
approximately true, and promised to con- plied, that thereason of this phenomenon
tinue his observations, for the purpose of was, not the superior lightness of the
correcting the results. He then adds an ice, but its incapacity, owing to its flat
announcement of his recent discovery of shape, to penetrate and overcome the
"
the solar spots, which, as they change resistance of the water. Galileo denied
their situation, offer a strong argument, this, and asserted that ice of any shape
either that the sun revolves on itself, or would float upon water, and that, if a
that, perhaps, other stars, like Venus and * De Coelo. lib. 4.
Mercury, revolve about it, invisible at all i
flat piece of ice were forcibly taken to The marrow of the dispute is included
the bottom, it would of itself rise again in Galileo's assertion, that "The diversity
of figure given to any solid cannot be in
to the surface. Upon this assertion it
appears that the conversation became so any way the cause of its absolutely sink-
clamorous, that Galileo thought it perti- ing or floating so that if a solid, when
;
nent to commence his Essay with the formed for example into a spherical
following observation on the advantage figure, sinks or floats in the water, the
of delivering scientific opinions in writ- same body will sink or float in the same
" because in conversational
ing, argu- water, when put into any other form.
ments, either one or other party, or per- The breadth of the figure may indeed
haps both, are apt to get overwarm, and retard its velocity, as well of ascent as
to speak overloud, and either do not descent, and more and more according
suffer each other to be heard, or else, as the said figure is reduced to a greater
transported with the obstinacy of not breadth and thinness ; but that it may
yielding, wander far away from
the ori- be reduced to such a form as absolutely
to put an end to its motion in the same
ginal proposition, and confound both
themselves and their auditors with the fluid, I hold to be impossible. In this
novelty and variety of their assertions." I have met with great contradictors
After this gentle rebuke he proceeds with who, producing some experiments, and
his argument, in which he takes occa- in particular a thin board of ebony,
sion to state the famous hydrostatical and a ball of the same wood, and shew-
paradox, of which the earliest notice is ing that the ball in water sinks to the
to be found in Stevin's works, a contem- bottom*, and that the board if put lightly
porary Flemish engineer, and refers it to on the surface floats, have held and con-
a principle on which we shall enlarge in firmed themselves in their opinion with
another chapter. He then explains the the
authority
of Aristotle, that the cause
true theory of buoyancy, and refutes the of that rest is the breadth of the figure,
false reasoning on which the contrary unable by its small weight to pierce and
opinions were founded, with a variety of penetrate the resistance of the water's
experiments. thickness, which is readily overcome by
The whole value and interest of expe- the other spherical figure." For the pur-
rimental processes generally depends on pose of these experiments, Galileo re-
a variety of minute circumstances, the commends a substance such as wax,
detail of which would be particularly which may be easily moulded into any
unsuited to a sketch like the present shape, and with which, by the addition
one, For those who are desirous of be- of a few filings of lead, a substance may
coming more familiar with Galileo's be readily made of any required specific
mode of conducting an argument, it is gravity. He
then declares that if a ball
fortunate that such a series of experi- of wax of the size of an orange, or bigger,
ments exists as that contained in this be made in this manner heavy enough
essay ;experiments which, from their to sink to the bottom, but so lightly that
if we take from it only one grain of lead
simplicity, admit of being for the most
it returns to the top ; and if the same
part concisely enumerated, and at the
same time possess so much intrinsic wax be afterwards moulded into a broad
beauty and characteristic power of forc- and thin cake, or into any other figure,
ing conviction. They also present an ad- regular or irregular, the addition of the
mirable specimen of the talent for which same grain of lead will always make it
Galileo was so deservedly famous, of in- sink, and it will again rise when we re-
move the lead "
venting ingenious arguments in favour from it. But methinks
of his adversaries' absurd opinions before I hear some of the adversaries raise a
he condescended to crush them, shew- doubt upon my produced experiment:
ing that nothing but his love of truth and, first, they offer to my consideration
stood in the way of his being a more that the figure, as a figure simply, and
subtle sophist than any amongst them. disjunct from the matter, works no effect,
In addition to these reasons for giving but requires to be conjoined with the
these experiments somewhat in detail, matter ; and, moreover, not with every
isthe fact that all explanation of one of matter, but with those only wherewith
the principal phenomena to which they it
may be able to execute the desired
allude is omitted in many more modern operation. Just as we see by experience
treatises on Hydrostatics ;
and in some
it is referred precisely to the false doc- *
Ebony is one of the few -\voods heavier than
trines here confuted. water. See Treatise on Hydrostatics.
GALILEO.
that an acute and sharp angle is more hand, to the resistance of the matter to
apt to cut than an obtuse yet always ;
be penetrated. And, since I have chosen
provided that both one and the other are a matter which does penetrate the resist-
joined with a matter fit to cut, as for in- ance of the water, and in all figures de-
stance, steel. Therefore a knife with a scends to the bottom, my antagonists
fine and sharp edge cuts bread or wood can charge me with no defect ; nor (to
with much ease, which it will not do if revert to their illustration) have I at-
the edge be blunt and thick but if, in- ; tempted to test the efficacy of acuteness
stead of steel, any one will take wax and by cutting with matters unable to cut.
mould it into a knife, undoubtedly he will I subjoin withal, that all caution, dis-
never learn the effects of sharp and tinction, and election of matter would
blunt edges, because neither of them be superfluous and unnecessary, if the
will cut the wax being unable, by reason
; body to be cut should not at all resist
of its flexibility, to overcome the hard- the cutting if the knife were to be used
:
ness of the wood and bread. And there- in cutting a mist, or smoke, one of paper
fore, applying the like discourse to our would serve the purpose as well as one of
argument, they say that the difference of Damascus steel and I assert that this is
;
figure will shew different effects with the case with water, and that there is not
regard to floating and sinking, but not any solid of such lightness or of such a
conjoined with any kind of matter, but figure, that being put on the water it
only with those matters which by their will not divide and penetrate its thick-
weight are able to overcome the visco- ness and if you will examine more
;
sity of the water (like the ebony which carefully your thin boards of wood, you
they have selected) and he that will will see that they have part of their
;
select cork or other light wood to form thickness under water and, moreover, ;
solids of different figures, would in vain you will see that the shavings of ebony,
seek to find out what operation figure stone, or metal, when they float, have
has in sinking or floating, because all not only thus broken the continuity of
would swim, and that not through any the water, but are with all their thick-
property of this or that figure, but ness under the surface of it and that ;
through the debility of the matter." more and more, according as the float-
" When I
begin to examine one by one ing substance is heavier, so that a thin
all the particulars here produced, I allow floating plate of lead will be lower than
not only that figures, simply as such, do the surface of the surrounding water by
not operate in natural things, but also that at least twelve times the thickness of the
they are never separated from fehe corpo- plate, and gold will dive below the level
real substance, nor have I ever alleged of the water almost twenty times the
them to be stript of sensible matter: thickness of the plate, as I shall shew
and also 1 freely admit, that in our en- presently."
deavours to examine the diversity of In order to illustrate more clearly
accidents which depend upon the variety the non-resistance of water to pene-
of figures, it is necessary to apply them tration, Galileo then directs a cone
to matters which obstruct not the various to be made of wood or wax, and as-
operations of those various figures. I serts that when it floats, either with its
admit and grant that I should do very ill base or point in the water, the solid
if 1 were to try the influence of a sharp content of the part immersed will be the
edge with a knife of wax, applying it to same, although the point is, by its shape,
cut an oak, because no sharpness in wax better adapted to overcome the resist-
is able to cut that very hard wood. But ance of the water to division, if that
yet, such an experiment of this knife were the cause of the buoyancy. Or the
would not be beside the purpose to cut experiment may be varied by tempering
curded milk, or other very yielding mat- the wax with filings of lead, till it sinks
ter; nay, in such matters, the wax is in the water, when it will be found that
more convenient than steel for finding in any figure the same cork must be
the difference depending on the acute- added to it to raise it to the surface.
" This silences not
ness of the angles, because milk is cut my antagonists but ;
indifferently with a razor, or a blunt they say that all the discourse hitherto
knife. We
must therefore have regard made by me imports little to them, and
not only to the hardness, solidity, or that serves their turn, that they have
it
weight of the bodies which, under dif- demonstrated in one instance, and in such
ferent figures, are to divide some mat- manner and figure as pleases them best,
ters asunder; but also, oji the other namely, in a board and a ball of ebony,
GALILEO. 43
that one, when put into the water, sinks the walnut-tree is less than the ebony's
to the bottom, and that the other stays force for going to the bottom."
to swim at the top; and the matter "Now, let us return to the thin plate of
being the same, and the two bodies
dif- gold or silver, or the thin board of ebony,
fering in nothing but
in figure, they and let us lay it lightly upon the water, so
affirm that with all perspicuity they that it may stay there without sinking,
have demonstrated and sensibly mani- and carefully observe the effect. It will
fested what they undertook. Neverthe- appear clearly that the plates are a consi-
less I believe,and think I can prove derable matter lower than the surface of
that this very experiment proves nothing the water which rises up, and makes a
against my theory. And first it is kind of rampart round them on every
false that the ball sinks, and the board side, in the manner shewn in the an-
not for the board will sink too, if you
;
nexed figure, in which BDLF repre-
do to both the figures as the words of
our question require ; that is, if you put
them both in the water ; for to be in
the water implies to be placed in the
water, and by Aristotle's own definition
of place, to be placed imports to be en-
vironed by the surface of the am,bient
body ; but when my antagonists shew
the floating board of ebony, they put it sents the surface of the water, and
not into the water, but upon the water ; A E I O the surface of the plate. But if
where, being detained by a certain im- ithave already penetrated and overcome
pediment (of which more anon) it is sur- the continuity of the water, and is of its
rounded, partly with water, partly with own nature heavier than the water, why
air, which is contrary to our agreement, does it not continue to sink, but stop
for that was that the bodies should be and suspend itself in that little dimple
in the water, and not part in the water, that its weight has made in the water ?
part in the air. I will not omit another My answer is, because in sinking till its
reason, founded also upon experience, surface is below the water which rises
and, if I deceive not myself, conclu- up in a bank round it, it draws after and
sive against the notion that figure, and carries along with it the air above it, so
the resistance of the water to" penetra- that that which in this case descends and
tion have anything to do with the buoy- is placed in the water, is not
only the
ancy of bodies. Choose a piece of wood board of ebony or plate of iron, but a
or other matter, as for instance walnut- compound of ebony and air, from which
wood, of which a ball rises from the composition results a solid no longer
bottom of the water to the surface more specifically heavier than the water, as was
of the same the ebony or gold alone. But, Gentlemen,
slowly than a ball of ebony
size sinks, so that clearly the ball of we want the same matter; you are to
ebony divides the water more readily in alter nothing but the shape, "and there-
sinking than does the walnut fore have the goodness to remove this
in rising.
Then take a board of walnut-tree equal air, which may be done simply by wash-
to and like the floating ebony one of ing the upper surface of the board, for
my antagonists and if it be true that
;
the water having once got between the
this latter floats by reason of the figure board and air will run together, and the
the
being unable to penetrate the water, ebony will go to the bottom ; and if it
other of walnut-tree, without all ques- does not, you have won the day. But
tion, if thrust to the bottom ought to methinks I hear some of
my antagonists
stay there, as having the same impeding cunningly opposing this, and telling me
less apt to overcome that they wul not on any account allow
figure, and being
the said resistance of the water. But if their board to be wetted, because the
we find by experience that not only the weight of the water so added, by making
thin board, but every other figure of the it heavier than it was before, draws it to
same walnut-tree will return to float, as the bottom, and that the addition of new
I must
unquestionably we shall, then weight is contrary to our agreement,
desire my opponents to forbear to attri- which was that the matter should be the
bute the floating of the ebony to the same."
since the resistance
" To this I answer
figure of the board, first, that nobody
of the water is the same in rising as in can suppose bodies to be put into the
sinking, and the
force of ascension of water without their being wet, nor do I
44 GALILEO.
wish to do more to the board than you quite smooth 'and even. This, if put
may do to the ball. Moreover, it is not gently into the water, submerges almost
true that the board sinks on account of entirely, there remaining visible only a
the weight of the water added in the little of the very top, which, so
long as
washing for I will put ten or twenty
;
it is
joined to the air, keeps the ball
drops on the floating board, and so long afloat ; but if we take away the contact
as they stand separate it shall not sink ; of the air by wetting this 'top, the ball
but if the board be taken out, and all sinks to the bottom, and remains there.
that water wiped off, and the whole sur- Now to make it return to the surface
face bathed with one single drop, and by virtue of the air which before sus-
put it again upon the water, there is no tained it, thrust into the water a glass,
question but it will sink, the other water with the mouth downwards, which will
running to cover it, being no longer carry with it the air it contains ; and
hindered by the air. In the next place move this down towards the ball, until
altogether false that water can in
it is you see by the transparency of the glass
any way increase the weight of bodies that the air has reached the top of it ;
immersed in it, for water has no weight then gently draw the glass upwards, and
in water, since it does not sink. Now, you will see the ball rise, and afterwards
just as he who should say that brass stay on the top of the water, if you care-
by its own nature sinks, but that when fully part the glass and water without
formed into the shape of a kettle, it ac- too much disturbing it*. There is
quires from that figure a virtue of lying therefore a certain affinity between the
in the water without sinking, would say air and other bodies, which holds them
what is false, because that is not purely united, so that they separate not without
brass which then is put into the water, a kind of violence, just as between water
but a compound of brass and air so is ;
and other bodies ; for in drawing them
it neither more nor less false, that a thin wholly out of the water, we see the water
plate of brass or ebony swims by virtue follow them, and rise sensibly above the
of its dilated and broad figure. Also I level before it quits them." Having
cannot omit to tell my opponents, that established this principle by this exceed-
this conceit of refusing to bathe the sur- ingly ingenious and convincing experi-
face of the board, might beget an opinion ment, Galileo proceeds to shew from it
in a third person of a poverty of argu- what must be the dimensions of a plate
ments on their side, especially as the of any substance which will float as the
conversation began about flakes of ice, wax does, assuming in each case that
in which it would be simple to require we know the greatest height at which
that the surfaces should be kept dry; the rampart of water will stand round
not to mention that such pieces of ice, it. In like manner he shows that a py-
whether wet or dry, always float, and ramidal or conical figure may be made
as my antagonists say, because of their of any substance, such that by help of
1'
the air, it shall rest upon the water with-
shape.
" Some out wetting more than its base ; and
may wonder that I affirm this
to be in the air of keeping the that we may so form a cone of any sub-
power
stance that it shall float if placed gently
plate of brass or silver above water,
as
if in a certain sense I would attribute to on the surface, with its point downwards,
the air a kind of magnetic virtue for sus- whereas no care or pains will enable it
with base downwards, owing
taining heavy bodies with which it is
to float, its
in contact. To satisfy all these doubts, to the different proportions of air which
I have contrived the following experi- in the two positions remain connected
ment to demonstrate how truly the air with it. With this parting blow at his
does support these solids ; for I have antagonist's theory we close our ex-
found, when one of these bodies which tracts from this admirable essay.
floats when placed lightly on the water, The first elements of the theory of
is thoroughly bathed and sunk to the running waters were reserved for Castelli,
bottom, that by carrying down to it a an intimate friend and pupil of Galileo.
little air without otherwise touching it On the present occasion, Castelli ap-
in the least, I am able to raise and carry peared as the ostensible author of a de-
it back to the top, where it floats as
before. To this effect I take a ball of * In
making this very beautiful experiment, it is
best to keep the glass a few seconds in the water, to
wax, and with a little lead make it just time for the surface of the ball to dry. It will
give
heavy enough to sink very slowly to the also succeed with a light needle, if carefully con-
bottom, taking care that its surface be ducted.
GALILEO.
fence against the attacks made by Vin- non, although it is admirable to see
cenzio di Grasia and by Lodovico delle the contempt with which, even in that
Columbe (the author of the crystalline trying moment, he expresses his con-
composition of the moon) on the ob- sciousness that his adversaries were
noxious theory. After destroying all the unworthy of the triumph they"appeared
objections which they produced, the , on the point of celebrating. Looking
writer tauntingly bids them remember, on Saturn within these few days, 1 found
that he was merely Galileo's pupil, and it solitary, without the assistance of its
consider how much more effectually accustomed stars, and in short, per-
Galileo himself would have confuted fectly round and defined like Jupiter, and
them, had he thought it worth while. It such it still remains. Now what can
was not known till several years after be said of so strange a metamorphosis ?
his death, that this Essay was in fact are perhaps the two smaller stars con-
written by Galileo himself.* sumed, like the spots on the sun ? have
These compositions merely occupied they suddenly vanished and fled ? or has
the leisure time which he could withhold Saturn devoured his own children? or
from the controversy on the solar spots was the appearance indeed fraud and
to which we have already alluded. A illusion,with which the glasses have for
German Jesuit named Christopher so long,a time mocked me, and so many
Scheiner, who was professor of mathe- others who have often observed with me. J
matics at Ingolstadt, in imitation of Ga- Now perhaps the time is come to revive
'
lileo had commenced a series of obser- the withering hopes of those, who, guided
vations on them, but adopted the theory by more profound contemplations, have
which, as we have seen, Galileo had exa- fathomed all the fallacies of the new ob-
mined and rejected, that these spots are servations and recognised their impossi-
planets circulating at some distance from bility! 1 cannot resolve what to say in
the body of the sun. The same opinion a chance so strange, so new, and so un-
had been taken up by a French astrono- expected ;
the shortness of the time, the
mei, who in honour of the reigning fa- unexampled occurrence, the weakness of
mily called them Borbonian stars. my intellect, and the terror of being mis-
Scheiner promulgated his notions in taken, have greatly confounded me."
three letters, addressed to their common These first expressions of alarm are not
friend Welser, under the quaint signature to be wondered at; however, he soon
of " Apelles latenspost tabulam." Galileo recovered courage, and ventured to fore-
tel the periods at which the lateral stars
replied to Schemer's letters by three
others, also addressed to Welser, and would again show themselves, protest-
although the dispute was carried on amid ing at the same time, that he was in no
mutual professions of respect and es- respect to be understood as classing this
teem, it laid the foundation of the total prediction among the results which de-
estrangement which afterwards took pend on certain principles and sound
place between the two authors. Galileo's conclusions, but merely on some conjec-
part of this controversy was published tures which appeared to him probable.
at Rome by the Lyncean Academy in From one of the Dialogues on the Sys-
1613. To the last of his letters, writ- tem, we learn that this conjecture was,
ten in December, 1612, is annexed a that Saturn might revolve upon his axis,
table of the expected positions of Ju- but the period which he assumed is very
piter's satellites during the months of different from the true one, as might be
March and April of the following year, expected from its being intended to ac-
which, imperfect as it necessarily was, count for a phenomenon of which Galileo
cannot be looked upon without the had not rightly apprehended the cha-
greatest interest. racter.
In the same letter it is mentioned that He closed this letter with renewed
Saturn presented a novel appearance, professions of courtesy and friendship
which, for an instant, almost induced towards Apelles, enjoining Welser not
Galileo to mistrust the accuracy of his to communicate it without his
adding
earlier observations. The
ap- lateral excuses, if he should be thought to dis-
pendages of this planet had disappeared, sent too violently from his antagonist's
and the accompanying extract will show ideas, declaring that his only object was
the uneasiness which Galileo could not the discovery of truth, and that he had
conceal at the sight of this phenome- freelyexposed his own opinion, which he
was ready to change, so soon as his
still
.* Nelli. Saggio di Stor. Liter, Fiorent. errors should be made manifest to him ;
46 GALILEO.
and that he would consider himself under pressions contained in the Scriptures ,
special obligation to any one who would and asserted, that the object of the Scrip-
be kind enough to discover and correct tures not being to teach astronomy, suoh
them. These letters were written from expressions are there used as would be
the villa of his friend Salviati at Selve intelligible and conformable to the vulgar
near Florence, where he passed great belief, without regard to the true struc-
part of his time, particularly during his ture of the universe ; which argument
frequent indispositions, conceiving that he afterwards amplified in a letter ad-
the air of Florence was prejudicial to him. dressed to Christina, Grand Duchess of
Cesi was very anxious for their appear- Tuscany, the mother of his patron
ance, since they were (in his own words) Cosmo. He discourses on this subject
so hard a morsel for the teeth of the with the moderation and good sense
Peripatetics, and he exhorted Galileo, in which so peculiarly characterized him.
the name of the society, " to continue "I am," says he, "inclined to believe,
to give them, and the nameless Jesuit, that the intention of the sacred Scriptures
is to give to mankind the information
something to gnaw."
necessary for their salvation, and which,
CHAPTER XI. surpassing all human knowledge, can by
no other means be accredited than by
Letter to Christina, Arch-Duchess of
the mouth of the Holy Spirit. But I do
Tuscany Caccini Galileo revisits
not hold it
necessary to believe, that the
Rome Inchoffer Problem of Lon-
same God who has endowed us with
gitudes.
senses, with speech, and intellect, in-
THE uncompromising boldness with tended that we should neglect the use of
which Galileo published and supported these, and seek by other means for
his opinions, with little regard to the knowledge which they are sufficient to
power and authority of those who ad- procure us especially in a science like
;
not reconcile themselves to their new the sacred Scripture and nature did
situation of learners, were united against both alike proceed, and I conceive that,
him and to this powerful cabal was
; concerning natural effects, that which
now added the still greater influence of either sensible experience sets before
the Jesuits and pseudo-theological party, our eyes, or necessary demonstrations do
who fancied they saw in the spirit of prove unto us, ought not upon any ac-
Galileo's writings the same inquisitive count to be called into question, much
temper which they had already found less condemned, upon the testimony of
so inconvenient in Luther and his ad- Scriptural texts, which may under their
herents. The alarm became greater words couch senses seemingly contrary
every day, inasmuch as Galileo had thereto.
"
succeeded in training round him a nu- Again, to command the very pro-
merous band of followers who all ap- fessors of astronomy that they of them-
peared imbued with the same dangerous selves see to the confuting of their own
spirit of innovation, and his favourite observations and demonstrations, is to
scholars were successful candidates for enjoin a thing beyond all possibility of
professorships in many of the most cele- doing ; for it is not only to command
brated universities of Italy. them not to see that which they do see,
At the close of 1 6 13, Galileo addressed and not to understand that which they
a letter to his pupil, the Abbe Castelli, do understand, but it is to order them to
in which he endeavoured to shew that seek for and to find the contraiy of that
there is as much difficulty in reconciling which they happen to meet with. I would
the Ptolemaic as the Copernican system entreat these wise and prudent fathers,
of the world with the astronomical ex- that they would with all diligence consi-
GALILEO. 47
der the difference that is between Opinion- pulpit, by a Dominican friar named.
ative and demonstrative doctrines: to Caccini, who thought it not unbecoming
the end that well weighing in their minds his habit or religion to play upon the
with what force necessary inferences urge words of a Scriptural text for the pur-
us, they might the better assure them- pose ^of attacking Galileo and his parti-
selves that it is not in the power of the sans with more personality*. Galileo
professors of demonstrative sciences to complained formally of Caccini' s con-
change their opinions at pleasure, and duct to Luigi Maraffi the general of the
adopt first one side and then another; Dominicans, who apologised amply to
and that there is a great difference be- him, adding that he himself was to be
tween commanding a mathematician or pitied for finding himself implicated in
a philosopher, and the disposing of a all the brutal conduct of thirty or
forty
lawyer or a merchant and that the
;
thousand monks.
demonstrated conclusions touching the In the mean time, the inquisitors at
things of nature and of the heavens can- Rome had taken the alarm, and were
not be changed with the same facility already, in 1615, busily employed in col-
as the opinions are touching what is lecting evidence against Galileo. Lorini,
lawful or not in a contract, bargain, or a brother Dominican of Caccini, had
bill of exchange. Therefore, first let given them notice of the letter to Cas-
these men apply themselves to examine telli of which we have spoken, and the
the arguments of Copernicus and others, utmost address was employed to get the
and leave the condemning of them as original into their hands, which attempt
erroneous and heretical to whom it be- however was frustrated, as Castelli had
longeth yet let them not hope to find
;
returned to the writer.
it Caccini was
such rash and precipitous determinations sent for to Rome, settled there with the
in the wary and holy fathers, or in the title of Master of the Convent of St.
absolute wisdom of him who cannot err, Mary of Minerva, and employed to put
as those into which they suffer them- the depositions against Galileo into
selves to be hurried by some particular order. Galileo was not at this time
affection or interest of their own. In fully aware of the machinations against
these and such other positions, which him, but suspecting something of their
are not directly articles of faith, certainly nature, he solicited and obtained per-
no man doubts but His Holiness hath mission from Cosmo, towards the end of
always an absolute power of admitting 1615, to make a journey to Rome, for
or condemning them, but it is not in the purpose of more directly confronting
the power of any creature to make them his enemies in that city. There was a
to be true or false, otherwise than of rumour at the time that this visit was
their own nature, and in fact they are." not voluntary, but that Galileo had been
We have been more particular in ex- cited to appear at Rome. A contempo-
tracting these passages, because it has rary declares that
he heard this from
been advanced by a writer of high re- Galileo himself at any rate, in a letter
:
putation, that the treatment which which Galileo shortly afterwards wrote
Galileo subsequently experienced was to Picchena, the Grand Duke's secre-
ought to withhold that assistance which that the earth was not created till after
the heavens, observes that the whole
my knowledge affords ; and this business
keeps me sufficiently employed." De question is thus reduced to the exami-
Lambre, whose readiness to depreciate nation of this purely geometrical diffi-
Galileo's merit we have already noticed culty In the formation of a sphere, does
and lamented, sneeringly and ungrate- the centre or circumference first come
into existence ? If the latter (which we
fully remarks on this part of his life, that
" it was
scarcely worth while to compro- presume Melchior' s friend found good
mise his tranquillity and reputation, in reason for deciding upon), the conse-
order to become the champion of a quence is inevitable. The earth is in the
truth which could not fail every day to centre of the universe.
It may not be unprofitable to contrast
acquire new partisans by the natural
of the the extracts which we have given from
effect progress of enlightened
opinions." We need not stop to con- Galileo's letters on the same subject with
sider what the natural effects might the following passage, which appears
have been if none had at any time been one of the most subtle and argumen-
found who thought their tranquillity * Tractatus
Syllepticns. Roma;, "1633. The
worthily offered up in such a cause. title-page of thisremarkable production is decorated
It has been hinted by several, and is with an emblematical figure, representing the earth
included in a triangle and in the three corner*,
;
tative which is to be found in Melchior's very sound reasons for their change of
book. He
professes to be enumerating; opinion, of whom we have an instance
and refuting the principal arguments in Origanus, the astrological instructor
which the Copernicans adduced for of Wallenstein's famous attendant Seni,
the motion of the earth. " Fifth argu- who edited his work. His arguments
ment. Hell is in the centre of the earth, in favour of the earth's motion are
and in it is a fire tormenting the damned ; quite on a level with those advanced on
therefore it is absolutely necessary that the opposite side in favour of its immo-
the earth is moveable. The antecedent bility but we have not found any traces
;
until it pleased those gentlemen to sus- from the difference between the two,
pend the book, and declare the opinion learn the difference between the hour at
false and repugnant to the Holy Scrip- Florence and the hour at the place where
tures. Now, as I know how well it be- the ship at that time happened to be.
comes me to obey and believe the deci- As the earth turns uniformly round
sions of my superiors, which proceed through 360 of longitude in 24 hours,
out of more profound knowledge than that is, through 1 5 in each hour, the
the weakness of my intellect can attain hours, minutes, and seconds of time
to, this theory which 1 send you, which which express this difference must be
is founded on the motion of the earth, I multiplied by 15, and the respective pro-
now look upon as a fiction and a dream, ducts will give the degrees, minutes,
and beg your highness to receive it as and seconds of longitude, by which the
such. But, as poets often learn to prize ship was then distant from Florence.
the creations of their fancy, so, in like This statement is merely intended to
manner, do I set some value on this give those who are unacquainted with
absurdity of mine. It is true that when astronomy, a general idea of the manner
I sketched this little work, I did hope in which it was proposed to use these
that Copernicus would not, after 80 satellites.Our moon had already been
years, be convicted of error, and I had occasionally employed in the same way,
intended to develope and amplify it far- but the comparative frequency of the
ther, but a voice from heaven suddenly eclipses of Jupiter's moons, and the
awakened me, and at once annihilated suddenness with which they disappear,
all my confused and entangled fancies." gives a decided advantage to the new
It might have been predicted, from method. Both methods were embar-
the tone of this letter alone, that it would rassed by the difficulty of observing the
not be long before Galileo would again eclipses at sea. In addition to this, it
bring himself under the censuring notice was requisite, in both methods, that the
of the astronomical hierarchy, and in- sailors should be provided with accurate
deed he had, so early as 1610, collected means of knowing the hour, wherever
some of the materials for the work which they might chance to be, which was far
GALILEO. 51
from being: the case, for although (in due assistance and diligence be not want-
order not to interrupt the explanation) ing on the part of those who are to re-
we have above spoken of their watches, ceive it, and who should solicit and foster
yet the watches and clocks of that day
it." But he could not, with all his en-
were not such as could be relied on suffi- thusiasm, rouse the attention of the
ciently, during the interval which must Spanish court. The negotiation lan-
necessarily occur between the two ob- guished, and although occasionally re-
servations. This consideration led Ga- newed during the next ten or twelve
lileo to reflect on the use which might years, was never brought to a satisfactory
be made of his pendulum for this pur- issue. Some explanation of this other-
pose and, with respect to the other diffi-
;
wise unaccountable apathy of the Spanish
culty, he contrived a peculiar kind of court, with regard to the solution of a
telescope, with which he flattered him- problem which they had certainly much
somewhat prematurely, that it would
self, at heart, given in Nelli's life of Galileo ;
is
fectly just, although the opinion which ther tedious examination of Grassi s
occasioned it is now
as certainly known Essay; nor do the arguments seem so
to be erroneous, but it is questionable satisfactory, nor the reasonings so com-
whether the observations which, up to pact as is generally the case in Galileo's
that time, had been made upon comets, other writings. It does however, like
were sufficient, either in number or qua- all his other works, contain many very
lity, to justify the censure which has remarkable passages, and the celebrity
been cast on Galileo for his opinion. The of this production requires that we
theory, moreover, is merely introduced should extract one or two of the most
as an hypothesis in Guiducci's essay. characteristic.
The same opinion was for a short time The first,though a very short one, will
embraced by Cassini, a celebrated Italian serve to shew the tone which Galileo
astronomer, invited by Louis XIV. to had taken with respect to the Coperni-
the Observatory at Paris, when the can system since its condemnation at
science was considerably more advanced, Rome, in 1616. "In conclusion, since
and Newton, in his Principia, did not the motion attributed to the earth, which
think it unworthy of him to show on I, as a pious and Catholic person, con-
what grounds it is untenable. sider most false, and not to exist,
Galileo was become the object of ani- accommodates itself so well to explain so
mosity in so many quarters that none many and such different phenomena,
of his published opinions, whether cor- I shall not feel sure, unless Sarsi de-
rect or incorrect, ever wanted a ready scends to more distinct considerations
antagonist. The champion on the pre- than those which he has yet produced,
sent occasion was again a Jesuit ; his that, false as it is, it
may not just as
name was Oratio Grassi, who
published deludingly correspond with the pheno-
The Astronomical and Philosophical mena of comets."
Balance, under the disguised signature Sarsi had quoted a story from Suidas
of Lotario Sarsi. in support of his argument that motion
Galileo and his friends were anxious always produces heat, how the Babylo-
that his reply to Grassi should appear nians used to cook their eggs by whirl-
as quickly as possible, but his health ing them in a sling ; to which Galileo
had become so precarious and his fre-
" I cannot refrain from mar-
replies :
quent illnesses occasioned so many in- velling that Sarsi will persist in proving
terruptions, that it was not until the au- to me, by authorities, that which at any
tumn of 1623 that II Saggiatore (or The moment I can bring to the test of ex-
Assayer) as he called his answer, was periment. We
examine witnesses in
ready for publication. This was printed things which are doubtful, past, and
by the Lvncean and as Cardi-
Academy,
not permanent, but not in those things
nal Mafrco Barberino, wno had just been which are 'done in our own presence.
elected Pope, (with the title of Urban If discussing a difficult problem were
VIII.) had been closely connected with like carrying a weight, since several
that society, and was also a personal horses will carry more sacks of corn
friend of Cesi and of Galileo, it was than one alone will, I would agree that
thought a prudent precaution to dedicate many reasoners avail more than one ;
the pamphlet to him. This essay enjoys but discoursing is like coursing, and
a peculiar reputation among Galileo's not like carrying, and one barb by
works, not only for the matter contained himself will run farther than a hundred
in it, but also for the style in which it Friesland horses. When Sarsi brings
is written ;
insomuch that
Andres*, up such a multitude of authors, it does
when eulogizing Galileo as one of the not seem to me that he in the least
earliest who adorned philosophical truths degree strengthens his own conclusions,
with the graces and ornaments of lan- but he ennobles the cause of Signor
guage, expressly instances the Saggia- Mario and myself, by she wing that we rea-
son better than many men of established
* Dell' Origine
d'ogai Literatura :
Parma, 1787. reputation. If Sarsi insists that I believe,
GALILEO. 53
on Suidas' credit, that the Babylonians has boundaries, and is of some shape
its
value on such great endowments than tongues, and noses were removed, I am
on the fallacies of a fellow man, and of opinion that shape, number, and
blindly and blunderingly believe what- motion would remain, but there would
ever I hear, and barter the freedom of be an end of smells, tastes, and sounds,
my intellect for slavery to one as liable which, abstractedly from the living
to error as myself." creature, I take to be mere words."
Our final extract shall exhibit a sample In the spring following the publica-
of Galileo's metaphysics, in which may "
tion of the Saggiatore," that is to say,
be observed the germ of a theory about the time of Easter, in 1624, Gali-
very closely allied to that which was leo went a third time to Rome to
afterwards developed by Locke and compliment Urban on his elevation to
" I have now to fulfil the pontifical chair. He was obliged to
Berkeley. only my
promise of declaring my opinions on the make this journey in a litter ; and it ap-
proposition that motion is the cause of pears from his letters that for some
heat, and to explain in what manner it years he had been seldom able to bear
appears to me that it true. But
may be any other mode of conveyance. In such
I must first make some remarks on that a state of health it seems unlikely that
which we call heat, since I strongly he would have quitted home on a mere
suspect that a notion of it prevails visit of ceremony, which suspicion is
which is very remote from the truth for ; strengthened by the beginning of a letter
it is believed that there is a true acci- from him to Prince Cesi, dated in Oc-
" I
dent, affection, and quality, really inherent tober, 1 623, in which he says : have
in the substance by which we feel our- received the very courteous and prudent
selves heated. This much I have to advice of your excellency about the
say, that so soon as I conceive a material time and manner of my going to Rome,
or corporeal substance, I simultaneously and shall act upon it ; and 1 will visit
feel the necessity of conceiving that it you at Acqua Sparta, that I may bq
54 GALILEO.
completely informed of the actual state married, in 1624, Sestilia, the daughter
of things at Rome." However this may of Carlo Bocchineri. There are no
be, nothing could be more gratifying traces to be found of Vincenzo' s mother
than his public reception there. His after 1610, and perhaps she died about
stay in Rome did not exceed two months, that time. Galileo's family by her con-
(from the beginning of April till June,) sisted of Vincenzo and two daughters,
and during that time he was admitted Julia and Polissena, who both took the
to six long and satisfactory interviews veil in the convent of Saint Matthew
with the Pope, and on his departure re- at Arcetri, under the names of Sister
ceived the promise of a pension for his Arcangiola and Sister Maria Celeste.
son Vincenzo, and was himself presented The latter is said to have possessed
with " a fine painting, two medals, one extraordinary talents. The date of Vin-
of gold and the other of silver, and a cenzo's marriage, as given by Nelli,
good quantity of agnus dei." He had appears somewhat inconsistent with the
also much communication with several correspondence between Galileo and
of the cardinals, one of whom, Cardi- Castelli, in which, so late as 1629,
nal Hohenzoller, told him that he had Galileo is apparently writing of his son
represented to the pope on the subject as a student under Castelli's
superin-
of Copernicus, that " all the heretics tendence, and intimates the amount of
were of that opinion, and considered it pocket-money he can afford to allow
as undoubted ; and that it would be him, which he fixes at three crowns a
necessary to be very circumspect in month; adding, that "he ought to be
coming to any resolution : to which his contented with as many crowns, as, at
holiness replied, that the church had his age, I possessed groats." Castelli
not condemned nor was it to be con-
it, had given but an unfavourable account
demned as heretical, but only as rash ; of
Vincenzp's conduct, characterizing
adding, that there was no fear of any him as "dissolute, obstinate, and im-
one undertaking to prove that it must pudent ;" in consequence of which be-
"
necessarily be true. Urban also ad- haviour, Galileo seems to have thought
dressed a letter to Ferdinand, who had that the pension of sixty crowns, which
succeeded his father Cosmo as Grand had been granted by the pope, might be
Duke of Tascany, expressly for the pur- turned to better account than by em-
pose of recommending Galileo to him. ploying it on his son's education and
;
" For We find in him not
only literary accordingly in his reply he requested
distinction, but also the love of piety, Castelli to dispose of it, observing that
and he is strong in those qualities by the proceeds would be useful in assisting
which pontifical good-will is easily ob- him to discharge a great load of debt
tained. And now, when he has been with which he found himself saddled on
brought to this city to congratulate Us account of his brother's family. Besides
on Our elevation, We have very lovingly this pension, another of one hundred
embraced him nor can We suffer
;
crowns was in a few years granted by
him to return to the country whither Urban to Galileo himself, but it appears
your liberality recalls him without an to have been very
irregularly paid, if at
ample provision of pontifical love. And all.
that you may know how dear he is to About the same time Galileo found
Us, We have willed to give him this himself menaced either with the de-
honourable testimonial of virtue and privation of his stipend as extraordi-
piety. And We further signify that every nary professor at Pisa, or with the loss
benefit whicti you shall confer upon of that leisure which, on his removal
him, imitating, or even surpassing your to Florence, he had been so anxious
father's liberality, will conduce to Our to secure. In 1629, the question was
gratification." Honoured with these un- agitated by the party opposed to him,
equivocal marks of approbation, Galileo whether it were in the power of the
returned to Florence. grand duke to assign a pension out of
His son Vincenzo is soon afterwards the funds of the University, arising
spoken of as being at Rome ; and it is out of ecclesiastical dues, to one who
not improbable that Galileo sent him neither lectured nor resided there. This
thither on the appointment of his friend scruple had slept during nineteen years
and pupil, the Abbe Castelli, to be which had elapsed since Galileo's esta-
mathematician to the pope. Vincenzo blishment in Florence, but
probably
had been legitimated by an edict of those who now raised it reckoned upon
Cosmo in 1619, and, according to Nelli, finding in Ferdinand II., then scarcely
GALILEO. 55
of age, a less firm supporter of Galileo general 'at Florence, and from one or
than his father Cosmo had been. But two others whose names appear on the
the matler did not proceed so far for, ; title-page) it might be printed where
after full deliberation, the prevalent Galileo wished.
opinion of the theologians and jurists These protracted negotiations pre-
who were consulted appeared to be in vented the publication of the work till
favour of this exercise of prerogative, late in 1632; it then
appeared, with a
and accordingly Galileo retained his sti- dedication to Ferdinand, under the fol-
pend and privileges. lowing title "A. Dialogue, by Galileo
:
certed by the premature death of that diences, and enjoyed the approbation of
accomplished nobleman, in August 1630, the most eminent prelates of that court,
inwhom Galileo lost one of his steadiest nor did the publication of that decree
and most friends and pro-
effective occur without my receiving some prior
tectors. Thisunfortunate event de- intimation of it.* Wherefore it is my
termined Galileo to attempt to procure intention in this present work, to show
permission to print his book at Florence. to foreign nations that as much is
A contagious disorder had broken out known of this matter in Italy, and par-
in Tuscany with such severity as almost ticularly in Rome, as ultramontane
to interrupt all communication between diligence can ever have formed any
Florence and Rome, and this was urged notion of, and collecting together all my
by Galileo as an additional reason for own speculations on the Copernican
granting
his request. Riccardi at first system, to give them to understand that
seemed inclined to insist that the book the knowledge of all these preceded the
should be sent to him a second time, Roman censures, and that from this
but at last contented himself with in-
* Delambre
specting the commencement and conclu- quotes this sentence from a passage
which is so obviously ironical throughout, as an in-
sion, and consented that (on its receiving stance of Galileo's mis-statement of facts I Hint,
also a license from the inquisitor- de I'Astr. Mod., vol. i. p. 666.
56 GALILEO.
country proceed not only dogmas for self mistaken in this estimate of his
the salvation of the soul, but also inge- position, but for an unlucky circum-
nious discoveries for the gratification of stance, of which his enemies imme-
the understanding. With this object, I diately saw the importance, and which
have taken up in the Dialogue the Co- they were not slow in making available
pernican side of the question, treating it against him. The dialogue of Galileo's
as a pure mathematical hypothesis; work is conducted between three per-
and endeavouring in
every artificial sonages Salviati and Sagredo, who
;
This very flimsy veil could scarcely are allotted the objections which seem
blind any one as to Galileo's real views to have some real difficulty in them, as
in composing this work, nor does it well as lively illustrations and digres-
seem probable that he framed it with sions, which might have been thought
any expectation of appearing neutral in inconsistent with the gravity of Salviati' s
the discussion. It is more likely that he character. Simplicio, though candid
flattered himself that, under the new go- and modest, is of course a confirmed
vernment at Rome, he was not likely to Ptolemaist and Aristotelian, and is made
be molested on account of the personal to produce successively all the popular
prohibition which he had received in arguments of that school in support of
1616, "not to believe or teach the motion his master's system. Placed between
of the earth in any manner," provided the wit and the philosopher, it may be
he kept himself within the letter of the guessed that his success is very indiffer-
limits of the more public and general ent, and in fact he is alternately ridi-
order, that the Copernican system was culed and confuted at every turn. As
not to be brought forward otherwise Galileo racked his memory and inven-
than as a mere mathematically conve- tion to leave unanswered no argument
nient, but in fact unreal supposition. which was or could be advanced against
So long as this decree remained in force, Copernicus, it unfortunately happened,
a due regard to consistency would com- that he introduced some which Urban
pel the Roman Inquisitors to notice an himself had urged upon him in their
unequivocal violation of it ; and this is former controversies on this subject;
probably what Urban had implied in the and Galileo's opponents found means
remark quoted by Hohenzoller to Gali- to make His Holiness believe that
leo.* There were not wanting circum- the character of Simplicio had been
stances which might compensate for the sketched in personal derision of him.
loss of Cosmo and of Federigo Cesi ;
We do not think it necessary to exone-
Cosmo had been succeeded by his rate Galileo from this charge ; the ob-
son, who, though he had not yet at- vious folly of such an useless piece of
tained his father's energy, showed him- ingratitude speaks sufficiently for itself.
self as friendly as possible to Galileo. But self-love easily irritated; and
is
Cardinal Bellarmine, who had been Urban, who aspired to a reputation for
mainly instrumental in procuring the literatureand science, was peculiarly sen-
decree of 16 1 6, was dead ; Urban on the sitive on this point. His own expres-
contrary, who had been among the few sions almost prove his belief that such
Cardinals who then opposed it as un- had been Galileo's design, and it seems
called for and ill-advised, was now pos- to explain the otherwise inexplicable
sessed of supreme power, and his recent change which took place in his conduct
affability~s^eTned~~to~j)n)ve that the in- towards his old friend, on account of a
creased difference in their stations had book which he had himself undertaken
not caused him to forget their early and to examine, and of which he had autho-
long-continued intimacy. It is probable rised the publication.
that Galileo would not have found him- One of the earliest notices of what was
*
Page 54. approaching, is found in the dispatches,
GALILEO. 57
dated August 24, 1 632, from Ferdinand's pleasure of seeing them, I shall devote
minister, Andrea Cioli, to Francesco to a hundred thousand devils these un-
Nicolini, the Tuscan ambassador at the natural and godless hypocrites."
court of Rome. At the same time, Thomas Campanella,
"I have orders to signify toYour Excel- a monk, who had already distinguished
lency that His Highness remains greatly himself by an apology for Galileo (pub-
astonished that a book, placed by the au- lished in 1622), wrote to him from
Rome " I learn
thor himself in the hands of the supreme : with the greatest
authority in Rome, read and read again disgust, that a congregation of angry
there most attentively, and in which every theologians is forming to condemn
thing, not only with the consent, but at your Dialogues, and that no single
the request of the author, was amended, member of it has any knowledge of ma-
altered, added, or removed at the will of thematics, or familiarity with abstruse
his superiors, which was again subjected speculations. I should advise you to
here to the same examination, agreeably procure a request from the Grand Duke
to orders from Rome, and which finally that, among the Dominicans and Je-
was licensed both there and here, and suits and Theatins, and secular priests
here printed and published, should now whom they are putting on this congre-
become an object of suspicion at the end gation against your book, they should
of two years, and the author and printer admit also Castelli and myself." It
be prohibited from publishing any more." appears, from subsequent letters both
In the sequel is intimated Ferdinand's from Campanella and Castelli, that
desire that the charges, of whatever the required letter was procured and
nature they might be, either against sent to Rome, but it was not thought
Galileo or his book, might be reduced prudent to irritate the opposite party
to writing and forwarded to Florence, by a request which it was then clearly
that he might prepare for his justifi- seen would have been made in vain.
cation ; but this reasonable demand was Not only were these friends of Gali-
utterly disregarded. It appears to have leo not admitted to the congrega-
been owing to the mean subserviency of tion, but, upon some pretext, Castelli
Cioli to the court of Rome, that Ferdi- was even sentaway from Rome, as if
nand refrained from interfering more Galileo's enemies desired to have as few
strenuously to protect Galileo. Cioli's enlightened witnesses as possible of
words are " The Grand Duke is so en-
: their proceedings ; and on the contrary,
raged with this business of Galileo, that Scipio Chiaramonte, who had been long
I do not know what will be done. I known for one of the staunchest and
know, at least, that His Holiness shall most bigoted defenders of the old sys-
have no reason to complain of his mi- tem, and who, as Montucla says, seems
nisters, or of their bad advice."* to have spent a long life in nothing but
A letter from Galileo's Venetian friend retarding, as far as he was able, the
Micanzio, dated about a month later, progress of discovery, was summoned
is in rather a bolder and less formal from Pisa to complete their number.
" The efforts of ene- From this period we have a tolerably
style :
your
mies to get your book prohibited will continuous account of the proceedings
occasion no loss either to your reputa- against Galileo in the dispatches which
tion, or to the intelligent part of the Nicolini sent regularly to his court.
world. As to posterity, this is just one It appears from them that Nicolini
of the surest ways to hand the book had several interviews with the Pope,
down But what a wretched
to them. whom he found highly incensed against
set must be to whom every
this Galileo, and in one of the earliest he re-
good thing, and all that is founded in ceived an intimation to advise the Duke
" not to
nature, necessarily appears hostile and engage himself in this matter
odious The world is not restricted to
! as he had done in the other business of
a single corner you will see the book
; Alidosi,* because he would not get
printed in more places and languages through it with honour." Finding
than one and just for this reason, I
;
Urban in this humour, Nicolini thought
wish they would prohibit all good books. it best to temporize, and to avoid the
My disgust arises from seeing myself appearance of any thing like direct op-
deprived of what I most desire of this position. On the 15th of September,
sort, I mean your other dialogues and ; probably as soon as the first report on
if, from this cause, I fail in having
the * Alidosi was a
Florentine nobleman, whose estate
Urban wished to confiscate on a charge of heresy. r
* Galuzzi. Storia di Toscana. Firenze, 1822. Galuzzi.
58 GALILEO.
Galileo's book had been made, Nicolini moval to the Holy Office was then in-
received a private notice from the Pope, sisted upon, yet he was not committed
" in
especial token of the esteem in to close or strictly solitary confinement.
which he held the Grand Duke," that he On the contrary, he was honourably
was unable to do less than consign the lodged in the apartments of the Fiscal
work to the consideration of the Inqui- of the Inquisition, where he was allowed
sition. Nicolini was permitted to com- the attendance of his own servant, who
municate this to the Grand Duke pnly, was also permitted to sleep in an adjoin-
and both were declared liable to " the ingroom.andto come and go at pleasure.
usual censures" of the Inquisition in case His table was still furnished by Nicolini.
of divulging the secret. But, notwithstanding the distinction with
The next step was to summon Galileo which he was thus treated, Galileo was
to Rome, and the only answer returned to annoyed and uneasy at being (though
all Nicolini's representations of his ad- little more than nominally) within the
vanced age of seventy years, the very in- walls of the Inquisition. He became
firm state of his health, and the discom- exceedingly anxious that the matter
forts which he must necessarily suffer in should be brought to a conclusion, and
such a journey, and in keeping quaran- a severe attack of his constitutional
tine, was that he might come at leisure, complaints rendered him still more fret-
and that the quarantine should be relaxed ful and impatient. On the last day of
as much as possible in his favour, but April, about ten days after his first ex-
that it was indispensably necessary that amination, he was unexpectedly per-
he should be personally examined before mitted to return to Nicolini's house,
the Inquisition at Rome. Accordingly, although the proceedings were yet far
on the 14th of February, 1633, Nicolini from being brought to a conclusion.
announces Galileo's arrival, and that he Nicolini attributes this favour to Cardi-
had presence to the
officially notified
his nal Barberino, who, he says, liberated
Assessor and Commissary of the Holy Galileo on his own responsibility, in
Office. Cardinal Barberino, Urban's consideration of the enfeebled state of
nephew, who seems on the whole to his health.
have acted a friendly part towards In the society of Nicolini and his
Galileo, intimated to him that his most family, Galileo recovered something of
prudent course would be to keep him- his courage and ordinary cheerful-
self as much at home and as quiet as ness, although his return appears to
possible, and to
refuse to see any but have been permitted on express condi-
his most intimate friends. With this tion of a strict seclusion ; for at the
advice, which was repeated to him from latter end of May, Nicolini was obliged
several quarters, Galileo thought it best to apply for permission that Galileo
to comply, and kept himself entirely se- should take that exercise in the open
cluded in Nicolini's palace, where he was air which was necessary for his health ;
as usual maintained at the expense of on which occasion he was permitted to
the Grand Duke. Nelli quotes two let- go into the public gardens in a half-
ters, which passed between Ferdinand's closed carriage.
minister Cioli and Nicolini, in which On the evening of the 20th of June,
the former intimated that Galileo's ex- rather more than four months after
penses were to be defrayed only during Rome, he was again
Galileo's arrival in
the first month of his residence at summoned Holy Office, whither
to the
Rome. Nicolini returned a spirited he went the following morning he was ;
answer, that in that case, after the time detained there during the whole of
he should continue to treat that day, and on the next day was
specified,
him as before at his own private cost. conducted in a penitential dress * to
The permission to reside at the am- the Convent of Minerva, where the
bassador's palace whilst his cause was Cardinals and Prelates, his judges,
and received as an were assembled for the purpose of
pending, was granted
extraordinary indulgence on the part
of passing judgment upon him, by which
the Inquisition, and indeed if we es- this venerableold man was solemnly
timate the proceedings throughout called upon to renounce and ab-
'the usual practice of jure, as impious and heretical,
the opi-
against Galileo by
that detestable tribunal, it will appear nions which his whole existence had
that he was treated with unusual consi- been consecrated to form and strengthen.
deration. Even when it became neces-
* S' irrito
il Papa, e lo fece abjurare, comparendo
of the inquiry to
sary in the course il pover uome con uno straccio
di camicia iiidosso,
examine him in person, which was in che faceva compassione, MS. nella Bibl. Magliab.
the beginning of April, although his re- Venturi.
GALILEO. 59
" But whereas
As we are not aware that this remark- being pleased at that
able record of intolerance and bigoted time to deal mildly with you, it was de-
entire in Eng- creed in the Holy Congregation, held
folly has ever been printed
lish, we subjoin a literal translation of before His Holiness on the 25th day of
the whole sentence and abjuration. February, 1616, that His Eminence the
Lord Cardinal Bellarmine should enjoin
The Sentence of the Inquisition on to give up altogether the said false
Galileo.
you
doctrine if you should refuse, that you
;
" the undersigned, by the Grace of
We, should be ordered by the Commissary of
God, Cardinals of the Holy Roman the Holy Office to relinquish it, not to
Church, Inquisitors General through- teach it to others, nor to defend it, nor
out the whole Christian Republic, Spe- ever mention it, and in default of ac-
cial Deputies of the Holy Apostolical quiescence that you should be im-
Chair against heretical depravity,
" Whereas prisoned ; and in execution of this de-
son of the late
you, Galileo, cree, on the following day at the pa-
Vincenzo Galilei of Florence, aged^seven- lace, in presence of His Eminence the
ty years, were denounced in 1615 to this said Lord Cardinal Bellarmine, after
Holy Office, for holding as true a false you had been mildly admonished by the
doctrine taught by many, namely, that said Lord Cardinal, you were com-
the sun is immoveable in the centre of manded by the acting Commissary of the
the world, and that the earth moves, and
Holy Office, before a notary and wit-
also with a diurnal motion; also, for nesses, to relinquish altogether the said
having pupils whom you instructed in false opinion, and in future neither to
the same opinions ; also, for maintain- defend nor teach it in any manner, nei-
ing a correspondence on the same with ther verbally nor in writing, and upon
some German mathematicians also
;
your promising obedience you were dis-
for publishing certain letters on the missed.
solar spots, in which you developed the " And in
order that so pernicious a
same doctrine as true ; also, for an- doctrine might be altogether rooted
swering the objections which were con- out, nor insinuate itself farther to the
tinually produced from the Holy Scrip- heavy detriment of the Catholic truth, a
tures, by glozing the said Scriptures decree emanated from the Holy Congre-
according to your own meaning ; and gation of the Index* prohibiting the
whereas thereupon was produced the books which treat of this doctrine ; and
copy of a writing, in form of a letter, it was declared false, and altogether con-
professedly written by you to a person trary to the Holy and Divine Scripture, j
formerly your pupil, in which, follow- " And whereas a book has since ap-
ing the hypotheses of Copernicus, you peared, published at Florence last year,
include several propositions contrary to the title of which shewed that you were
the true sense and authority of the Holy the author, which title is The Dialogue
:
being desirous of providing against the systems of the world, the Ptolemaic and
disorder and mischief which was thence
Copernican ; and whereas the Holy
proceeding and increasing to the detri- Congregation has heard that, in conse-
ment of the holy faith, by the desire of
quence of the printing of the said book,
His Holiness, and of the Most Eminent the false opinion of the earth's motion
Lords Cardinals of this supreme and and stability of the sun is daily gaining
universal Inquisition, the two proposi-
ground the said book has been taken
;
tions of the stability of the sun, and
into careful consideration, and in it has
motion of the earth, were qualified by been detected a glaring violation of the
the Qualifiers as follows :
said order, which had been intimated to
" Theological
1st. The proposition that the Sun is
in the centre of the world and immove- you ; inasmuch as in this book you have
able from its place, is absurd, philoso- * The Index is a list of books, the reading of
phically false, and formally heretical; which is prohibited to Roman Catholics. This list,
because it is expressly contrary to the in the early periods of the Reformation, was often
consulted by the curious, who were enlarging their
Holy
"
Scripture. libraries ; and a story is current in England, that, to
Idly. The proposition that the Earth prevent this mischief, the Index itself was inserted
is not the centre of the world, nor im- in its own forbidden catalogue. The origin of this
story is, that an Index was published in Spain, par-
moveable, but that it moves, and also ticularizing the objectionable passages in such books
with a diurnal motion, is also absurd, as were only partially condemned ; and although
compiled with the best intentions, this was found to
philosophically false, and, theologically be so racy, that it became necessary to forbid the
considered, at least erroneous in faith. circulation of this edition in subsequent lists.
60 GALILEO.
defended the "said opinion, already and
'
the order not to teach/ and ' in any
in your presence condemned ; although manner,' you argued that we ought to
in the said book you labour with many believe that, in the lapse of fourteen or
circumlocutions to induce the belief that sixteen years, they had escaped your
it is left by you undecided, and in ex- memory, and that this was also the rea-
press terms probable which is equally
: son why you were silent as to the order,
a very grave error, since an opinion can when you sought permission to publish
in no way be probable which has been your book, and that this is said by you
already declared and finally determined not to excuse your error, but that it
contrary to the divine Scripture. There- may be attributed to vain-glorious am-
fore by Our order you have been cited to bition, rather than to malice. But this
thisHoly Office, where, on your exami- very certificate, produced on your behalf,
nation upon oath, you have acknow- has greatly aggravated yo'ur offence,
ledged the said book as written
and since therein declared that the said
it is
printed by you. You also confessed opinion contrary to the Holy Scripture,
is
that you began to write the said book and yet you have dared to treat of it,
ten or twelve years ago, after the order to defend it, and to argue thai it is
aforesaid had been given. Also, that probable ; nor is there any extenuation
in the licence artfully and cunningly
you demanded license to publish it, but
without signifying to those who granted extorted by you, since you did not inti-
you this permission that you had been mate the command imposed upon you.
commanded not to hold, defend, or teach But whereas it appeared to Us that you
the said doctrine in any manner. You had not disclosed the whole truth with
also confessed that the style of the said regard to your intentions, We
thought it
book was, in many places, so composed necessary to proceed to the rigorous exa-
that the reader might think the argu- mination of you, in which (without any
ments adduced on the false side to be so prejudice to what you had confessed,
worded as more effectually to entangle and which above detailed against you,
is
the understanding than to be easily with regard to your said intention) you
solved, alleging in excuse, that you have answered like a good Catholic.
"
thus run into an error, foreign (as you Therefore, having seen and maturely
from writing in considered the merits of your cause,
say) to your intention,
the form of a dialogue, and in conse- with your said confessions and excuses,
quence of the natural complacency
and every thing else which ought to be
which every one feels with regard to his seen and considered, We have come to
own subtilties, and in showing himself the underwritten final sentence against
more skilful than the generality of man- you.
"
kind in contriving, even in favour of Invoking, therefore, the most holy
false propositions, ingenious and appa- name of Our Lord Jesus Christ, and of
Wherefore, since no mention is there to say, that you believe arid hold the
made of two articles of the order, to wit, false doctrine, and contrary to the Holy
GALILEO. ft
and Divine Scriptures, namely, that the even his bigoted judges must have felt
sun is the centre of the world, and that he still clung to in his heart.
that it does not move from east to west, We know indeed that his friends
and that the earth does move, and is not were unanimous in recommending an
the centre of the world ; also that an unqualified acquiescence in whatever
opinion can be held and supported as might be required, but some persons
probable after it has been declared and have not been able to find an ade-
finally decreed contrary
to the Holy quate explanation of his submission,
Scripture, and consequently that you either in their exhortations, or in the
have incurred all the censures and pe- mere dread of the alternative which
nalties enjoined and promulgated in the might await him in case of non-com-
sacred canons, and other general! and pliance. It has in short been supposed,
particular constitutions against delin- although the suspicion scarcely rests
quents of this description. From which upon grounds sufficiently strong to war-
it is Our pleasure that you be absolved, rant the assertion, that Galileo did not
provided that, first, with a sincere heart submit to this abjuration until forced
and unfeigned faith, in Our presence, to it, not merely by the apprehension,
you abjure, curse, and detest the said but by the actual experience of personal
errors and heresies, and every other violence. The arguments on which this
error and heresy contrary to the Ca- horrible idea appears to be mainly
tholic and Apostolic Church of Rome, founded are the two following First, the :
of the said punishment and penance. parture from Rome, in addition to his
" And so We old complaints, was found to be afflicted
say, pronounce, and by
Our sentence declare, decree, and re- with hernia, and this was a common con-
serve, in this and in every other better sequence of the torture of the cord, which
form and manner, which lawfully We they suppose to have been inflicted. It
and can use. is right to mention that no other trace
may
" So
We, the subscribing Cardinals, can be found of this supposed torturing
pronounce. in all the documents relative to the
Felix, Cardinal di Ascoli, proceedings against Galileo, at least
Guido, Cardinal Bentivoglio, Venturi was so assured by one who had
Desiderio, Cardinal di Cremona, inspected the originals at Paris. t
Antonio, Cardinal S. Onofrio, * Giudicassimo esser necessario venir
contro di
Berlingero, Cardinal Gessi, te alrigoroso esame nel quale rispondesti cattolica-
Fabricio, Cardinal Verospi, mente.
f The fate of these documents is curious ; after
Martino, Cardinal Ginetti." being long preserved at Rome, they were, carried
We cannot suppose that Galileo, even away in 1809, by order of Buonaparte, to Paris,
where they remained till his first abdication. Just
broken down as he was with age and before the hundred days, the late king of France,
infirmities, and overawed by the merci- wishing to inspect them, ordered that they should be
less tribunal to he was brought to his own apartments for that purpose. In
wjiose power the hasty flight which soon afterwards followed, the
subjected, could without extreme reluc- manuscripts were forgotten, and it is not known
tance thus formally give the lie to his what became of them. A French translation, begun
by Napoleon's desire, was completed only down to
whole life, and call upon God to witness
the 30th of April, 1633, the date of Galileo's tirst re-
his renunciation of the opinions which turn to Nicolini's palace.
GALILEO.
Although the arguments we have public against heretical depravity, having
mentioned appear to us slight, yet nei- before my eyes the Holy Gospels, which
ther can we attach much importance to I touch with my own hands, swear, that
the contrast which the favourers of the I hare always believed, and now believe,
opposite opinion profess to consider so in- and with the help of God will in future
credible between the honourable manner believe, every article which the Holy
in which Galileo was treated throughout Catholic and Apostolic Church of Rome
the rest of the inquiry, and the suspected holds, teaches, and preaches. But be-
harsh proceeding against him. Whe- cause 1 had been enjoined by this
Holy
ther Galileo should be lodged in a pri- Office altogether to abandon the false
son or a palace, was a matter of far opinion which maintains that the sun is
other importance to the Inquisitors and the centre and immoveable, and forbid-
to their hold upon public opinion, than den to hold, defend, or teach, the said
the question whether or not he should false doctrine in any manner, and after
be suffered to exhibit a persevering it had been
signified to me that the said
resistance to the censures which they doctrine is
repugnant with the Holy
were prepared to cast upon him. Nor Scripture, I have "written and printed a
need we shrink from the idea, as we book, in which I treat of the same doc-
might from suspecting of some gross trine now condemned, and adduce rea-
crime, on trivial grounds, one of hither- sons with great force in support of the
to unblemished innocence and charac- same, without giving any solution, and
ter. The question may be disencum- therefore have been judged
grievously
bered of such scruples, since one
all suspected of heresy ; that is to say, that
more or
less can do little to- I held and believed that the sun is the
atrocity
wards affecting our judgment of the centre of the world and immoveable,
unholy Office of the Inquisition. and that the earthis not the centre and
quiries in secret, is always liable to generally every other error and sect con-
the suspicion of putting words into trary to the said Holy Church and I
;
fession, is rather to be read as the com- any heretic, or any one suspected of
position of his judges than his own. For heresy, that I will denounce him to this
instance, in one of the letters which we Holy Office, or to the Inquisitor and Or-
have extracted*, it may be seen that this dinary of the place in which I be.
may
obnoxious work was already in forward I swear,moreover, and promise, that I
as early as 1610, and yet he will and observe fully, all the
fulfil,
preparation
is made to confess, and the circumstance penances which have been, or shall be
appears to be brought forward in aggra-
laid me by this Holy Office. But if
on
vation of his guilt, that he began to write it
happen that I violate any of my
shall
it after the prohibition which he had re- said promises, oaths, and
protestations,
ceived in 1616. (which God avert !) I subject myself to
The was drawn up in the all the pains and punishments, which
abjuration
have been decreed and promulgated
following terms :
by
the sacred canons, and other general
The Abjuration of Galileo. and particular constitutions, against de-
" I Galileo
Galilei, son of the late Vin- linquents of this description. So may
cenzo Galilei, of Florence, aged 70 years, God help me, and his Holy Gospels,
being brought personally to judgment,and which I touch with my own hands. I,
kneeling before you, Most Eminent and the above-named Galileo Galilei, have
Most Reverend Lords Cardinals, General abjured, sworn, promised, and bound
Inquisitors of the universal Christian re- myself, as above, and in witness thereof
with my own hand have subscribed tliis
*
Page 18.
present writing of my abjuration, which
GALILEO.
I have .'recited word for word. At had been preserved of one of its mem-
Rome in the Convent of Minerva, 22d bers, who, by his strong and philoso-
June, 1633. I, Galileo Galilei, have ab- phical representations, saved that cele-
jured as above with my own hand." brated body from this disgrace.
IL.is..-SaJd that Galileo,
as he rose Those who saw in the punish-
nothing
from his knees, stamped on the ground, ment of Galileo but passion and blinded
and whispered to one of his friends, E superstition, took occasion to- revert to
pur simuove (It does move though). the history of a similar blunder of the
Copies of Galileo's sentence and abju- Court of Rome in the middle of the
ration were immediately promulgated in eighth century. A
Bavarian bishop,
every direction, and the professors at named Virgil, eminent both as a man of
several universities received directions to letters and politician, had asserted the
read them publicly. At Florence this existence of Antipodes, which excited in
ceremony took place in the church of Sta. the ignorant bigots of his time no less
Croce, whither Guiducci, Aggiunti, and alarm than did the motion of the earth
all others who were known in that city in the seventeenth century. Pope Za-
as firm adherents to Galileo's opinions, chary, who was scandalized at the idea
were specially summoned. The triumph of another earth," inhabited by another
"
of the Paper Philosophers" was so far race of men, and enlightened by another
complete, and the alarm occasioned by sun and moon (for this was the shape
this proof of their dying power extended which Virgil's system assumed in his
" I have been
even beyond Italy. told," eyes), sent out positive orders to his le-
'*
writes Descartes from Holland to Mer- gate in Bavaria. With regard to
"
senne at Paris, that Galileo's system Virgil, the philosopher, (I know not
was printed in Italy last year, but that whether to call him priest,) if he own
every copy has been burnt at Rome, and these perverse opinions, strip him of his
himself condemned to some sort of pe- priesthood, and drive him from the
nance, which has astonished me so much church and altars of God." But Virgil
that I have almost determined to burn had himself occasionally acted as legate,
all my papers, or at least never to let and was .moreover too necessary to his
them be seen by any one. I cannot col- sovereign to be easily displaced. He
lect that he, who is an Italian and even utterly disregarded these denunciations,
a friend of the Pope, as I understand, and during twenty-five years which
has been criminated on any other account elapsed before his death, retained his
than for having attempted to establish opinions, his bishopric of Salzburg, and
the motion of the earth. I know that his political power. He
was afterwards
this opinion was formerly censured by canonized*.
some Cardinals, but I thought I had Even the most zealous advocates of
since heard, that no objection was now the authority of Rome were embarrassed
made to its being publicly taught, even in endeavouring to justify the treatment
at Rome." which Galileo experienced. Tiraboschi
The sentiments of all who felt them- has attempted to draw a somewhat subtle
selves secured against the apprehension distinction between the bulls of the Pope
of personal danger could take but one and the inquisitorial decrees which were
direction, for, as Pascal well expressed sanctioned and approved by him; he
it in one of his celebrated letters to the dwells on the reflection that no one,
" It even among the most zealous Catholics,
Jesuits is in vain that you have
procured against Galileo a decree from has ever claimed infallibility as an attri-
Rome condemning his opinion of the bute of ;the Inquisition, and looks upon
earth's motion. Assuredly, that will it as a
special mark of grace accorded to
never prove it to be at rest and if we ;
the Roman Catholic Church, that during
have unerring observations proving that the whole period in which most theolo-
it turns round, not all mankind
toge- gians rejected the opinions of Copernicus,
ther can keep it from turning, nor them- as contrary to the Scriptures, the head of
selves from turning with it." that Church was never permitted to com-
The assembly of doctors of the Sor- promise his infallible character by for-
bonne at Paris narrowly escaped from mally condemning it t.
passing a similar sentence upon the Whatever may be the value of this
system of Copernicus. The question was * Annalium Bolorum, libri vii. Ingolstadii, 1554.
laid before them by .Richelieu, and it ap- t La Chiesa non ha mai dichiarati eretici i soste-
pears that their opinion was for a mo- Sistema Copernicano, e questa troppo ri-
nitori del
ment in fay our of confirming the Roman gorosa censura non usci che dal tribunale della
Romana Inquisizione a cui niuno tra Cattolici ancor
decree. It is to be wished that the name piu zelanti ha mai attribuito U diritto dell' infalli-
64 GALILEO.
consolation, it can hardly be conceded, ban's indignation also vented itself upon
unless it be at the same time admitted those who had been instrumental in ob-
that many scrupulous members of the taining the licence for him. The Inquisi-
Church of Rome have been suffered to tor at Florence was reprimanded Ric- ;
and philosophy much too high up for them prevents their being observed. After a
to think of jumping at, I want them long discussion on this point, Sagredo
"
to know, that as Nature has given eyes exclaims, I see into the heart of Sim-
to them just as well as to philosophers plicio, and perceive that he is much
for the purpose of seeing her works, she moved by the force of these too conclu-
has also given them brains for examin- sive arguments; but methinks I hear
him say Oh, to whom must we betake
'
* See *
page 56. Playfair's Dissertation, Supp. Encyc. Brit.
66 GALILEO.
other author have we to follow in our quainted with the History of Astro-
schools, our studies, and academies? nomy, are apt to suppose that New-
What philosopher has written on all the ton's great merit was in his being the
and so suppose an attractive force
parts of Natural Philosophy,
first to
Salviati proceeds to point out the real substance, so far forth as it is cor-
many points of similarity between the poreal, has a natural fitness for resting
earth and moon, and among others in every place where it may be situated
which we have already mentioned, the by beyond the sphere of influence
itself
following remark deserves especial no- of its cognate body. Gravity is a mutual
tice: affection between cognate bodies to-
" Just as from the mutual and uni- wards union or conjunction (similar in
versal tendency of the parts of the earth kind to the magnetic virtue), so that the
to form a whole, it follows that they all earth attracts a stone much rather than
meet together with equal inclination, the stone seeks the earth. Heavy bo-
and that they may unite as closely as dies (if in the first place we put the
possible, assume the spherical form ; earth in the centre of the world) are not
why ought we not to believe that the carried to the centre of the world in its
moon, the sun, and other mundane quality of centre of the world, but as to
bodies are also of a round figure, from the centre of a cognate round body,
no other; reason than from a common namely the earth. So that wheresoever
instinct and natural concourse of all the earth may be placed or whitherso-
their component parts ; of which if ever it may be carried by its animal fa-
by accident any one should be violently culty, heavy bodies will always be carried
separated from its whole, is it not rea- towards it. If the earth were not round
sonable to believe that spontaneously, heavy bodies would not tend from every
and of its natural instinct, it would re- side in a straight line towards the centre
turn? It may be added that if any of the earth, but to different points from
centre of the universe may be assigned, different sides. If two stones were placed
to which the whole terrene globe if in any part of the world near each other
thence removed would seek to return, and beyond the sphere of influence of a
we shall find most probable that the sun third cognate body, these stones, like
is placed in it, as by the sequel you shall two magnetic needles, would come to-
understand/' gether in the intermediate point, each
Many who are but superficially ac- approaching the other by a space pro-
GALILEO. 67
portional to the comparative mass of the well by their own exertion or gravity,
other. If the moon and earth were not as by the reciprocal attraction of all the
retained in their orbits by their animal rest," In a subsequent chapter, Roberval
force orsome other equivalent, the earth repeats these passages nearly in the
would mount to the moon by a fifty- same words, applying them to the whole
" the force of
fourth part of their distance, and the solar system, adding, that
moon fall towards the earth through the this attraction is not to be considered
other fifty-three parts, and would there as residing in the centre itself, as some
meet, assuming however that the sub- ignorant people think, but in the whole
stance of both is of the same density. If system whose parts are equally disposed
the earth should cease to attract its wa>- round the centre*". This very curious
ters to itself, all the waters of the sea work was reprinted in the third volume,
would be raised, and would flow to the of the Reflexiones Physico-Mathematicce
body of the moon*." of Mersenne, from whom Roberval pre-
He also conjectured that the irregu- tended to have received the Arabic ma-
larities in the moon's motion were nuscript, and who is thus irretrievably
caused by the joint action of the sun implicated in the forgery.t The last
r
and earth, and recognized the mutual remark, denying the attractive force to
action of the sun and planets, when he be due to any property of the central
declared the mass and density of the point, seems aimed at Aristotle, who,
sun to be so great that the united attrac- in a no less curious passage, maintain-
tion of the other planets cannot remove ing exactly the opposite opinion, says,
it from its place.
" we better understand
Among these bold Hence, may
and brilliant ideas, his temperament led what the ancients have related, that
him to introduce others which show like things are wont to have a tendency
how unsafe it was to follow his guidance, to each other. For this is not abso-
and which account for, if they do not al- lutely true for if the earth were to be
;
together justify, the sarcastic remark of removed to the place now occupied by
"
Ross, that Kepler's opinion that the the moon, no part of the earth would
planets are moved round by the sunne, then have a tendency towards that place,
and that this is done by sending forth a but would still fall towards the point
magnetic virtue, and that the sun-beames which the earth's centre now occupies.''^
are like the teethe of a wheele taking Mersenne considered the consequences
hold of the planets, are senslesse crotchets of the attractive force of each particle
fitter for a wheeler or a miller than a of matter so far as to remark, that if a
philosopher." t Roberval took up Kep- body were supposed to fall towards the
ler's notions, especially in the tract which, centre of the earth, it would be retarded
he falsely attributed to Aristarchus, and by the attraction of the part through
it is much to be regretted that Roberval which it had already fallen. Galileo
should deserve credit for anything con- had not altogether neglected to specu-
nected with that impudent fraud. The late on such a supposition, as is plain
principle of universal gravitation, though from the following extract. It is taken
not the varying proportion, is distinctly from a letter to Carcaville, dated from
assumed in it, as the following passages "
Aicetri, in 1637. I will say farther,
"
will sufficiently prove: In every single that I have not absolutely and clearly
particle of the earth, and the terrestrial satisfied myself that a heavy body
elements, is a certain property or acci- would arrive sooner at the centre of the
dent which we suppose common to the earth, if it began to fall from the dis-
whole system of the world, by virtue of tance only of a single yard, than another
which all its parts are forced together, which should start from the distance of
and reciprocally attract each other and ;
a thousand miles. I do not affirm this,
this
property is found in a greater or but I offer it as a paradox." f
less degree in the different difficult to offer
particles, ac- It is very any satis-
cording to their density. If the earth factory comment upon thispassage it;
pensity to its centre, that when it changes Venice not perfectly straight, or to speak
its place, although they may be very more correctly, not perfectly extended in
distant from the globe at the time of the an exact circular arc, but here and there
change, yet must they follow. An ex- more and less curved accordingly as
ample similar to this is the perpetual the vessel had pitched more or less but ;
sequence of the Medicean stars, although this variation in some places of one or
always separated from Jupiter. The two yards to the right or left, or up or
same may be said of the moon, obliged down in a length of many hundred miles,
to follow the earth. And this may serve would have occasioned but slight altera-
for those simple ones who have tion in the whole course of the line, so
difficulty
in comprehending how these two globes, that it would have been hardly sensible,
not being chained together, nor and without any great error we may
strung
upon a pole, mutually follow each other, speak of it as a perfectly circular arc.
so that on the acceleration or retardation
Sagred. So that the true and most
of the one, the other also moves quicker exact motion of the point of the pen
or slower." would also have been a perfect arc of a
The second Dialogue is appropriated circle if the motion of the vessel, ab-
chiefly to the discussion of the diurnal stracting from the fluctuations of the
motion of the earth ; and the principal waves, had been steady and gentle and ;
presented in a variety of forms, such as animals, although all the true, real, and
that a cannon-ball shot perpendicularly essential motion of the point of his pen
upwards would not fall at the same would have been no other but a very
spot ; that if fired to the eastward it
would fly farther than to the westward ;
Jliccioli.
GALILEO. 69
while, and then the effect which I find is a development and extension of the
no longer produced in me, I may say treatise already mentioned to have
that it depended upon that star. Besides, been sent to the Archduke Leopold,
who will dare say that the space which in 1618*. Galileo was uncommonly
they call too vast and useless between partial to his theory of the tides, from
Saturn and the fixed stars is void of which he thought to derive a direct
other bodies belonging to the universe. proof of the earth's motion in her
Must it be so because we do not see orbit ; and although his theory was
them : then I suppose the four Medi- erroneous, it required a farther advance
cean planets, and the companions of in the science of motion than had
Saturn, came into the heavens when we been attained even at a much later
first began to see them, and not before period to point out the insufficiency of
!
and, by the same rule, the other innu- it. It is well known that the problem of
merable fixed stars did not exist before explaining the cause of this alternate
men saw them. The nebulae were till motion of the waters had been consi-
lately only white flakes, till with the dered from the earliest ages one of the
telescope we have made of them con- most difficult that could be proposed,
stellations of bright and beautiful stars. and the solutions with which different
Oh presumptuous " rather, Oh rash inquirers were obliged to rest contented,
!
After a discussion on Gilbert's Theory given to of " the grave of human cu-
it,
pears to me that Sig. Salviati, with a the sea ; others compared the earth to
fine circumlocution, has so clearly ex- a large animal, of which the tides indi-
plained the cause of these effects, that cated the respiration ; a third theory
any common understanding, even though supposed the existence of subterraneous
unacquainted with science, may compre- fires, by which the sea was periodically
hend it but we, confining ourselves to
: made to boil ; others attributed the cause
the terms of art, reduce the cause of of a similar change of temperature to
these and other similar natural pheno- the sun and moon.
mena sympathy, which is a certain
to There is an unfounded legend, that
agreement and mutual appetency arising Aristotle drowned himself in despair of
between things which have the same being able to invent a plausible expla-
qualities, just as, on the other hand, that nation of the extraordinary tides in the
disagreement and aversion, with which Euripus. His curiosity on the subject
other things naturally repel and abhor does not appear to have been so acute
each other, we style antipathy. Sagr. (judging from his writings) as this story
And thus with these two words they are would imply. In one of his books he
able to give a reason for the great num- merely mentions a rumour, that there
ber of effects and accidents which we are great elevations or swellings of the
see, not without admiration, to be pro- seas, which recur periodically, accord-
duced in Nature. But it strikes me that ing to the course of the moon. Lalande,
this mode of philosophising has a great in the fourth volume of his Astronomy,
sympathy with the style in which one of has given an interesting account of the
my friends used to paint on one part :
opinion of the connection of the tides
of the canvas he would write with with the moon's motion. Pytheas of
chalk there I will have a fountain,with Marseilles, a contemporary of Aristotle,
Diana and her nymphs here some har- ; was the first who has been recorded as
riers in this corner I will have a hunts-
; observing, that the full tides occur at
man, with a stag's head ; the rest may full moon, and the ebbs at new moonj.
be a landscape of wood and mountain ; This not quite correctly stated; for
is
and what remains to be done may be the tide of new moon is known to be
put in by the colourman and thus he : still higher than the rise at the full, but
there appears no need or indication, far from being the cause of the tide, that
that the moon raises the waters by some on the contrary the tide is the cause of
inherent power of impulsion, in the same them, inasmuch as it gives rise to these-
manner as a magnet moves iron ; and ideas in brains which are more apt for
according to its different
aspects and talkativeness and ostentation, than for
approaches to the sea, and the obtuse speculation and inquiry into the secrets
or acute angles of its bearing, at one time of Nature ;who, rather than see them-
to attract and raise the waters along selves driven to pronounce these wise,
the shore, and then again to leave them ingenuous, and modest words 1 do not
to sink down by their own weight, and know, will blurt out from their tongues
and pens all sorts of extravagancies."
eix;
ry fft^vr,. Geographic, lib. iii. Galileo's own theory is introduced by
| Historia Naturalis, lit. ii. c, 97.
the following illustration, \Mhich indeed
t Ut ancillante sidere, trahenteque secum avido
hausm maria.
Eadem Aquilonia, et a terris longius recedente,
* Commentarii Colcmiae t
mitiores qaam cum, in Austros
digressa, propiore Collegii Conimbricensis.
nisuvim suam exercet.
GALILEO. 73
"
We may explain and render sensible prove this is not elementary enough to
these effects by the example of one of be introduced here with propriety.
those barks which come continually Besides the principal daily oscillation
from Lizza Fusina, with fresh water of the water, there is a monthly ine-
for the use of the city of Venice. Let quality in the rise and fall, of which the
us suppose one of these barks to come extremes are called the spring and neap
thence with moderate velocity along the tides : the manner in which Galileo
canal, carrying gently the water with attempted to bring his theory to bear
which it is filled, and then, either by upon these phenomena is exceedingly-
touching the bottom, or from some curious.
"
other hindrance which is opposed to it, It is a natural and necessary truth,
let it be notably retarded ; the water that if a body be made to revolve, the
will not on that account lose like the time of revolution will be greater in a,
bark the impetus it has already ac- greater circle than in a less this is :
quired, but will forthwith run on universally allowed, and fully confirmed
towards the prow where it will sensibly by experiments, such for instance as
rise, and be depressed at the stern. If these : In wheel clocks, especially in
on the contrary the said vessel in the large ones, to regulate the going, the
middle of its steady course shall receive workmen fit up a bar capable of revolv-
a new and sensible increase of velocity, ing horizontally, and fasten two leaden
the contained water before giving into weights to the ends of it; and if the
it will
persevere for some time in its clock goes too slow, by merely ap-
slowness, and will be left behind that is proaching these weights somewhat to-
to say towards the stern where con- wards the centre of the bar, they make
sequently it will rise, and sink at the its vibrations more
frequent, at which
head. Now, my masters, that which time they are moving in smaller circles
the vessel does in respect of the water than before*. Or, if you fasten a weight
contained in it, and that which the to a cord which you pass round a pulley
water does in respect of the vessel con- in the ceiling,and whilst the weight is
taining it, is the same to a hair as what vibrating draw in the cord towards you,
the Mediterranean vase does in respect the vibrations will become sensibly ac-
of the water which it contains, and that celerated as the length of the string
the waters do in respect of the Medi- diminishes.
r
W
e may observe the same
terranean vase which contains them. rule to hold among the celestial motions
We have now only to demonstrate how, of the planets, of which we have a
and in what manner it is true that the ready instance in the Medicean planets,
Mediterranean, and all other gulfs, and which revolve in such short periods
in short all the parts of the earth move round Jupiter. We
may therefore
with a motion sensibly not uniform, safely conclude, that if the moon for
although no motion results thence to instance shall continue to be forced
the whole globe which is not perfectly round by the same moving power, and
uniform and regular." were to move in a smaller circle, it
This unequable motion is derived from would shorten the time of its revolu-
a combination of the earth's motion on tion. Now this very thing happens
her axis, and in her orbit, the conse- in fact to the moon, which Ihave just
quence of which is that a point under advanced on a supposition. Let us call
the sun is carried in the same direction
by the annual and diurnal velocities, * See fig. 1, p. 96.
GALILEO.
to mind that we have already concluded made a much greater progress in less
with Copernicus, that impossible to
it is than a hundred years than before for
separate the moon from the earth, round many ages."
which without doubt it moves in a
month we must also remember that
: CHAPTER XV.
the globe of the earth, accompanied
Galileo at Arcetri Becomes Blind
always by the moon, revolves in the Moon's Librarian Publication of
great circle round the sun in a year, in the Dialogues on Motion.
which time the moon revolves round
the earth about thirteen times, whence WE have already alluded to the imper-
itfollows that the moon is sometimes fect state of the knowledge possessed
near the sun, that is to say between with regard to Galileo's domestic life
the earth and sun, sometimes far and personal habits; there is reason
from it, when she is on the outside of however to think that unpublished
the earth. Nowif it be true that the materials exist from which these outlines
power which moves the earth and the might be in part filled up. Venturi in-
moon round the sun remains of the forms us that he had seen in the collec-
same efficacy, and if it be true that the tion from which he derived a great part
same moveable, acted on by the same of the substance of his Memoirs of
force, passes over similar arcs of circles Galileo, about one hundred and twenty
in a time which is least when the circle manuscript letters, dated between the
is smallest, we are forced to the conclu- years 1623 and 1633, addressed to
him
sion that at new moon, when in con- by his daughter Maria, who with her sis-
junction with the sun, the moon passes ter had attached herself to the convent
over greater arcs of the orbit round the of St. Matthew, close to Galileo's usual
sun, than when in opposition at full place of residence. It is difficult not to
moon ; and this inequality of the moon think that much interesting information
will be shared by the earth also. So might be obtained from these, with respect
that exactly the same thing happens as to Galileo's domestic character. The very
in the balance of the clocks ; for the few published extracts confirm our fa-
moon here represents the leaden weight, vourable impressions of it, and convey
which at one time is fixed at a greater a pleasing idea of this his favourite
distance from the centre to make the daughter. Even when, in her affec-
vibrations slower, and at another time tionate eagerness to soothe her father's
nearer to accelerate them." wounded feelings at the close of his im-
Wallis adopted and improved this prisonment in Rome, she dwells with
theory in a paper which he inserted in delight upon her hopes of being allowed
the Philosophical Transactions for 1666, to relieve him, by taking on herself the
in which he declares, that the circular mo- penitential recitations
which formed a
tion round the sun should be considered part of his sentence, the prevalent
feel-
as taking place at a point which is the ing excited in every one by the perusal
centre of gravity of the earth and moon. must surely be sympathy with the filial
" To the first tenderness which it is impossible to mis-
objection, that it appears
not how two bodies that have no tie can understand.
have one common centre of gravity, I The joy she had anticipated in again
shall only answer, that it is harder to meeting her parent, and in compensat-
show how they have it, than that they ing to him by her attentive affection
the
M
have it*. As Wallis was perfectly insults of his malignant enemies, was
competent from the time at which he destined to be but of short duration.
lived, and his knowledge of the farthest Almost in the same month in which
advances of science in his time, to appre- Galileo returned ; to Arcetri she was
ciate the value of Galileo's writings, we seized with a fatal illness ; and already
shall conclude this chapter with the in the beginning of April, 1634, we
judgment that he has passed upon them
"
learn her death from the fruitless con-
in the same paper. Since Galileo, and dolence of his friends. He was deeply
after him Torricelli and others have ap- and bitterly affected by this additional
him in 1638, that the Pope permitted suing year the other eye began to fail
his removal to Florence, for the purpose also, and in a few months he became
of recovering his health requiring him
; totally blind. It would be difficult to
at the same time to present himself at find any even among those who are the
the Office of the Inquisition, where he most careless to make a proper use of
would learn the conditions on which this the invaluable blessing of sight, who
favour had been granted. These were could bear unmoved to be deprived of it,
that he should neither quit his house but on Galileo the loss fell with pe-
nor receive his friends there; and so culiar and terrible severity ;
on him who
closely was the letter of these instruc- had boasted that he would never cease
tions adhered to, that he was obliged to from using the senses which God had
obtain a special permission to go out to given him, in declaring the glory of his
attend mass during Passion week. works, and the business of whose life
The strictness with which all personal had been the splendid fulfilment of that
intercourse with his friends was inter- undertaking. "The noblest eye is
" which nature
rupted, is manifest from the result of darkened," said Castelli,
the following letter from the Duke of ever made: an eye so privileged, and
Tuscany 's secretary of state to Nicolini, gifted with such rare qualities, that it
"
his ambassador at Rome. Signer may with truth be said to have seen,
Galileo Galilei, from his great age and more than all of those who are gone,
the illnesses which afflict him, is in a and to have opened the eyes of all who
condition soon to go to another world ; are to come." His own patience and
and although in this the eternal memory resignation under this fatal calamity
of his fame and value is
already secured, are truly wonderful ; and if occasionally
yet his Highness is greatly desirous a word of complaint escaped him, it was
that the world should sustain as little in the chastened tone of the following ex-
"
loss as possible by his death ; that his pressions Alas your dear friend and
!
labours may not perish, but for the servant Galileo has become totally and
public good may be brought to that per- irreparably blind ; so that this heaven,
fection which he will not be able to give this earth, this universe, which with
them. He
has in his thoughts many wonderful observations I had enlarged
things worthy of him, which he cannot a hundred and thousand times beyond
be prevailed on to communicate to any the belief of by-gone ages, hencefor-
but Father Benedetto Castelli, in whom ward for me is shrunk into the narrow
he has entire confidence. His Highness space which I myself fill in it. So it
wishes therefore that you should see pleases God :shall therefore
it
please
Castelli, and induce him to procure leave me also." Hopes were at first enter-
76 GALILEO.
tained by Galileo's friends, that the will necessarily follow. If the moon did
blindness was occasioned by cataracts, not turn on her axis, every side of her
and that he might look forward to relief would be successively presented, in the
from the operation of couching ; but it course of a month, towards the earth ;
very soon appeared that the disorder the motion of rotation which tends
it is
was not in the humours of the eye, but to carry the newly discovered parts out
in a cloudiness of the cornea, the symp- of sight.
toms of which all external remedies Let us suppose the moon to be in that
failed to alleviate. part of her orbit where she moves with
As long
as the power was left him, he her average motion, and that she is
had indefatigably continued his astrono- moving towards the part where she
mical observations. Just before his moves most quickly. If the motion in
sight began to decay, he had observed a the orbit were to remain the same all
new phenomenon in the moon, which is the way round, the motion of rotation
now known by the name of the moon's would be just sufficient at every point to
libration, the nature of which we will bring round the same part of the moon
shortly explain. A remarkable circum- directly in front of the earth. But since,
stance connected with the moon's mo- from the supposed point, the moon is
tion is, that the same side is always moving for some time round the earth
visible from the earth, showing that the with a motion continually growing
moon turns once on her own axis in ex- quicker, the motion of rotation is not
sufficiently quick to carry out
actly the time of her monthly revolu- of sight
tion.* But Galileo, who was by this the entire part discovered by the
time familiar with the whole of the motion of translation. We therefore
moon's visible surface, observed that the get a glimpse of a narrow strip on
above-mentioned effect does not accu- the side from which the moon is mov-
rately take place, but that a small part ing, which strip grows broader and
on either side comes alternately forward broader, till she passes the point where
into sight, and then again recedes, ac- she moves most swiftly, and reaches the
cording to the moon's various positions point of average swiftness on the oppo-
in the heavens. He was not long in de- site side of her orbit. Her motion is
tecting one of the causes of this appa- now continually growing slower, and
rent libratory or rocking motion. It is therefore from this point the motion of
partly occasioned by our distance as rotation is too swift, and carries too
spectators from the centre of the earth, much out of sight, or in other words,
which is also the centre of the moon's brings into sight a strip on the side
motion. In consequence of this, as towards which the moon is moving.
the moon rises in the sky we get an ad- This increases till she passes the point
ditional view of the lower half, and lose of least swiftness, and arrives at the
sight of a small part of the upper half point from which we began to trace her
which was visible to us while we were course, and the phenomena are re-
looking down upon her when low in the peated in the same order.
horizon. The other cause is not quite so This interesting observation closes
simple, nor is it so certain that Galileo the long list of Galileo's discoveries in
adverted to it it is however readily in-
: the heavens. After his abjuration, he
telligible even to those who are unac- ostensibly withdrew himself in a great
quainted with astronomy, if they will re- measure from his astronomical pur-
ceive as a fact that the monthly motion suits, and employed himself till 1636
of the moon is not uniform, but that she principally with his Dialogues on Mo-
moves quicker at one time than another, tion, the last work of consequence that
whilst the motion of rotation on her own he published. In that year he entered
axis, like that of the earth, is perfectly into correspondence with the Elzevirs^
uniform. A
very. little reflection will through his friend Micanzio, on the pro-
show that the observed phenomenon ject of printing
a complete edition of his
writings. Amongthe letters which
* Frisi
says that Galileo did not perceive this Micanzio wrote on the subject is one
conclusion (Elogio del Galileo) but see The Dial, on
;
the System, Dial. 1. pp. 61, 62, 85. Edit. 1744. intimating that he had enjoyed the gra-
Plutarch says, Ue Placitis Philos. lib. ii. c. 28,) tification, in his quality of Theologian
that the Pythagoreans believed the moon to have in-
habitants fifteen times as large as men, and that to the Republic of Venice, of refusing
their day is fifteen times as long as ours. It seems his sanction to a work written against
probable, that the former of these opinions was en- Galileo and Copernicus. The temper
grafted on the latter, which is true, and implies a
2**&ejition of the fact ia the text.
however in which this refusal was an-
GALILEO.
nounced, contrasts singularly with that keep the whole business a secret from
" book was A Scheiner and his party but during this
of the Roman Inquisitors. ;
gable and undeniable demonstration,' point of being sent to press, when the
and then adduces nothing but such dreaded Scheiner re- appeared in Vienna,
childish trash as every man of sense on which Pieroni again thought it ad-
has long discarded. For instance, this visable to suspend the impression till his
poor animai understands so much geo- departure. In the mean time his own
metry and mathematics, that he brings duty as a military architect in the Em-
forward as a demonstration, that if the peror's service carried him to Prague,
earth could move, having nothing to where Cardinal Harrach, on a former
support it, it must necessarily fall. He occasion, had offered him the use of the
ought to have added that then we newly-erected University press. But
should catch all the quails. But when Harrach happened not to be at Prague,
I saw that he speaks indecently of you, and this plan like the rest became
and has had the impudence to put down abortive. In the meantime Galileo,
an account of what passed lately, say- wearied with these delays, had engaged
ing that he is in possession of the with Louis Elzevir, who undertook to
whole of your process and sentence, I print the Dialogues at Amsterdam.
desired the man who brought it to me It is abundantly evident from Galileo's
to go and be hanged. But you know the correspondence that this edition was
ingenuity of impertinence ; I suspect he printed with his full concurrence, al-
will succeed elsewhere, because he is so though, in order to obviate further an-
enamoured of his absurdities, that he be- noyance, he pretended that it was pirated
lieves them more firmly than his Bible." from a manuscript copy which he sent
After Galileo's condemnation at Rome, into France to the Comte de Noailles, to
he had been placed by the Inquisition in whom the work is dedicated. The
the list of authors the whole of whose same dissimulation had been previously
writings, edita et edenda," were strictly thought necessary, on occasion of the
'
forbidden. Micanzio could not even ob- Latin translation of " The Dialogues on
tain permission to reprint the Essay on the System," by Bernegger, which Gali-
Floating Bodies, in spite of his protes- leo expressly requested through his
tations that it did not in any way relate friend Deodati, and of which he more
to the Copernican theory. This was the than once privately signified his appro-
greatest stigma with which the Inqui- bation, presenting the translator with a
sition were in the habit of branding ob- valuable telescope, although he publicly
noxious authors; and, in consequence protested against its appearance. The
of it, when Galileo had completed his story which Bernegger introduced in his
Dialogues on Motion, he found great preface, tending to exculpate Galileo
difficulty in contriving
their publication, from any share in the publication, is
the nature of which may be learned by his own confession a mere fiction.
from the account which Pieroni sent to Noailles had been ambassador at Rome,
Galileo of his endeavours to print them and, by his conduct there, well deserved
in Germany. He first took the manu- the compliment which Galileo paid him
script to Vienna, but found that every on the present occasion.
book printed there must receive the ap- As an introduction to the account of
probation of the Jesuits ;
and Galileo's this work, which Galileo considered the
old antagonist, Scheiner, happening to best he had ever produced, it will become
be in that city, Pieroni feared lest he necessary to premise a slight sketch of
should interfere to prevent the publi- the nature of the mechanical philosophy
cation altogether, if the knowledge of it which he found prevailing, nearly as it
should reach him. Through the inter- had been delivered by Aristotle, with the
vention of Cardinal Dietrich stein, he same view with which we introduced spe-
therefore got permission to have it cimens of the astronomical opinions cur-
printed at Olmutz, and that it should be rent when Galileo began to write on that
approved by a Dominican, so as to subject they serve to show the nature
:
GALILEO.
and objects of the reasoning which he same force without it. Now if we take
had to oppose ; and, without some expo- any determinate weight, and any force,
sition of them, the aim and value of and any distance whatever, it is beyond
many of his arguments would be imper- doubt that we can move the weight to
fectly understood and appreciated. that distance by means of that force ;
because even although the force may
CHAPTER XVI. be exceedingly small, if we divide the
weight into a number of fragments,
State of the Science of Motion before each of which is not too much for our
Galileo.
force, and carry these pieces one by one,
IT is generally difficult to trace any at length we shall have removed the
branch of human knowledge up to whole weight nor can we reasonably say
;
its origin, and more especially when, at the end of our work, that this great
as in the case of mechanics, it is weight has been moved and carried away
very closely connected with the im- by a force less than itself, unless we add
mediate wants of mankind. Little has that the force has passed several times
been told to us when we are in- over the space through which the whole
formed that so soon as a man might weight has gone but once. From which
wish to remove a heavy stone, " he it
appears that the velocity of the force
would be led, by natural instinct, to (understanding by velocity the space
slide under it the end of some long gone through in a given time) has been
instrument, and that the same instinct as many times greater than that of the
would teach him either to raise the weight, as the weight is greater than
further end, or to press it downwards, so the force nor can we on that ac-
:
as to turn round upon some support count say that a great force is over-
placed as near to the stone as possible*." come by a small one, contrary to nature :
Montucla's history would have lost then only might we say that nature is
" this overcome when a small force moves a
nothing in value, if, omitting
philosophical view of the birth of the great weight as swiftly as itself, which
art," he had contented himself with we assert to be absolutely impossible
his previous remark, that there can be with any machine either already or here-
little doubt that men were familiar after to be contrived. But since it may
with the use of mechanical contrivances occasionally happen that we have but a
long before the idea occurred of enu- small force, and want to move a great
merating or describing them, or even weight without dividing it into pieces,
of examining very closely the nature and then we must have recourse to a ma-
limits of the aid they are capable of af- chine by means of which we shall re-
fording. The most careless observer move the given weight, with the given
indeed could scarcely overlook that the force, through the required space. But
weights heaved up with a lever, or rolled nevertheless the force as before will
along a slope into their intended places, have to travel over that very same space
reached them more slowly than those as many times repeated as the weight sur-
which the workmen could lift directly passes its power, so that, at the end of
in their hands ; but it probably needed our work, we shall find that we have
a much longer time to enable them to derived no other benefit from our ma-
see the exact relation which, in these and chine than that we have carried away
all other machines, exists between the the same weight altogether, which if
increase of the power to move, and the divided into pieces we could have car-
decreasing swiftness of the thing moved. ried without the machine, by the same
In the preface to Galileo's Treatise on force, through the same space, in the
Mechanical Science, published in 1592, same time. This is one of the advan-
he is at some pains to set in a clear tages of a machine, because it often hap-
light the real advantages belonging to pens that we have a lack of force but
the use of machines, " which (says he) abundance of time, and that we wish to
I have thought it
necessary to do, be- move great weights all at once."
cause, mistake not, I see almost all
if I This compensation of force and time
mechanics deceiving themselves in the has been fancifully personified by saying
belief that, by the help of a machine, that Nature cannot be cheated, and in
they can raise a greater weight than they scientific treatises an mechanics, is
"
are able to lift by the exertion of the called the principle of virtual velocities,"
consisting in the theorem that two
* Histoire des
Alatk^matiques, vol. i.
p. 97. weights will balance each other on any
GALILEO.
machine, no matter how complicated or It is true, that in the last mentioned
intricate connecting contrivances
the treatise, Aristotle has given other rea-
sons which belong to a very different
may be, when one weight bears to the
other the same proportion that the kind of philosophy and which may lead
,
"
there would be no time ; and there a moveable is urged in two directions
is perhaps little fault to be found with with motions bearing any ratio to each
this remark, understanding motion in other, it moves necessarily in a straight
line, which is the diameter of the figure
*
Phys. lib. i. c. 3. formed by drawing the two lines of di-
Lib. Hi. c. 2. The Aristotelians distinguished
-j-
rection in that ratio ;"|| and adds, in a
between things as existing in act or energy (m^- "
singularly curious passage, but when
ytttt) and things in capacity or power (i/va^/j).
For the advantage of those who may think the urged for any time with two motions
it is
distinction worth attending to, we give an illus- which have an indefinitely small ratio
tration of Aristotle's meaning, from a very acute and
learned commentator:
" It one to another, the motion cannot be
(motion) is something
more than dead capacity something less than per-
;
straight, so that a body describes, a
fect actuality ; capacity roused, and striving to quit
its latent character ; not the capable brass, nor yet
curve, when it is urged by two motions
the actual statue, but the capacity in energy that is ; bearing an indefinitely small ratio one
to say, the brass in fusion while it is becoming the to another, and lasting an indefinitely
"
statue and is not yet become." The bow moves '
I
may so say) even of capacity itself: im- *
ality (if De Coelo, lib. c. 2.
because such is capacity to i.
f Phys. lib. viii. c. 8.
perfect and obscure, % De
which it Harris, Philosophical Arrange- Ccelp, lib. i. c. 6.
Phys. lib. vii. c. 2.
belongs." Mechanica.
||
J Lib. iv. c. 1.
Lib. iv. c. 11. Ev $i iv tifitvi
GALILEO. 81
the fifth century of our era ; he intimates experiments which led to the principle
that the doctrines contained in it are of virtual velocities are also necessary
grounded upon Aristotle's ; if so, its loss to show the absurdity of supposing a
is less to be lamented. Pappus's own perpetual motion, which is made the
book deserves attention for the enume- foundation of this theorem. That prin-
ration which he makes of the mechanical ciple had been applied directly to deter-
powers, namely, the wheel and axle, the mine the same proportion in a work
lever, pullies, the wedge and the screw. written long before, where it has re-
He gives the credit to Hero and Philo mained singularly concealed from the
of having shown, in works which have notice of most who have written on this
not reached us, that the theory of all subject. The book bears the name of
these machines is the same. In Pap- Jordanus, who lived at Namur in the
pus we also find the first attempt to thirteenth century ; but Commandine,
discover the force necessary to support who refers to it in his Commentary on
a given weight on an inclined plane. Pappus, considers it as the work of an
This in fact is involved in the theory earlier period. The author takes the
Of the screw and the same vicious
; of virtual velocities for the
principle
reasoning which Pappus employs on groundwork of his explanations, both
this occasion was probably found in of the lever and inclined plane; the
those treatises which he quotes with latter will not occupy much space, and
so much approbation. Numerous as in anhistorical point of view is too
are the faults of his pretended demon- curious to be omitted.
script treatises on motion, written about lowest point of a circle are equal and :
1590, which are mentioned by Venturi another, from which Galileo afterwards
to be in the Ducal library at Florence, deduced the curious result, that it takes
seem, from the published titles of the less time to fall down the curve than
chapters, to consist principally of objec- down the chord, notwithstanding the
tions to the theory of Aristotle ; a few latter is the direct and shortest course.
only appear to enter on a new field of In conclusion he says, " Up to this point
speculation. The llth, 13th, and 17th I can go without exceeding the limits of
chapters relate to the motion of bodies mechanics, but I have not yet been able
on variously inclined planes, and of pro- to demonstrate that all arcs are passed
jectiles.The title of the 14th implies a in the same time, which is what I am
new theory of accelerated motion, and seeking." In 1604 he addressed the
the assertion in that of the 16th, that a following letter to Sarpi, suggesting the
body falling naturally for however great false theory sometimes called Baliani's,
.a time would never acquire more than who took it from Galileo.
an assignable degree of velocity, shows "
Returning to the subject of motion,
that at this early period Galileo had in which I was entirely without a fixed
formed just and accurate notions of the principle, from which to deduce the
action of a resisting medium. It is
phenomena I have observed, I have hit
hazardous to conjecture how much he upon a proposition, which seems natural
might have then acquired of what we and likely enough and if 1 take it for
;
should now call more elementary know- granted, I can show that the spaces
ledge a safer course will be to trace
; passed in natural motion are in the
his progress through existing documents double proportion of the times, and con-
in their chronological Older. In 1602 sequently that the spaces passed in equal
we find Galileo apologizing in a letter times are as the odd numbers beginning
addressed to his early patron the Mar- from unity, and the rest. The principle
chese Guido Ubaldi, for pressing again is this, that the swiftness of the move-
upon his attention the isochronism of able increases in the proportion of its
the pendulum, which Ubaldi had re- distance from the point whence it began
jected as false and impossible. It may to move ; as for instance, if a heavy
not be superfluous to observe that body drop from A towards
Galileo's results are not quite accurate, A - D, by the line A BCD, I
for there is a perceptible increase in the suppose the degree of velo-
x time occupied by the oscillations in city which it has at B to
larger arcs ; it is therefore probable that bear to the velocity at C the
he was induced to speak so confidently ratio of A B to AC. I shall
of their perfect equality, from attributing be very glad if your Rever-
the increase of time which he could not ence will consider this, and
avoid remarking to the increased resist- n _ tell me your opinion of it.
ance of the air during the larger vibra- If we admit this principle,
tions. The analytical methods then not only, as I have said, shall
known would not permit him to dis- we demonstrate the other
cover the c\irious fact, that the time of D - but we have
conclusions,
a total vibration is not sensibly altered our power to show that
it in
by this cause, except so far as it dimi- a body falling naturally, and another
nishes the extent of the swing, and thus projected upwards, pass through the
in fact, (paradoxical as it may sound) same degrees of velocity. For if the pro-
renders each oscillation successively jectilebe cast up from D to A, it is clear
more rapid, though in a very small that at D it has force enough to reach
degree. He does indeed make the A, and no farther and when it has
;
same remark, that the resistance of the reached C and B, it is equally clear that
air will not affect the time of the oscilla- it is still joined to a degree of force
quence of his erroneous belief that the manifest that the forces at D, C and B
time of vibration in all arcs is the same. decrease in the proportion of AB, A C,
Had he been aware of the variation, there and A D so that if, in falling, the degrees
;
is no reason to think that he could have of velocity observe the same proportion,
perceived that this result is not affected that is true which I have hitherto main-
by it. In this letter is the first mention tained and believed."
GALILEO. 85
wondered at, was to see discovered in For nature, which always does every-
four plain words, not only the falsity, thing in the very simplest manner, thus
but the impossibility of a supposition makes one line do double work, whereas
carrying with it so much of seeming on any other supposition, we must have
truth, that although I proposed it to had two lines, one for equal oscillations,
many, never met with any one but did
I the other for the shortest descent."*
freely admit it to be so and yet it is as
;
Venturi mentions a letter addressed
false and impossible as that motion is to Galileo inMay 1609 by Luca Valerio,
made in an instant for if the velocities
:
thanking him for his experiments on
are as the spaces passed, those spaces v the descent of bodies on inclined planes.
will be passed in equal times, and con- His method of making these experi-
sequently all motion must be instanta- ments is detailed in the Dialogues on
Motion " In a
neous." The following manner of put- : rule, or rather plank
ting this reasoning will perhaps make of wood, about twelve yards long, half a
the conclusion clearer. The velocity at yard broad one way, and three inches
any point is the space that would be the other, we made upon the narrow
passed in the next moment of time, if side or edge a groove of little more than
the motion be supposed to continue the an inch wide we cut it very straight,
:
same as at that point. At the beginning and, to make it very smooth and sleek,
of the time, when the body is at rest, the we glued upon it a piece of vellum, po-
motion is none ;
andtherefore, on this lished and smoothed as exactly as pos-
theory, the
space passed in the next sible, and in that we let fall a very hard,
moment none, and thus it will be seen
is round, and smooth brass ball, raising
that the body cannot begin to move ac- one of the ends of the plank a yard or
cording to the supposed law. two at pleasure above the horizontal
A curious fact, noticed by Guido We observed, in the manner that
Grandi in his commentary on Galileo's you presently, the time which
?lane.
shall tell
Dialogues on Motion, is that this false it spent in running down, and repeated
law of acceleration is precisely the same observation again and again
that^
which would make a circular arc the to assure ourselves of the time, in which
shortest line of descent between two we never found any difference, no, not
given points and although in general so much as the tenth part of one beat
;
Galileo only declared that the fall down of the pulse. Having made and settled
the arc is made in less time than down this experiment, we let the same ball
the chord (in which he is quite correct), descend through a fourth part only of
yet in some places he seems to assert 'Ahe length of the groove, and found the
that the circular arc is absolutely the measured time to be exactly half the
shortest line of descent, which is not former. Continuing our experiments
true. It has been thought possible that with other portions of the length, com-
the law, which on reflection he per- paring the fall through the whole with
ceived to be impossible, might have the fall through half, two-thirds, three-
originally recommended itself to him fourths, in short, with the fall through
from his perception that it satisfied his any part, we found by many hundred'
prejudice in this respect. experiments that the spaces passed over
John Bernouilli, one of the first ma- were as the squares of the times, and
thematicians in Europe at the beginning that this was the case in all inclinations
of the last century, has given us a proof of the plank ; during which, we also re-
that such a reason might impose even
on a strong understanding, in the follow- Job. Bernoulli!, Opera Omnia, Lausannae, 1744.
ing argument urged by him in favour torn.i. p. 192.
GALILEO.
marked that the times of descent, on first toremark that no bullet moves in a
different inclinations, observe accurately horizontal line but his theory beyond
;
the proportion assigned to them farther this point was very erroneous, for he
on, and demonstrated by our author. supposed the bullet's path through the
As to the estimation of the time, we air to be made up of an ascending and
hung up a great bucket full of water, descending straight line, connected in
which by a very small hole pierced in the middle by a circular arc.
the bottom squirted out a fine thread Thomas Digges, in his treatise on the
of water, which we caught in a small Newe Science of Great Artillerie, came
glass during the whole time of the dif- much nearer the truth for he remarked*,
;
ferent descents: then weighing from that " The bullet violentlye throwne
time to time, in an exact pair of scales, out of the peece by the furie of the
the quantity of water caught in this way, poulder hath two motions the one vio-
:
the differences and proportions of their lent, which endeuoreth to carry the bul-
weights gave the differences and propor- let right out in his line diagonall, accord-
tions of the times ; and this with such ing to the direction of the peece's axis,
exactness that, as I said before, although from whence the violent motion proceed-
the experiments were repeated again and eth; the other naturall in the bullet
again, they never differed in any degree itselfe, which endeuoreth still to carrye
worth noticing." In order to get rid of the same directlye downeward by a
the friction, Galileo afterwards substi- right line perpendiculare to the horizon,
tuted experiments with the pendulum ; and which dooth though insensiblyeeuen
but with all his care he erred very from the beginning by little and little
widely in his determination of the space drawe it from that direct and diagonall
through which a body would fall in l", if course." And a little farther he ob-
the resistance of the air and all other im- serves that
" These middle curve arkes
neous principle. As Descartes on more Galileo's books to envy him, and hardly
than one occasion has been made to any thing which I would own as mine ;"
usurp the credit due to Galileo, (in no in- and then may judge how far Salisbury's
stance more glaringly so than when he blunt declaration is borne out, " Where
has been absurdly styled the forerunner of or when did any one appear that durst
Newton,) it will not be misplaced to men- enter the lists" with our Galileus?
tion a few of his opinions on these sub- save only one bold and unfortunate
jects, recorded in his letters to Mersenne Frenchman, who yet no sooner came
in the collection of his letters just cited : within the ring but he was hissed out
" 1 am astonished at what
you tell again."*
me of having found by experiment that The principal merit of Descartes must
bodies thrown up in the air take neither undoubtedly be derived from the great
more nor less time to rise than to fall advances he made in what are generally
again ;
and you will excuse me if I say termed Abstract or Pure Mathematics ;
that I look as a
upon the experiment nor was he slow to point out to Mersenne
very difficult one to make accurately. and his other friends the acknowledged
This proportion of increase according to inferiority of Galileo to himself in this
the odd numbers 1, 3, 5, 7, &c., which respect. We have not sufficient proof
is in Galileo, and which I think I wrote that this difference would have existed
to you some time back, cannot be true, as if Galileo's attention had been
equally
I believe I intimated at the same .directed to that object; the
singular
time, unless we make two or three sup- elegance of some of his geometrical
positions which are entirely false. One constructions indicates great talent for
is Galileo's opinion, that motion in- this as well as for his own more fa-
creases gradually from the slowest^ de- vourite speculations. But he was far
gree; and the other is, that the air -/more profitably employed: geometry
makes no resistance." In a later letter and pure mathematics already far out-
to thesame person he says, apparently stripped any useful application of their
with some uneasiness, " I have been results to physical science, and it was
revising my notes on Galileo, in which the business of Galileo's life to bring up
I have not said expressly, that falling the latter to the same level. He found
bodies do not pass through every degree abstract theorems already demonstrated
of slowness, but I said that this cannot in sufficient number for his purpose, nor
be determined without knowing what was there occasion to task his genius in
weight is which comes to the same
;
search of new methods of inquiry, till
thing. As to your example, I grant allwas exhausted which could be learned
that it proves that every degree of velo- from those already in use. The result
city is infinitely divisible, but not that a of his labours was that in the age imme-
fallingbody actually passes through all diately succeeding Galileo, the study of
these divisions. It is certain that a nature was no longer in arrear of the
stone is.not equally disposed to receive abstract theories of number and mea-
a new motion or increase of velocity, sure ; and when the genius of Newton
when it is
already pressed it forward to a still higher de-
moving very quickly,
and when it is moving slowly. But I
gree of perfection, it became necessary
believe that I am now able to determine to discover at the same time more power-
in what proportion the velocity of a stone ful instruments of investigation. This
increases, not when falling in a vacuum, alternating process has been successfully
but in this substantial atmosphere. continued to the present time ; the analyst
However I have now got my mind full of acts as the pioneer of the naturalist,
other things, and I cannot amuse myself so that the abstract researches, which at
with hunting this out, nor is it a matter ^"first have no value but in the eyes of
of much utility :" He afterwards returns those to whom an elegant formula, in
"
once more to the same subject As its own beauty, is a source of pleasure
:
should employ time in moving through argued that the degree of velocity which
the latter, would pass through the same the air's resistance is capable of dimi-
distance in a vacuum instantaneously, nishing must be greater than that which
which is
impossible. Salviati replies by could ever be reached by a body falling
" I do not think
denying the axioms, and asserts that if naturally from rest.
a cannon ball weighing 200 Ibs., and a the present occasion a fit one for ex-
musket ball weighing half a pound, be amining the cause of this acceleration
dropped together from a tower 200 of natural motion, on which the opinions
yards high, the former will not antici- of philosophers are much divided ; some
pate the latter by so much as a foot; referring it to the approach towards the
*'
and I would not have you do as some centre, some to the continual diminution
are wont, who fasten upon some saying of that part of the medium remaining
of mine that may want a hair's breadth to be divided, some to a certain extru-
of the truth, and under this hair they sion of the ambient medium, which
seek to hide another man's blunder as uniting again behind the moveable
big as a cable. Aristotle says that an presses and hurries it forwards. All
iron ball weighing 1 00 Ibs. will fall from these fancies, with others of the like sort,
the height of 1 00 yards while a weight we might spend our time in examining, >/
by B C
'
the above supposed law of acceleration at the end of the time denoted
When Viviani was studying with Galileo, it will be at I. Moreover in the time
he expressed his dissatisfaction at this B D, double of B C, it will have fallen
chasm in the reasoning; the conse- four times as far, for in the first part of
quence of which was, that Galileo, as the Treatise it has been shewn that the
he lay the same night, sleepless through spaces fallen through by a heavy body
indisposition, discovered the proof which vary as the squares of the times. Simi-
he had long sought in vain, and in- larly at the end of the time B E, or
troduced it into the subsequent edi- three times B C, it will have fallen
tions. The third dialogue is princi- through E H, and will be at H. And it
pally taken up with theorems on the plain that the points I, F, H, are in
is
direct fall of bodies, their times of descent the same parabolical line B I F H. The
down differently inclined planes, which same demonstration will apply if we
in planes of the same height he deter- take any number of equal particles of
mined to be as the lengths, and with time of whatever duration."
other inquiries connected with the same The curve called here a Parabola by-
subject, such as the straight lines of Galileo, is one of those which results
shortest descent under different data, from cutting straight through a Cone,
&c. and therefore is called also one of the
The fourth dialogue is appropriated Conic Sections, the curious properties
to projectile motion, determined upon of which curves had drawn the attention:
the principle that the horizontal motion of geometricians long before Galileo
will continue the same as if there were thus began to point out their intimate
no vertical motion, and the vertical mo- connexion with the phenomena of mo-
tion as if there were no horizontal mo- tion. After the proposition we have
tion.
" Let A
B represent a horizontal just extracted, he proceeds to anticipate
some objections to the theory, and ex-
E D C B A.
plains that the course of a projectile-
will not be accurately a parabola for
two reasons partly on account of the
;
bility, that he has described an appa- through which water may be forced into
ratus by which he endeavoured to mea- the flask with a syringe without suffer-
-sure the force necessary to produce one. ing any air to escape, so that it will be
This consisted of a cylin- compressed within the bottle. It will be
der, into which is tightly found difficult to force in more than
fitted a piston ; through about three-fourths of what the flask
the centre of the piston will hold, which must be carefully
passes a rod with a coni- weighed. The valve must then be
cal valve, which, when opened, and just so much air will rush
drawn down, shuts the out as would in its natural density oc-
aperture closely, support- cupy the space now filled by the water.
ing a basket. The space between the Weigh the vessel again ; the differ-
piston and cylinder being filled full of ence show the weight of that quan-
will
water poured in through the aperture, the tity of air*." By these means, which
valve is closed, the vessel reversed, and the modern experimentalist will see were
weights are added till the piston is drawn scarcely capable of much accuracy, Ga-
lileo found that air was four hundred
forcibly downwards. Galileo concluded
that the weight of the piston, rod, and times lighter than water, instead of ten
added weights, would be the measure of times, which was the proportion fixed
the force of resistance to the vacuum on by Aristotle. The real proportion is
which he supposed would take place be- about 830 times.
tween the piston and lower surface of The true theory of the rise of water
the water. The defects in this appa- in a lifting-pump is commonly dated
ratus for the purpose intended are of no from Torricelli's famous experiment
consequence, so far as regards the pre- with a column of mercury, in 1644,
sent argument, and it is perhaps need- when he found that the greatest height
less to observe that he was mistaken in at which it would stand is fourteen
supposing the water would not descend times less than the height at which water
with the piston. This experiment occa- will stand, which is
exactly the propor-
sions a remark from Sagredo, that he tion of weight between water and mer-
had observed that a lifting - pump cury. The following curious letter from
would not work when the water in the Baliani, in 1630, shows that the original
cistern had sunk to the depth of thirty- merit of suggesting the real cause be-
five feet below the valve ; that he thought longs to him, and renders it still more
the pump was injured, and sent for the unaccountable that Galileo, to whom it
maker of it, who assured him that no was addressed, should not at once have
pump upon that construction would lift adopted the same view of the subject :
" I have
water from so great a depth. This story believed that a vacuum may
is sometimes told of Galileo, as if he exist naturally ever since I knew that
had said sneeringly on this occasion the air has sensible weight, and that you
that Nature's horror of a vacuum does taught me in one of your letters how to
not extend beyond thirty-five feet ; but find its weight exactly, though I have
itjs very plain that if he had made such not yet succeeded with that experiment.
an observation, it would have been se- From that moment I took up the notion
riously ; and in fact by such a limi- * It has been
tation he deprived the notion of the recently proposed to determine the
density of high-pressure steam by a process analo-
principal part of its absurdity. He evi- gous to this.
GALILEO.
that it not repugnant to the nature
is posed to be*. He then proceeds with
**
of things that there should be a vacuum, these remarkable words If we raise
:
but merely that it is difficult to produce. the plane higher and higher, one of these
To explain myself more clearly if we : areas terminates in the circumference of
allow that the air has weight, there is no a circle, and the other in a point, for
difference between air and water except such are the upper rim of the basin and
in degree. At the bottom of the sea the top of the cone. Now since in the
the weight of the water above me com- diminution of the two areas they to the
presses everything round my body, and very last maintain their equality to one
it strikes me that the same thing must another, it is in my thoughts proper to
happen in the air, we being placed at say that the highest and ultimate terms f
the bottom of its immensity we do not ;
of such diminutions are equal, and not
feel its weight, nor the
compression one infinitely bigger than the other. It
round us, because our bodies are made seems therefore that the circumference
capable of supporting it. But if we of a large circle may be said to be equal
were in a vacuum, then the weight of to one single point. And why may not
the air above our heads would be felt. these be called equal if they be the last
It would be felt very great, but not infi- remainders and vestiges left by equal
nite, and therefore determinable, and it magnitudes $ ?"
might be overcome by a force propor- We think no one can refuse to ad-
tioned to it. In fact I estimate it to be mit the probability, that Newton may
such that, to make a vacuum, I believe have found in such passages as these
we require a force greater than that of the first germ of the idea of his prime
a column of water thirty feet high*." and ultimate ratios, which afterwards
This subject is introduced by some ob- became in his hands an instrument
servations on the force of cohesion, Ga- of such power. As to the paradoxi-
lileo seeming to be of cal result, Descartes undoubtedly has
opinion that, al-
though it cannot be adequately ac- given the true answer to it in saying
"
counted for by the great and principal that it only proves that the line is not a
resistance to a vacuum, yet that per- greater area than the point is. Whilst
haps a sufficient cause may be found by on this subject, it may not be unin-
considering every body as composed of teresting to remark that something
very minute particles, between every similar to the doctrine of fluxions seems
two of which is exerted a similar resist- to have been lying dormant in the minds
ance." This remark serves to lead to a of the mathematicians of Galileo's era,
discussion on indivisibles and infinite for Inchoffer illustrates his argument in
quantities, of which we shall merely ex- the treatise we have already mentioned,
tract what Galileo gives as a curious that the Copernicans may deduce some
paradox suggested in the course of it. true results from what he terms their
He supposes a basin to be formed by absurd hypothesis, by observing, that
scooping a hemisphere out of a cylinder, mathematicians may deduce the truth
and a cone to be taken of the same that a line is length without breadth,
depth and base as the hemisphere. from the false and physically impossible
It is easy to show, if the cone and supposition that a point flows, and that
scooped cylinder be both supposed a line is the fluxion of a point .
to be cut by the same plane,
parallel to Asuggestion that perhaps fire dis-
solves bodies by insinuating itself be-
tween their minute particles, brings on
the subject of the violent effects of heat
and light ; on which Sagredo inquires,
whether we are to take for granted that
the effect of light does or does not re-
quire time. Simplicio is ready with art
answer, that the discharge of artillery-
the one on which both stand, that the proves the transmission of light to be
area of the'ring C D E F thus discovered
* Galileo also reasons in the same
in the cylinder is equal to the area of the way on the
equality of the solids standing on the cutting plane,
corresponding circular section AB of the but one is sufficient for our present purpose.
t Gli altissimi e ultimi termini.
cone, wherever the cutting plane is sup- j Le ultimo reliquie e vestigie lasciate da grandezze
eguali.
Punctum fluere, et lineani esse fluxum puncti.
*
Yeuturi, vol. ii. Tract. Syllept. Romae, 1633.
92 GALILEO.
instantaneous, to which Sagredo cau- undulations which will be seen regu-
tiously replies, that nothing can be ga- larly spreading round the glass, will
thered from that experiment except that suddenly split into two, proving that
light travels
more swiftly than sound ;
the vibrations that occasion the octave
nor can we draw any decisive conclusion are double those belonging to the sim-
sun.
" Who can
from the of
rising the ple note." Galileo then describes a
assure us that he is not in the horizon method he discovered by accident of
before his rays reach our sight?" Sal- measuring the length of these waves more
viati then mentions an experiment by accurately than can be done in the agi-
which he endeavoured to examine this tated water. He was scraping a brass
question. Twoobservers are each to be plate with an iron chisel, to take out
furnished with a lantern: as soon as some spots, and moving the tool rapidly
the first shades his light, the second is to upon the plate, he occasionally heard a
discover his, and this is to be repeated hissing and whistling sound, very shrill
at a short distance till the observers are and audible, and whenever this occur-
The same thing red, and then only, he observed the
perfect in the practice.
is to be tried at the distance of several light dust on the plate to arrange itself
Kenelm Digby remarks on this pas- spaces occupied by the streaks in both
" It
sage :
may be objected (if there be experiments, he found thirty of the
some observable tardity in the motion one equal to forty-five of the other,
of light) that the sunne would never be which is exactly the known proportion
of the lengths of
truly in that place in which unto our strings of the same
material which sound a fifth to
eyes he appeareth to be because that ; each
it being seene by means of the light other *.
which issueth from it, if that light re- Salyiati also remarks, that if the
quired tima to move in, the sunne (whose
material be not the same, as for in-
motion is so swifte) would be removed stance if it be required to sound an
from the place where the light left it, octave to a note on
catgut, on a
before it could be with us to give tidings wire of the same length, the
weight of
of him. To this I answer, allowing per- the wire must be made four times as
adventure that it may be so, who "
great, and so for other intervals. The
knoweth the contrary? Or what in- immediate cause of the forms of musi-
convenience would follow if it be ad- cal intervals is neither the
length, the
mitted * ?" tension, nor the thickness, but the pro-
The principal thing remaining to be portion of the numbers of the undula-
noticed is the application of the theory tions of the air which strike
upon the
of the pendulum to musical concords drum of the ear, and make it vibrate in
and dissonances, which are explained, in the same intervals. Hence we may
the same manner as by Kepler in his gather a plausible reason of the differ-
" Harmonices Mundi," to result from ent sensations occasioned to us
by dif-
the concurrence or opposition of vibra- ferent couples of sounds, of which we
tions in the air striking upon the drum hear some with great pleasure, some
of the ear. It is suggested that these with less, and call them
accordingly
vibrations may be made manifest by concords, more or less perfect, whilst
rubbing the finger round a glass set in some excite in us great dissatisfaction,
a large vessel of water ; "and if by pres- and are called discords. The disagree-
sure the note is suddenly made to rise able sensation belonging to the latter
to the octave above, every one of the
* This beautiful experiment is more easily tried by
drawing the bow of a violin across the edge of glass
* " Treatise of the Nature of Bodies. London, strewed with fine dry sand. Those who wish to see more
'
drum may not undergo the incessant exerted in a horizontal direction, can
torture of a double inflexion from the stretch a heavy thread, however slender,
disagreeing percussions." Something into an accurately straight line.
similar may be exhibited to the eye by The fifth and sixth dialogues were left
hanging up pendulums of different unfinished, and annexed to the former
lengths :"if these be proportioned so ones by Viviani after Galileo's death :
that the times of their vibrations cor- the fragment of the fifth, which is on the
respond with those of the musical con- subject of Euclid's Definition of Ratio,
cords, the eye will observe with pleasure was at first intended to have formed a
their crossings and interweavings still
part of the third, and followed the first
recurring at appreciable intervals ; but proposition on equable motion: the sixth
if the times of vibration be incommen- was intended to have embodied Galileo's
surate, the eye will be wearied and worn researches on the nature and laws of
out with following them." Percussion, on which he was employed at
The second dialogue is occupied en- the time of his death. Considering these
tirely with an investigation of the solely as fragments, we shall not here
strength of beams, a subject which does make any extracts from them.
not appear to have been examined by
any one before Galileo beyond Aris- .
CHAPTER XVIII.
totle's remark, that long beams are
Correspondence on Longitudes. Pen-
weaker, because they are at once the
dulum Clock.
weight, the lever, and the fulcrum ; and
it is in the development of this obser- IN the spring of 1636, having finished
vation that the whole theory consists. his Dialogues on Motion, Galileo re-
The principle assumed by Galileo as sumed the plan of determining the lon-
the basis of his inquiries is, that the gitude bymeans of Jupiter's satellites.
force of cohesion with which a beam Perhaps he suspected something of the
resists a cross fracture in any section private intrigue which thwarted his
may all be considered as acting at the former expectations from the Spanish
centre of gravity of the section, and that government, and this may have induced
it breaks always at the lowest point: him on the present occasion to
negotiate
from this he deduced that the effect of the matter without applying for Ferdi-
the weight of a prismatic beam in over- nand's assistance and recommendation.
coming the resistance of one end by Accordingly he addressed himself to
which it is fastened to a wall, varies . Lorenz Real, who had been Governor
directly as the square of the length, and General of the Dutch possessions in
inversely as the side of the base. From India, freely and unconditionally offer-
this it immediately follows, that if for ing the use of theory to the States
his.
instance the bone of a large animal be General of Holland. Not long before,
three times as long as the corresponding his opinion had been requested by the
one in a smaller beast, it must be nine commissioners appointed at Paris to
times as thick to have the same strength, examine and report on the practicability
provided we suppose in both cases that of another method proposed by Morin,*
the materials are of the same consist- which consisted in observing the dis-
ence. An elegant result which Galileo tance of the moon from a known star.
also deduced from this theory, is that the Morin was a French philosopher, prin-
form of such a beam, to be equally strong
in every part, should be that of a para- * One of the Commissioners was the father of
bolical prism, the vertex of the parabola Blaise Pascal,
94 GALILEO.
cipally known as an astrologer and zea- ridians by means of the moon's motion^
lous Anti-Copernican ; but his name de- provided we are sure of the following
serves to be recorded as undoubtedly one requisites : an Ephemeris of the
First,
of the first to recommend a method, moon's motion exactly calculated for
which, under the nwne of a Lunar dis- the first meridian from which the others
tance, is now in universal practice. are to be reckoned ; secondly, exact in-
The monthly motion of the moon is so struments, and convenient to handle, in
rapid, that her distance from a given star taking the distance between the moon
sensibly varies in a few minutes even to and a fixed star ; thirdly, great prac-
the unassisted eye ; and with the aid of tical skill in the observer ; fourthly, not
the telescope, we can of course appre- less accuracy in the scientific calcula-
ciate the change more accurately. Morin tions, and astronomical computations ;
proposed that the distances of the moon fifthly, very perfect clocks to number
from a number of fixed stars lying near the hours, or other means of knowing
her path in the heavens should be be- them exactly, &c. Supposing, I say,
forehand calculated and registered for all these elements free from error, the
every day in the year, at a certain hour, longitude will be accurately found but ;
in the place from which the longitudes I reckon it more easy and likely to err
were to be reckoned, as for instance at in all of these together, than to be prac-
Paris. Just as in the case of the eclipses tically right in one alone. Morin ought
of Jupiter's satellites, the observer, when to require his judges to assign, at their
he saw that the moon had arrived at pleasure, eight or ten moments of dif-
the registered distance, would know the ferent nights during four or six months
hour at Paris he might also make al-
: to come, and pledge himself to predict
lowance for intermediate distances. and assign by his calculations the dis-
Observing at the same instant the hour tances of the moon at those determined
on board his ship, the difference between instants from some which would
star
the two would show his position in re- then be near her. found that
If it is
gard of
longitude. In using this the distances assigned by him agree
method as it is now practised, several with those which the quadrant or sex-
modifications are to be attended to, tant* will sho\v, the judges
actually
without which it would be wholly use- would be of his success, or
satisfied
less, in consequence of the refraction rather of the truth of the matter, and
of the atmosphere, and the proximity of nothing would remain but to show that
the moon to the earth. Owing to the his operations were such as could be
latter cause, if two spectators should at performed by men of moderate skill, and
the same instant of time, but in different also practicable at sea as well as on
places, measure the distance of the land. I incline much to think that an
moon in the East, from a star still more experiment of this kind would do much
to the eastward, it would appear greater towards abating the opinion and con-
to the more easterly spectator than to ceit which Morin has of himself, which
the other observer, who as seen from appears to me so lofty, that I should
the star would be standing more di- consider myself the eighth sage, if I
rectly behind the moon. The mode knew the half of what Morin presumes
of allowing for these alterations is taught to know.''
by trigonometry and astronomy. It is probable that Galileo was
The success of this method depends al- biassed by a predilection for his own
together upon the exact knowledge which method, on which he had expended
we now have of the moon's course, and so much time and labour but the ob- ;
till that
knowledge was perfected it jections which he raises against Morin's
would have been found altogether il- proposal in the foregoing letter are no
lusory. Such in fact was the judgment other than those to which at that period
which Galileo pronounced upon it. " As it was undoubtedly open. With regard
to Morin' s book on the method of find- to his own, he had already, in 1612,
ing the longitude by means of the moon's given a rough prediction of the course
motion, I say freely that I conceive this of Jupiter's satellites, which had been
idea to be as accurate in theory, as found to agree tolerably well with sub-
fallacious and impossible in practice. I sequent observations and since that
;
time, amid all his other employments, and two or three years the cor-
for
he had almost unmtermittingly during respondence with Holland was entirely
twenty-four years continued his obser- interrupted. Constantine Huyghens,
vations, for the sake of bringing the who was capable of appreciating the
tables of their motions to as high a state value of the scheme, succeeded after
of perfection as possible. This was the some trouble in renewing it, but only
point to which the inquiries of the States just before the death of Galileo himself,
in their answer to Galileo's frank pro- by which of course it was a second
posal were principally directed. They time broken off; and to complete the
immediately appointed commissioners to singular series of obstacles by which the-
communicate with him, and report the trialof this method was impeded, just
various points on which they required as Renieri, by order of the Duke of Tus-
information. They also sent him a cany, was about to publish the ephe-
golden chain, and assured him that in meris and tables which Galileo had en-
the case of the design proving success- trusted to him, and which the Duke
ful, he should have no cause to com- told Viviani he had seen in his pos-
plain of their want of gratitude and ge- session, he also was attacked with a
nerosity. The commissioners immedi- mortal malady ; and upon his death the
ately commenced an active correspon- manuscripts were nowhere to be found,,
dence with him, of which
in the course nor has it since been discovered what
he entered into more minute details with became of them. Montucla has inti-
regard to the methods by which he mated his suspicions that Renieri him-
proposed to obviate the practical dif- selfdestroyed them, from a conscious-
ficulties of the necessary observations. ness that they were insufficient for the
It is worth noticing that the secretary purpose to which it was intended to ap-
to the Prince of Orange, who was mainly ply them ; a bold conjecture, and one
instrumental in forming this commis- which ought to rest upon something
sion, was Constantine Huyghens, father more than mere surmise for although it
:
wild and extravagant book, entitled the opposite pallet engaged in the
" A History of both Worlds," by Robert toothed wheel. The balance was thus
Flud, are given two drawings of the suddenly and forcibly reduced to a
wheel-work of the clocks and watches state of rest, and again set in motion,
in use before the application of the pen- in the opposite direction. It will be
dulum. An inspection of them will show observed that these balances wanted
how little remained to be done when the spiral spring introduced in all
the isochronism of the pendulum was modern watches, which has a pro-
discovered. Fig. 1. represents "the perty of isochronism similar to that of
the pendulum. Hooke is generally
named as the discoverer of this pro-
perty of springs, and as the author of
its application to the improvement of
watches, but the invention is disputed
with him by Huyghens. Lahire asserts^
that the isochronism of springs was
communicated to Huyghens at Paris
by Hautefeuille, and that this was the
reason why Huyghens failed to obtain
the patent he solicited for the construc-
tion of spring watches. A
great num-
ber of curious contrivances at this early
period in the history of Horology, may
be seen in Schott's Magia Naturae,
published at Nuremberg in 1664.
Galileo was early convinced of the im-
portance of his pendulum to the ac-
curacy of astronomical observations;
but the progress of invention is such
that the steps which on looking back
seem the easiest to make, are often those
which are the longest delayed. Galileo re-
cognized the principle of the isochronism
of the pendulum, and recommended it
as a measurer of time in 1583 ; yet fifty
years later, although constantly using it,
he had not devised a more convenient
method of doing so, than is contained in
the following description taken from
such as his "Astronomical Operations."
large clocks moved by a weight,
are put up in churches and turrets ; *
Utriusque Cosmi Historia. Oppenhemii, 1617.
cum e& de f Huygenii Opera. Lugduni, 1724.
Circnlus affrxus virgaa paletorum qui
vi movetur.
t Memoires de 1' Academic, 171?.
GALILEO. 97
"A
very exact time-measurer for mi- tapering gradually towards the edges,
nute intervals of time, is a heavy pendu- where I terminate it in a tolerably
lum of any size hanged by a fine thread, sharp line, to obviate as much as pos-
which, if removed from the perpendicular sible the resistance of the air, which
and allowed to swing freely, always com- is the sole cause of its retardation."
pletes its vibrations, be they great or [These last words deserve notice, be-
small, in exactly the same time/'* cause, in a previous discussion, Galileo
The mode of finding exactly by means had observed that the parts of the
of this the quantity of any time reduced pendulum nearest the point of sus-
to hours, minutes, seconds, &c., which pension have a tendency to vibrate
are the divisions commonly used among quicker than those at the other end,
is
"
Fit up a pen-
this and seems to have thought erroneously
astronomers, :
and have heard musicians wrangle about dured so many insults; and even in
the just and uniform keeping of time in his old age, when in his turn he had
their consorts, and therefore cannot with acquired "a claim to the reverence
patience hear that your labours about of a younger generation, our Royal So
vibrations, eminently conducing to both, ciety, who invited him among them in
should be slighted, nor your pendula 1696, felt that the complimentary lan-
called s\ving-swangs with scorn."t guage which they addressed him as
in
the mathematician of the age would
first
sure relaxed, ,and he was permitted to Motion,' and augured the greatest suc-
see the friends who crowded round him cess from such a beginning, invited him
to express their respect and sympathy. to his house an offer which Torricelli
The Grand Duke visited him frequently, eagerly embraced, although he enjoyed
and many distinguished strangers, such the advantages of it but for a short
as Gassendi and Deodati, came into time. He afterwards succeeded Galileo
Italy solely for the purpose of testify- in his situation at the court of Flo-
ing their admiration of his character. rence,t but survived him only a few
Among other visitors the name of Mil- years.
ton will be read with interest : we may It is from the accounts of Viviani and
probably refer to the effects of this in- Gherardini that we principally draw the
terview the allusions to Galileo's disco- following particulars of Galileo's person
veries, so frequently introduced into his and character Signer Galileo was
:
'
him. His library was very small, but success of his many and various experi-
well chosen, and open to the use of the ments, and spent large sums in charity
friends whom he loved to see assembled and hospitality, and in assisting those in
round him, and whom he was accus- whom he discovered excellence in any
tomed to receive in the most hospitable art or profession, many of whom he
manner. He ate sparingly himself; but maintained in his own house. His tem-
was particularly choice in the selection per was easily ruffled, but still more
of his wines, which in the latter part of easily pacified. He seldom conversed
his life were regularly supplied out of on mathematical or philosophical topics
the Grand Duke's cellars. This taste except among his intimate friends and ;
gave an additional stimulus to his agri- when such subjects were abruptly
cultural pursuits, and many of his leisure brought before him, as was often the
hours were spent in the cultivation and case by the numberless visitors he
superintendence of his vineyards. It was in the habit of receiving, he showed
should seem that he was considered a great readiness in turning the conver-
good judge of wine for Viviani has pre-
;
sation into more popular channels, in
served one of his receipts in a collection such manner however that he often
of miscellaneous experiments. In it he contrived to introduce something to
strongly recommends that for wine of satisfy the curiosity of the inquirers.
the first quality, that juice only should be His memory was uncommonly tena-
employed, which is pressed out by the cious, and stored with a vast variety of old
mere weight of the heaped grapes, songs and stories, which he was ire
which would probably be that of the the constant habit of quoting and allu-
ripest fruit. The following letter, written ding to. His favourite Italian authors
in his 74th year, is dated, " From my were Ariosto, Petrarca, and Berni,
prison at Arcetri. I am forced to great part of whose poems he was
avail myself of your assistance and fa- able to repeat. His excessive admira-
vour, agreeably to your obliging offers, tion of Ariosto determined the side
in consequence of the excessive chill of which he took against Tasso in the
the weather, and of old age, and from virulent and unnecessary controversy
having drained out my grand stock of a which has divided Italy so long on the
hundred bottles, which I laid in two years respective merits of these two great
ago not to mention some minor parti- poets and he was accustomed to say that
; ;
culars during the last two months, which reading Tasso after Ariosto was like
I received from my Serene Master, the tasting cucumbers after melons. When
Most Eminent Lord Cardinal, their quite a youth, he wrote a great number
Highnesses the Princes, and the Most of critical remarks on Tasso's Geru-
Excellent Duke of Guise, besides salemme Liberata, which one of his
cleaning out two barrels of the wine of friends borrowed, and forgot to return.
this country. Now, I beg that with all For a long time it was thought that the
due diligence and industry, and with manuscript had perished, till the Abb6
consideration, and taking counsel with Serassi discovered it, whilst collecting
the most refined palates, you will pro- materials for his Life of Tasso, pub-
102 GALILEO.
lishecl atRome in 1785. Serassi being tice extant of the application of ma-
a violent partizan of Tasso, but also un- thematics to that interesting subject :
willing to lose the credit of the disco- the correspondence between Pascal and
very, copied the manuscript, but without Fermat, with which its history is gene-
"
any intention of publishing it, till he rally made to begin, not having taken
could find leisure for replying, properly place till at least twelve years later.
to the sophistical and unfounded attacks There can be little doubt after the clear
of a critic so celebrated on other ac- account of Carlo Dati, that Galileo was
counts." He announced his discovery the first to examine the curve called the
as Tiaving been made " in one of the Cycloid, described by a point in the rim
famous libraries at Rome," which vague of a wheel rolling on a straight line,
indication he with some reason consi- which he recommended as a graceful
dered insufficient to lead to a second form for the arch of a bridge at Pisa. He
discovery. On Serassi's death his copy even divined that the area contained be-
was found, containing a reference to the tween it and its base is exactly three
situation of the original ;
the criticisms times that of the generating circle. He
were published, and form the greatest seems to have been unable to verify this
part of the last volume of the Milan guess by strict geometrical reasoning,
edition of Galileo's works. The manu- for Viviani tells an odd story, that in
script was imperfect at the time of this order to satisfy his doubts he cut out
second discovery, several leaves having several large cycloids of pasteboard, but
been torn out, it is not known by whom. finding the weight in every trial to be
The opinion of the most judicious Ita- rather less than three times that of the
lian critics appears to be, that it would circle, he suspected the proportion to be
have been more for Galileo's credit if irrational, and that there was some
these remarks had never been made pub- error in his estimation ; the inquiry he
lic they are written in a spirit of flippant
: abandoned was afterwards resumed with
violence, such as might not be extra- success by his pupil Torricelli.*
ordinary in a commonjuvenile critic, The account which Lagalla gives of
but which it
painful to notice from
is an experiment shown in his presence
the pen of Galileo. Two or three son- by Galileo, carries the observation of
nets are extant written by Galileo the phosphorescence of the Bologna
himself, and in two instances he has not stone at least as far back as 1612.t
scrupled to appropriate the conceits Other writers mention the name of an
of the poet he affected to under- alchymist, who according
to them dis-
value.* It should be mentioned that covered accidentally in 1603.
it Cesi,
Galileo's matured taste rather receded Lagalla, and one or two others, had
from the violence of his early prejudices, passed the night at Galileo's house, with
for at a later period of his life he used the intention of observing Venus and
to shun comparing the two ; and when Saturn; but, the night being cloudy,
forced to give an opinion he said, " that the conversation turned on other matters,
Tasso's appeared the finer poem, but and especially on the nature of light,
" on which Galileo took a small wooden
that Ariosto gave him the greater plea-
sure." Besides these sonnets, there is box at daybreak before sunrise, and
extant a short burlesque poem written showed us some small stones in it, desir-
" In abuse of
by him, Gowns," when, ing us to observe that they were not in
on his first becoming Professor at Pisa, the least degree luminous. Having then
he fpund himself obliged by custom to exposed them for some time to the twi-
wear his professional habit in every com- light, he shut the window again ; and in
It is written not without humour, the midst of the dark room showed us
Eany.
ut does not bear comparison with the stones, shining and glistening with
Berni, whom he imitated. a faint light, which we saw presently
There are several detached subjects decay and become extinguished." In
treated of by Galileo, which may be 1640, Liceti attempted to refer the
noticed in this place. A
letter by him effect of the earthshine upon the
containing the solution of a problem in moon to a similar phosphorescent qua-
Chances is probably the earliest no- lity of that luminary,
to which Galileo,
then aged 76, replied by a long and able
letter, enforcing the true explanation he
*
Compare Son. ii. v. 8 & 9; and Son. iii. v. 2 & 3, had formerly
with Ger. Lib. c. iv. st. 76, and c. vii. st. 19. The given.
author gladly owns his obligation for these remarks
To the )-in<!ne*s of Sig. Panizzi, Profesior of Italian * Lettera di Timauro Antiate. Firenze, 1663.
in the University of London. De phaenomenis in orbe Lunae. Venetiis, 1612;
j-
GALILEO. 103
Although quite blind, and nearly deaf, same effect. A bust of Galileo was
the intellectual powers of Galileo re- placed over the door, and two bas-reliefs
mained to the end of his life ; but he oc- on each side representing some of his
casionally felt that he was overworking principal discoveries. Not less than
himself, and used to complain to his friend five othermedals were struck in honour
Micanzio that he found his head too busy of him during his residence at Padua
" I cannot and Florence, which are all engraved in
for his body. keep my rest-
less brain from grinding on, although Venturi's Memoirs.
with great loss of time; for whatever There are several good portraits
idea comes into my head with respect of Galileo extant, two of which, by
to any novelty, drives out of it what- Titi and Subtermanns, are engraved
ever t had been thinking of just be- in Nelli' s Life of Galileo. Another
fore." He was busily engaged in consi- by Subtermanns is in the Florentine
dering the nature of the force of percus- Gallery, and an engraving from a copy
sion, and Torricelli was employed in of this is given by Venturi. There is
arranging his investigations for a conti- also a very fine engraving from the
nuation of the ' Dialogues on Motion,' original picture. An engraving from
when he was seized with an attack another original picture is in the fron-
of fever and palpitation of the heart, tispiece of the Padua edition of his
which, after an illness of two months, works. Salusbury seems in the fol-
put an end to his long, laborious, and lowing passage to describe a portrait
useful life, on the 8th of January, 1642, of Galileo painted by himself:
" He did
just one year before his great successor not contemn the other inferior arts, for
Newton was born. he had a good hand in sculpture and
The malice of his enemies was scarcely carving but his particular care was to
;
allayed by his death. His right of making paint well. By the pencil he described
a will was disputed, as having died a what his telescope discovered ; in one
prisoner to the Inquisition, as well as he exceeded art, in the other, nature.
his right to burial in consecrated ground. Osorius, the eloquent bishop of Sylya,
These were at last conceded, but Urban esteems one piece of Mendoza the wise
anxiously interfered to prevent the design Spanish minister's felicity, to have been
of erecting a monument to him in the this, that he was contemporary to Titian,
church of Santa Croce, in Florence, for and that by his hand he was drawn in a
which a large sum had been subscribed. fair tablet. And Galilaeus, lest he should
His body was accordingly buried in an want the same good fortune, made so
obscure corner of the church, which for great a progress in this curious art, that
upwards of thirty years after his death he became his own Baonarota; and
was unmarked even by an inscription to because there was no other copy worthy
his memory. It was not till a century of his pencil, drew himself." No other
later that the splendid monument was author makes the slightest allusion to
erected which now covers his and such a painting and it appears more
;
Viviani's remains. When their bodies likely that Salusbury should be mis-
were disinterred in 1737 for the purpose taken than that so interesting a portrait
of being removed to their new resting- should have been entirely lost sight of.
place, Capponi, the president of the Galileo's house at Arcetri was stand-
Florentine Academy, in a spirit of spu- ing in 1821, when Venturi visited it,
rious admiration, mutilated Galileo's and found it in the same state in which
body, by removing the thumb and fore- Galileo might be supposed to have left
finger of the right-hand, and one of the it. It is situated nearly a mile from
vertebrae of the back, which are still pre- Florence, on the south-eastern side, and
served in some of the Italian museums. about a gun-shot to the north-west of
The monument was put up at the ex- the convent of St. Matthew. Nelli
pense of his biographer, Nelli, to whom placed a suitable inscription over the
Viviani's property descended, charged door of the house, which belonged in
with the condition of erecting it. Nor 1821 to a Signor Alimarl*
was this the only public testimony which Although Nelli's Life of Galileo dis-
Viviani gave of his attachment. The appointed the expectations that had
medal which he str uck in honour o f Galileo been formed of it, it is impossible for
has already been mentioned; he also, any admirer of Galileo not to feel the
as soon as it was safe to do so, covered greatest degree of gratitude towards
every side of the house in which he
lived with laudatory inscriptions to the * Veaturi.
104 GALILEO.
him, for the successful activity with similar letters,whichhe bought by weight
which he rescued so many records of as waste paper. Nelli bought all that
the illustrious philosopher from destruc- remained, and on the servant's next
tion. After Galileo's death, the prin- reappearance in a few days, he learned
cipal part of his books, manuscripts, the quarter whence they came, and
and instruments, were put into the after some time succeeded at a small
charge of Viviani, who was himself at expense in getting into his own posses-
that time an object of great suspicion ; sion an old corn-chest, containing all
most of them he thought it prudent to that still remained of the precious trea-
conceal, till the superstitious outcries sures which Viviani had concealed in it
against Galileo should be silenced. At ninety years before."*
Viviani's death, he left his library, con- The earliest biographical notice of
taining a very complete collection of the Galileo is that in the Obituary of
works of all the mathematicians who the Mercurio Italico, published at
had preceded him (and amongst them Venice in 1647, by Vittorio Siri. It
those of Galileo, Torricelli, and Castelli, is very short, but contains an exact
all which were enriched with notes and enumeration of his principal works and
additions by himself), to the hospital of discoveries. Rossi, who wrote under
St. Mary at Florence, where an extensive the name of Janus Nicius Erythraeu*?,
library already existed. The directors of introduced an account of Galileo in his
the hospital sold this unique collection Pinacotheca Imaginum Illustrium, in
in 1781, when it became entirely dis- which the story of his illegitimacy first
persed. The manuscripts in Viviani's made its appearance. In 1664, Salus-
possession passed to his nephew, the bury published a life of Galileo in the
Abbe Panzanini, together with the por- second volume of his Mathematical
traits of the chief personages of the Gali- Collections, the greater part of which
lean school, Galileo's instruments, and, is a translation of Galileo's principal
among other curiosities, the emerald ring works. Almoit the whole edition of
which he wore as a member of the Lyn- the second volume of Salisbury's
cean Academy. A
great number of these book was burnt in the great fire of
books and manuscripts were purchased at London. Chauffepi6 says that only one
different times by Nelli, after the death copy is known to be extant in England :
of Panzanini, from his relations, who this is now in the well-known library of
were ignorant or regardless of their the Earl of Macclesfield, to whose kind-
value. One of his chief acquisitions ness the author is much indebted for the
was made by an extraordinary accident, use he has been allowed to make of this
related by Tozzetti with the following unique volume. A
fragment of this
details, which we repeat, as they seem second volume is in the Bodleian Li-
"
to authenticate the story : In the brary at Oxford. The translations in the
spring of 1739, the famous Doctor Lami preceding pages are mostly founded upon
went out according to his custom to Salusbury's version. Salisbury's ac-
breakfast with some of his friends at the count, although that of an enthusiastic
inn of the Bridge, by the starting-place ; admirer of Galileo, is too prolix to be
and as he and Sig. Nelli were passing interesting the general style of the per-
:
through the market, it occurred to formance may be guessed from the title
'
them to buy some Bologna sausages of the first chapter Of ..Man
in gene-
from the pork-butcher, Cioci, who was ral, and how he excelleth the other all
supposed to excel in making them. They Animals.' After informing his readers
went into the shop, had their sausages that Galileo was born at Pisa, he pro-
"
cut off and rolled in paper, which Nelli ceeds :
Italy is affirmed to have been
put into his hat. On reaching the inn, the first that peopled the world after
and calling for a plate to put them in, the universal deluge, being governed by
Nelli observed that the paper in which Janus, Cameses, and Saturn, &c." His
they had been rolled was one of Galileo's description of Galileo's childhood is
letters. He cleaned it as well as he somewhat quaint. " Before others had
could with his napkin, and put it into left making of dirt pyes, he was framing
his pocket without saying a word to of diagrams and whilst others were
;
fallen into several errors this same: one so arranged should have been lost
work contains the lives of several of his sight of. It is understood that a life of
may be seen in Kastner's Geschichte by the Academia della Crusca for their
der Mathematik, Gottingen, 1800,' from references for which reason its paging
;
which it does not appear to contain is marked in the margin of the edition
any additional details. The Elogio del of Padua, which is much more complete,
'
Galileo' by Paolo Frisi, first published and is the one which has been on the
at Leghorn in 1775, is, as its title ex- present occasion principally consulted.
presses, rather in the nature of a pa- The latter contains the Dialogue on the
negyric than of a continuous biogra- System, which was not suffered to be
phical account. It is written with printed in the former editions. The
very great elegance and intimate twelve first volumes of the last edition of
knowledge of the subjects of which Milan are a mere transcript of that of
it treats. Nelli gave several curious Padua: the thirtee-nth contains in addi-
particulars with respect to Galileo in his tion the Letter to the Grand Duchess,
'
Saggio di Storia Letteraria Fiorentina, the Commentary on Tasso, with some
Lucca, 1759;' and in 1793 published minor pieces A complete edition is still
.
Sydereus Nuucius
Discorso
del
Difesa di Gal. Galilei contr.
.....
Compasso Geom.
all.
.
Capra
Padova,
Risp. alle oppos. del S. Led. delle Colombe e del S. Vine, di Grazia
Discorso delle Comete di Mario Guiducci . ,
.....
Dialogo sopra i due Massimi Sistemi del Moudo
.....
Discorso e Demostr. intorno alle due nuove Scienze
Delia Scienza Meccanica
.
.....
Discorso sopra il Flusso e Reflusso. (Scienze Fisiche di Tozzetti.)
Considerazioni sul Tasso
Trattato della Fortificazione. (Memorie di Venturi.)
The editions of his collected works (in which is contained much that was
published separately) are
Opere di Gal. Galilei, Line. Nob. Fior. &c. .
Bologna, 1G5G.
Opere di Gal. Galilei, Nob. Fior. Accad. Line. &c. '' . Firenze, 1718.
Opere di Gal. Galilei '';'*' : Paclova, 1744.
LIFE OF KEPLER.
CHAPTER I. Scheme after scheme, resting originally
Introduction Birth and Education of upon beyond his own glowing ima-
little
generally known. This extraordinary was instructive. Few writers have spoken
man pursued, almost invariably, the so much, and so freely of themselves, as
hypothetical method. His life was passed Kepler. He records, on almost every
in speculating on the results of a few occasion, the train of thought by which
principles assumed by him, from very he was led to each of the discoveries
precarious analogies, as the causes of that eventually repaid his persever-
the phenomena actually observed in ance ;
and he has thus given us "a
Nature. We
nevertheless find that he most curious and interesting view of the
did, in spite of this imphilosophical me- workings of a mind of great, though ec-
" In what
thod, arrive at discoveries which have centric power. follows," says
served as guides to some of the most he (when introducing a long string of
valuable truths of modern science. suppositions, of which he had already
The we " let the reader
difficulty will disappear if discovered the fallacy),
attend more closely to the details of pardon my credulity, whilst working
Kepler's investigations. shall per- We out all by my own inge-
these matters
ceive that to an unusual degree of nuity. For it is my opinion that the oc-
rashness in the formation of his sys- casions by which men have acquired
tems, he added a quality very rarely a knowledge of celestial phenomena
possessed by philosophers of the hypo- are not less admirable than the disco-
thetical school. One of the greatest in- veries themselves.'" Agreeing altogether
tellectual vices of the latter was a wilful with this opinion in its widest application,
blindness to the discrepancy of facts we have not scrupled, in the following
from their creed, a perverse and obsti- sketch, to introduce at some length an
nate resistance to physical evidence, account even of Kepler's erroneous spe-
leading not unfrequently to an attempt culations ; they are in themselves very
at disguising the truth. From this be- amusing, and will have the additional
setting sin of the school, which
from an utility of proving the dangerous ten-
intellectual fault often degenerated into dency of his method ; they will show by
a moral one, Kepler was absolutely free. how many absurd theories, and how
KEPLER.
many years of 'wasted labour, his real three years of Kepler's life following his
discoveries and services to science lie admission to Maulbronn, were marked
surrounded. by periodical returns of several of the dis-
JOHN KEPLER was born (as we are as- orders which had well nigh proved fatal
sured by his earliest biographer Hantsch) to him in his childhood. During the same
in long. 29 7', lat. 48 54', on the 21 st day time disagreements arose between his
of December, 1571. On this spot stands parents, in consequence of which his
the imperial city of Weil, in the duchy of father quitted his home, and soon after
"Wirtemberg. His parents were Henry died abroad. After his father's depar-
Kepler and Catherine Guldenmann,bpth ture, his mother also quarrelled with her
of noble, though decayed families. relations, been treated, says
"having
Henry Kepler, at the time of his mar- Hantsch, with a degree of barbarity
riage, was a petty officer in the Duke of by her\ husband and brother-in-law
"Wirtemberg's service ; and a few years that was hardly exceeded even by her
after the birth of his eldest son John, own perverseness :" one of his bro-
he joined the army then serving in the thers died, and the family-affairs were
Netherlands. His wife followed him, in the greatest confusion. Notwith-
leaving their son, then in his fifth standing these disadvantages, Kepler
year, at Leonberg, under the care of his took his degree of master in August 1591,
grandfather. He was a seven months attaining the second place in the annual
child, very weak and sickly and after
;
examination. The first name on the
list was John
recovering with difficulty from a severe Hippolytus Brentius.
attack of small-pox, he was sent to Whilst he was thus engaged at Tu-
school in 1577. Henry Kepler's limited bingen, the astronomical lectureship at
income was still farther reduced on his Grate, the chief town of Styria, be-
return into Germany, the following year, came vacant by the death of George
in consequence of the absconding of Stadf, and the situation was offered to
one of his acquaintance, for whom he Kepler. Of this first occasion of turn-
Jiad incautiously become surety. His ing his thoughts towards astronomy, he
circumstances were 'so much nar- has himself given the following account :
this misfortune, that he was
" As soon as I was of an
rowed by age to feel the
charms of philosophy, I embraced
obliged to sell his house, and nearly all every
that'he possessed, and for several years part of with intense desire, but paid
it
for the degree of bachelor: they then the manner I had condemned in others,
returned to their school with the title by the remoteness of the situation, but
of veterans ; and after completing the by the unexpected and contemptible
studies taught there, they were admitted nature of the office, and by the slightness
as resident students at Tubingen, pro- of my information in this branch of phi-
ceeded in about a year to the degree of losophy. I entered on it, therefore, bet-
master, and were then allowed to com- ter furnished with talent than knowledge :
mence their course of theology. The with many protestations that I was
KEPLER.
not abandoning my claim to be provided whole preface. From it, better than from
for in some other more brilliant pro- any enumeration of peculiarities, the
fession. What progress I made in the reader will at once apprehend the nature
firsttwo years of my studies, may be of his disposition.
' " When I was
seen in my Mysterium Cosmogra- attending the celebrated
phicurn ;' and the encouragement given Mastlin, six years ago, at Tubingen,
me by my tutor, Mastlin, to take up the I was disturbed by the manifold incon-
science of astronomy, may be read in the veniences of the common theory of the
same book, and in his letter which is universe, and so delighted with Coper-
nicus, whom Mastlin was frequently in
'
prefixed to the Narrative of Rheticus.'
I looked on that discovery as of the the habit of quoting with great respect,
highest importance, and still more so, that I not only often defended his pro-
because I saw how greatly it was ap- positions in the physical disputations of
proved by Mastlin." the candidates, but also wrote a correct
The nature of the singular work to essay on the primary motion, maintain-
which Kepler thus refers with so much ing, that it is caused by the rotation of
complacency, will be best shown by the earth. And I was then at that point
quoting some of the most remarkable parts that I attributed to the earth the motion
of it, and especially the preface, in which of the sun on physical (or, if you will,
he briefly details some of the theories on metaphysical) grounds, as Copernicus
he successively examined and rejected, had done for mathematical reasons.
before detecting (as he imagined he had And, by this practice, I came by de-
here done) the true cause of the number grees, partly from Miistlin's instructions,
and order of the heavenly bodies. The and partly from my own efforts, to un-
other branches of philosophy with which derstand the superior mathematical con-
he occupied himself in his younger years, venience of the system of Copernicus
were those treated by Scaliger in his beyond Ptolemy's. This labour might
*
Exoteric Exercises,' to the study of have been spared me, by Joachim Rhe-
which book Kepler attributed the for- ticus, who has shortly and clearly ex-
mation of many of his opinions and he ; plained everything in his first Narra-
tells us that he devoted much time
" to tive. While incidentally engaged in
the examination of the nature of heaven, these labours, in the intermission of
of souls, of genii, of the elements, of the my theology, happened conveniently
it
essence of fire, of the cause of fountains, that I succeeded George Stadt in his
the ebb and flow of the tide, the shape situation at Gratz, where the nature of
of the continents, and inland seas, and my office connected me more closely
things of this sort." He also says, that with these studies. Everything I had
by his first success with the heavens, his learned from Mastlin, or had acquired
hopes were greatly inflamed of discover- of myself, was there of great service
ing similar analogies in the rest of the to me in explaining the first elements of
visible world, and for this reason, named astronomy. And, as in Virgil, Fama
'
his book merely a Prpdromus, or Fore- mobilitate viget, viresque acquirit eitn-
runner, meaning, at some future period, do,' so it was with me, that the diligent
to subjoin the Aftercomer, or Sequel. thought on these things was the occasion
But this intention was never fulfilled; of still further thinking until, at last,
:
trace the progress of thought in those size, and the motion of the orbits. I
who have distinguished themselves by attempted the thing at first with num-
talent and originality ; and although the bers, and considered whether one of the
whole of the following speculations be- orbits might be double, triple, quadru-
gin and end in error, yet they are so ple, or any other multiple of the others,
characteristic, and exhibit such an extra- and how much, according to Coper-
ordinary picture of the extravagances nicus, each differed from the rest. I
into which Kepler's lively imagination spent a great deal of time in that labour,
was continually hurrying him, that we as if it were mere sport, but could find
cannot refrain from citing nearly the no equality either in the proportions or
KEPLER.
the differences, and I gained nothing could I form any conjecture, from the
from this beyond imprinting deeply in mobility of particular numbers, why,
my memory the distances as assigned among an infinite number, so few should
by Copernicus ; unless, perhaps, reader, be moveable. The opinion advanced
this record of my various attempts may by Rheticus in his Narrative is impro-
force your assent, backwards and for- bable, where he reasons from the sanctity
wards, as the waves of the sea; until of the number six to the number of the
tired at length, you will willingly repose six moveable heavens for he who is in-
;
yourself, as in a safe haven, on the rea- quiring of the frame of the world itself,
sons explained in this book. However, must not derive reasons from these
I was comforted in some degree, and my numbers, which have gained importance
hopes of success were supported as well from things of later date.
" I
by other reasons which will follow pre- sought again, in another way, whe-
sently, as by observing that
the motions ther the distance of every planet is not
in every case seemed to be connected as the residuum of a sine ; and its mo-
with the distances, and that where there tion as the residuum of the sine of the
was a great gap bet ween the orbits, there complement in the same quadrant.
was the same between the motions. And
I reasoned, that if God had adapted
motions to the orbits in some relation to
the distances, it was probable that he
had also arrayed the distances them-
selves in relation to something else.
"
Finding no success by this method,
I tried another, of singular auda-
city. I inserted a new planet between
Mars and Jupiter, and another between
Venus and Mercury, both of which I
supposed invisible, perhaps on account
of their smallness, and I attributed to
each a certain period of revolution.* I
thought that I could thus contrive some
equality of proportions, increasing be-
tween every two, from the sun to the
fixed stars. For instance, the Earth is
nearer Venus in parts of the terrestrial
orbit, than Mars is to the Earth in parts
" Conceive the
square AB
to be con-
of the orbit of Mars. But not even the structed, whose side A. C
equal to the
is
interposition of a new planet sufficed for sernidiameter of the universe. From the
the enormous gap between Mars and angle B opposite to A
the place of the
Jupiter ;
for the proportion of Jupiter sun, or centre of the world, describe the
to the new planet was still greater than quadrant D C with the radius B C.
that of Saturn to Jupiter. And although, Then in A C, the true radius of the
by this supposition, I got some sort of a world, let the sun, fixed stars, and pla-
proportion, yet there was no reasonable nets be marked at their respective dis-
conclusion, no certain determination of the tances, and from these points draw lines
number of the planets either towards the parallel toB C, meeting the quadrant. I
fixed stars, till we should get as far as imagined the moving force acting on
them, nor ever towards the Sun, be- each of the planets to be in the propor-
cause the division in this proportion of tion of these parallels. In the line of the
the residuary space within Mercury sun is infinity, because D A is
touched,
might be continued without end. Nor and not cut, by the quadrant therefore
:
* The following scrupulous note added by Kepler as deriving no motion except from its
in 1621 to a subsequent edition of this work, de- own act. In Mercury the infinite line
serves to be quoted. It shows how entirely superior is cut off at K, and therefore at this
he was to the paltriness of attempting to appropriate
the
the discoveries of others, of which many of his con- point the motion is comparable with
temporaries had exhibited instances even on others. In the fixed stars the line is
slighter pretences than this passage might have into a
" Not cir- altogether lost, arid compressed
afforded him. The note is as follows :
culating round Jupiter like the Jfedicoean stars. lie mere point C therefore at that point
;
not deceived. I never had them in rny thoughts, there is no moving force. This was the
but, like the other primary planets, including the
sun in the centre of tli system within their orbits." theorem, which was to be tried by cal-
KEPLER.
dilation ; but if any one will reflect portion between these two circles struck
that two things were wanting to me, the eye as almost identical with that
first, that I did not know the size of the between Saturn and Jupiter, and the
Sinus Totus, that is, the radius of the triangle is the first figure, just as Sa-
proposed quadrant ; secondly, that the turn and Jupiter are the first planets.
energies of the motions were not thus On the spot I tried the second distance
expressed otherwise than in relation one between Jupiter and Mars with a square,
to another ; whoever, I say, well consi- the third with a pentagon, the fourth
ders this, will doubt, not without reason, with a hexagon. And as the eye again
as to the progress I was likely to make cried out against the second distance
in this difficult course. And yet, with between Jupiter and Mars, I combined
unremitting labour, and an infinite re- the square with a triangle and a
pen-
ciprocation of sines and arcs, I did tagon. There would be no end of men-
get so far as to be convinced that this tioning every trial. The failure of this
theory could not hold.
"
fruitless attempt was the beginning of
Almost the whole summer was lost the last fortunate one ; for I reflected,
in these annoying labours at last, by a;
that in this way I should never reach
trifling accident, I lighted more nearly the sun, if I wished to observe the same
on the truth. I looked on it as an in- rule throughout ; nor should I have
terposition of Providence, that I should any reason why there were six, rather
obtain by chance, what I had failed to than twenty or a hundred moveable
discover with my utmost exertions ; and orbits. And yet figures pleased me, as
I believed this the more, because I being quantities, and as having existed
prayed constantly that I might succeed, before the heavens; for quantity was
if Copernicus had really spoken the created with matter, and the heavens
truth. It happened on the 9th or 1 9th * afterwards. But if (this was the current
day of July, in the year 1595, that, of my thoughts), in relation
to the quan-
having occasion to show, in my lecture- tityand proportion of the six orbits, as
room, the passages of the great con- Copernicus has determined them among
junctions through eight signs, and how the infinite ether figures, five only could
they pass gradually from one trine as- be found having peculiar properties above
pect to another, I inscribed in a circle the rest, my business would be done.
And then again it struck me, what have
plane figures to do among solid orbits ?
Solid bodies ought rather to be intro-
duced. This, reader, is the invention
and the whole substance of this little
work; for if any one, though but mo-
A Scheme of the derately skilled in geometry, should
great Conjunctions of
hear these words hinted, the five regular
SATURN & JUPITER, solids will directly occur to him with
their leaps through eight
Signs, and their passa- the proportions of their circumscribed
ges through all the
four Triplicities and inscribed spheres: he has imme-
of the Zodiac.
diately before his eyes that scholium of
Euclid to the 18th proposition of his
13th Book, in which it is proved to be
impossible that there should be, or be
imagined, more than five regular bodies.
" What is
worthy of admiration (since
I had then 'no proof of
any prerogatives
a great number of triangles, or quasi- of the bodies with regard to their order)
triangles,so that the end of one was is, that employing a conjecture which
made the beginning of another. In this was far from being subtle, derived from
manner a smaller circle was shadowed the distances of the planets, I. should at
out by the points in which the lines once attain my end so happily in arrang-
crossed each other. ing them, that I was not able to change
" The
radius of a circle inscribed in anything afterwards with the utmost ex-
a triangle is half the radius of that ercise of my reasoning powers. In me-
described about it; therefore the pro- mory of the event, I write down here for
you the sentence, just as it fell from me,
* This inconvenient mode of
dating was neces- and in the words in which it was that
sary before the new or Gregorian style was uni-
versally adopted. moment conceived : The Earth is the
6 KEPLER.
circle, the measurer of all ; round it de- this will be Saturn. Now, inscribe in
scribe a dodecahedron, the circle in- the Earth an icosaedron, the circle in-
cluding this will be Mars. Round Mars scribed in it will beVenus. Inscribe an
describe a tetrahedron, the circle includ- octaedron in Venus, the circle inscribed
ing this will be Jupiter. Describe a in it will be
Mercury. This is the reason
cube round Jupiter, the circle including of the number of the planets.
until I could see whether this opinion will not find, as just now, new and un-
would agree with the orbits of Coper- known planets interposed ; that boldness
nicus, or whether my joy was to vanish of mine is not approved, but those old
into air. I willingly subjoin that senti- ones very little loosened, and so furnished
ment of Archytas, as given by Cicero : by the interposition (however absurd you
If I could mount up into heaven, and
'
may think it) of rectilinear figures, that
thoroughly perceive the nature of the in future you may give a reason to the
world, "and beauty of the stars, that ad- rustics when they ask for the hooks
miration would be without a charm for which keep the skies from falling.
me, unless I had some one like you, Farewell."
reader, candid, attentive, and eager for In the third chapter Kepler mentions,
knowledge, to whom to describe it.' If that a thickness must be allowed to
KEPLER. 7
each orb sufficient to include the greatest parison with the real distances are as
and least distance of the planet from the follows:
they are )
tive one, he laid aside this notion as contains < G2
planet respectively
1000, is at 563 500
improbable. In a note he acknowledges
that when he wrote the passage just As you see, we have now got nearer
quoted, imbued as he then was with the truth."
Scaliger's notions on moving intelli- Finding that this theory of the rate
" that each
gences, he literally believed of diminution would not bring him quite
planet was moved by a living spirit, but close to the result he desired to find,
afterwards came to look on'the moving Kepler immediately imagined another.
cause as a corporeal though immaterial This latter occasioned him a great deal
substance, something in the nature of of perplexity, and affords another of
light which is observed to diminish simi- the frequently recurring instances of
larly at increased distances." He then the waste of time and ingenuity occa- ^
proceeds as follows in the original text. sioned by his impetuous and precipitate
"
Let us then assume, as is very pro- temperament. Assuming the distance
bable, that motion is dispensed by the of any planet, as for instance of Mars,
sun in the same manner as light. The to be the unit of space, and the virtue at
will the motion of the latter be stronger, half through the process, had retraced
or mere hurried, or more swift, or more his steps so as of course to arrive again
you like to express the fact, than that of and which he had taken from his former
the former. But a larger orbit would results. This was the real secret of the
require a proportionably longer time of identity of the two methods; and if,
revolution, even though the moving force when he had taken the distance of Mars
were the same. Hence it follows that at 1000, instead of assuming the distance
the one cause of a greater distance of of the earth at 694, as he did, he had
the planet from the Sun, produces a taken any other number, and operated
double effect in increasing the period, upon it in the same manner, he would
KEPLEP.
have had the same reason for relying on dresses, in 1596, to Barbara Muller von
the accuracy of his supposition. As it Muhleckh. This lady was already a
was, the result utterly confounded him ; widow for the second time, although two
and he was obliged to leave it with the years younger than Kepler himself. n
" the two theories are thus occasion of this alliance he was required
remark, that
proved to be the same in fact, and only to prove the nobility of his family, and
different in form ; although how that the delay consequent upon the inquiry
can possibly be, I have never to this postponed the marriage till the follow*-
day been able to understand." His ing year. He soon became involved
perplexity was very reasonable they ;
in difficulties in consequence of this
are by no means the same it was only ;
inconsiderate ^engagement: his wife's
his method of juggling with the figures fortune was less than he had been led
which seemed to connect them. to expect, and he became embroiled on
Notwithstanding all its faults, the that account with her relations. Still
age. Raimar had surreptitiously ac- beyond the notice taken of them in Ze-
quired a notion of Tycho Brahe's theory, hentmaier's answers. Kepler has himself
and published it as his own ; and Tycho, told us, that his magnetic
philosophy
in his letter, complained of Kepler's ex- was built upon the investigations of
travagant flattery. This drew a long Gilbert, of whom he always justly spoke
apologetical reply from Kepler, in which with the greatest respect.
he attributed the admiration he had ex- About the same time a more violent
pressed of Raimar to his own want of persecution had driven Tycho Brahe from
information at that time, having since his observatory of Uraniburg, in the little
met with many things in Euclid and island of Hueen, at the entrance of the
Regiomontanus, which he then believed Baltic. This had been bestowed on him
original in Raimar. With this explana- by the munificence of Frederick I. of
tion, Tycho professed himself perfectly Denmark, who liberally furnished him
satisfied. with every means of prosecuting his
astronomical observations. After Fre-
CHAPTER II. derick's death, Tycho found himself un-
able to withstand the party which had
Kepler's Marriage He joins Tycho
Brahe at Is appointed Im- constantly opposed him, and was forced,
Prague at a great loss and much
perial Mathematician Treatise on inconvenience,
the New Star. to quit his favourite island. On the in-
vitation of the emperor,
Rudolph II.,.
THE publication of this extraordinary he then betook himself, after a short
book, early as it occurs in the
history stay at Hamburg, to the castle of Be-
of Kepler's life, was yet nach, near Prague, which was assigned
preceded by his
marriage. He had contemplated this to him with an annual pension of three
step so early as 1592; but that suit thousand florins, a truly munificent pro-
having been broken off, he paid his ad- vision in those times and that country.
12
10 KEPLER.
Kepler had been eager to see Tycho couragement," Kepler abandoned his
Brahe the latter had intimated
since former scheme, and travelled again
that his observations had led him to a with his wife to Prague. He was
more accurate determination of the ex- detained along time on the road by
centricities of the orbits of the planets. violent illness, and his money became
By help of this, Kepler hoped that his entirely exhausted. On this he wrote
theory might be made to accord more complainingly to Tycho, that he was
nearly with the truth ; and on learning unable without assistance to travel even
that Tycho was in Bohemia, he imme- the short distance which still separated
diately set out to visit him, and arrived them, far less to await much longer the
at Prague in
January, 1600. From fulfilment of the promises held out to
thence he wrote a second letter to Tycho, him.
not having received the answer to his By his subsequent admissions, it ap-
former apology, aj;am excusing himself pears that for a considerable time he
for the part he had appeared to take with lived entirely on Tycho' s bounty, and by
Raimar against him. Tycho replied im- way of return, he wrote an essay against
mediately in the kindest manner, and Raimar, and against a Scotchman named
begged he would repair to him directly :
Liddell, professor at Rostoch and Helm-
"
Come not as a stranger, but as a stadt, who, like Raimar, had appropri-
very welcome friend ; come and share ated to himself the credit of the Ty-
in my observations with such instru- chonic system. Kepler never adopted
ments as I have with me, and as a this theory, and indeed, as the question
dearly beloved associate." During his merely regarded priority of invention,
stay of three or four months at Benach, there could be no occasion, in the dis-
it was settled that
Tycho should apply to cussion, for an examination of its prin-
the emperor, to procure him the situation ciples.
of assistant in the observatory. Kep- This was followed by a transaction,
ler then returned to Gratz, having pre- not much to Kepler's credit, who in the
viously received an intimation, that he course of the following year, and during a
might do so in safety. The plan, as it second absence from Prague, fancied that
had been arranged between them was, he had some reason to complain of Ty-
that a letter should be procured from cho's behaviour, and wrote him a violent
the emperor to the states of Styria, letter, filled with reproaches and insults.
requesting that Kepler might join Tycho Tycho appears behaved in this
to have
Brahe for two years, and retain his affair with great moderation professing
:
.salary during that time: a hundred to be himself occupied with the marriage
florins were to be added annually by of his daughter, he gave the care of reply-
the emperor, on account of the greater ing to Kepler's charges, to Ericksen, one
dearness of living at Prague. But of his assistants, who, in a very kind and
before everything was concluded, Kep- temperate letter, pointed out to him the
ler threw up his situation at
finally ingratitude of his behaviour, and the
Gratz, in consequence of new dissen- groundlessness of his dissatisfaction. His
sions. Fearing that this would utterly principal complaint seems to have been,
put an end to his hopes of connecting that Tycho had not sufficiently supplied
himself with Tycho, he determined to his wife with money during his absence.
.revive his claims on the patronage of the Ericksen's letter produced an immediate
Duke of Wirtemberg. With this view and entire change in Kepler's temper,
he entered into correspondence with and it is only from the humble recanta-
Mastlin and some of his other friends tion which he instantaneously offered
at Tubingen, intending to prosecute that we learn the extent of his previous
his medical studies, and offer himself
" Most noble these
violence. Tycho,"
" how shall
for the professorship of medicine in are the words of his letter,
that university. He was dissuaded from 1 enumerate or rightly estimate your
this scheme by the pressing instances benefits conferred on me ! For two
of Tycho, who undertook to exert months you have liberally and gratui-
himself in procuring a permanent set- tously maintained me, and my
whole
tlement for him from the emperor, family ; you have provided for all my
.and assured him, even if that attempt wishes you have done me every pos-
;
should fail, that the language he had sible kindness ; you have communicated
used when formerly inviting him to to meeverything you hold most
dear ;
visit him at Hamburg, should not be no one, by word o'r deed, has intention-
forgotten. In consequence of this en- ally injured me in any thing: in short,
KEPLER. 11
not to your children, your wife, or your- born, just as Miiller was seldom called
self have you shown more indulgence by any other name than Regiomontanus,
than to me. This being so, as I am from 'his native town Konigsberg, as
anxious to put upon record, I cannot George Joachim Rheticus was so sur-
reflect without consternation that I named from Rhetia, the country of the
should have been so given up by God to Grisons, and as Kepler himself was
my own intemperance, as to shut my sometimes called Leonmontanus, from
eyes on all these benefits that, instead of
; Leonberg, where he passed his in-
modest and respectful gratitude, I should fancy. It was agreed between Longo-
indulge for three weeks in continual mo- montanus and Kepler, that in discuss-
roseness towards all your family, in head- ing Tycho's observations, the former
long passion, and the utmost insolence should apply himself especially to the
towards yourself, who possess so many Moon, and the latter to Mars, o*n which
claims on my veneration from your noble planet, owing to its favourable position,
family, your extraordinary learning, and Tycho was then particularly engaged.
distinguished reputation. Whatever I The nature of these labours will be ex-
have said or written against the person, plained when we come to speak of the
the fame, the honour, and the learning celebrated book
" On the
Motions of
of your excellency or whatever, in any
;
Mars."
other way, I have injuriously spoken or This arrangement was disturbed by
written, (if they admit no other more fa- the return of Longomontanus into Den-
vourable interpretation,) as to my grief I mark, where he had been offered an as-
have spoken and written many things, tronomical professorship, and still more
and more than I can remember all and ; by the sudden death of Tycho Brahe
everything I recant, and freely and ho- himself in the following October. Kep-
nestly declare and profess to be ground- ler attended him during his illness, and
less, false, and incapable of proof." Hoff- after his death undertook -to arrange
mann, the president of the states of some of his writings. But, in conse-
Styria, who had taken Kepler to Prague quence of a misunderstanding between
on his first visit, exerted himself to per- him and Tycho's family, the manuscripts
fect the reconciliation, and this hasty were taken out of his hands and when,
;
quarrel was entirely passed over. soon afterwards, the book appeared,
On Kepler's return to Prague, in Kepler complained heavily that they had
September, 1601, he was presented to published, without his consent or know-
the Emperor by Tycho, and honoured ledge, the notes and interlineations added
with the title of Imperial Mathematician, by him for his own private guidance
on condition of assisting Tycho in his whilst preparing it for publication.
calculations. Kepler desired nothing On Tycho's death, Kepler succeeded
more than this condition, since Tycho him as principal mathematician to the
was at that time probably the only per- emperor; but although he was thus
son in the world who possessed obser- nominally provided with a liberal salary,
vations sufficient for the reform which it was almost always in arrear. The
he now began to meditate in the theory pecuniary embarrassments in which he
of astronomy. Rudolph appears to have constantly found himself involved, drove
valued both Tycho Brahe and Kepler as him to the resource of gaining a liveli-
astrologers rather than astronomers ; but hood by casting nativities. His peculiar
although unable to appreciate rightly the temperament rendered him not averse
importance of the task they undertook, from such speculations, and he enjoyed
of compiling a new set of astronomical considerable reputation in this line, and
tables founded upon Tycho's observa- received ample remuneration for his pre-
tions, yet his vanity was flattered with dictions. But although he did not scruple,
the prospect of his name beingcon- when consulted, to avail himself in this
nected with such a work, and he made manner of the credulity of his contem-
liberal promises to defray the expense of poraries, he passed over few occasions
the new Hudolphine Tables. Tycho's in his works of protesting against the
principal assistant at this time was futility of this particular genethliac as-
Longomontanus, who altered his name trology. His own astrological creed was
to this form, according to the prevalent in a different strain, more singular, but
fashion of giving to every name a Latin not less extravagant. We shall defer en-
termination. Lomborg or Longbierg tering into any details concerning it, till
was the name, not of his family, but we come to treat of his book on Har-
of the village in Denmark, where he was monics, in which he has collected and
12 KEPLEP.
recapitulated the substance of his scat- thus much
only is certain, that it comes
tered opinions on this strange subject. mankind either nothing at all, or
to tell
His next works deserving notice are high and weighty news, quite beyond
those published on occasion of the new human sense and understanding. It
star which shone out with great splen- will have an important influence on
dour in 1 604, in the constellation Cassio- political and social relations; not indeed
peia*.
Immediately on its appearance, by its own nature, but, as it were, acci-
Kepler wrote a short account of it in dentally through the disposition of man-
German, marked with all the oddity kind. First, it portends to the book-
which characterises most of his pro- sellers great disturbances, and tolerable
ductions. We shall see enough of his gains for almost every Theologus, Phi'
;
to prepare his lodgings, and the crowd astrologers with great severity. The
of young urchins begin to think the essence of this book is probably con-
time over-long to wait then roll in, one
: tained in the second treatise on the
after another, the ammunition, and mo- new star, which he published in 1606*.
ney, and baggage waggons, and presently In this volume he inveighs repeatedly
the trampling of horse, and the rush of against the vanity and worthlessness of
people from every side to the streets and ordinary astrology, declaring at the same
windows; and when the crowd have time, that the professors of that art know
gazed with their jaws all agape at the that this judgment is pronounced by one
" For
troops of knights; then at last, the well acquainted with its principles.
trumpeters, afld archers, and lackeys, so if the vulgar are to pronounce who is
prefer the judgment of the learned, they this same chance, which, although I
are already condemned. Whether they spent a good deal of time over it, never
stand with me in the eyes of the popu- showed me anything like sense even from
lace, or I fall with them before the a distance *. So 1 gave up my cards to
learned, in both cases I am in their the Epicurean eternity, to be carried away
ranks I am on a level with them
; ;
T into infinity, and, it is said, they are still
cannot be renounced." flying about there, in the utmost confu-
The theory which Kepler proposed sion among the atoms, and have never
to substitute is intimated shortly in yet come to any meaning. I will tell
" these disputants, my opponents, not
the following passage: I maintain my
that the colours and aspects, and con- own opinion, but my wife's. Yesterday,
junctions of the planets, are impressed when weary with writing, and my mind
on the natures or faculties of sub- quite dusty with considering these atoms,
lunary things, and when they occur, 1 was called to supper, and a salad I
that these are excited as well in forming had asked for was set before me. It
as in moving the body over whose seems then, said I aloud, that if pewter
motion they preside. Now let no one dishes, leaves of lettuce, grains of salt,
conceive a prejudice that I am anxiously drops of water, vinegar, and oil, and
seeking to mend the deplorable and hope- slices of egg, had been flying about in
less cause of astrology by far-fetched the air. from all eternity, it might at last
subtilties and miserable quibbling. I do happen by chance that there would come
not value it sufficiently, nor have I ever a salad. Yes, says my wife, but not so
shunned having astrologers for my ene- nice and well dressed as this of mine is."
mies. But a most unfailing experience
(as .far as can be hoped in natural phe- CHAPTER III.
nomena) of the excitement of sublunary
natures by the conjunctions and aspects Kepler publishes his Supplement to
Vitellion Theory of Refraction.
of the planets, has instructed and com-
pelled my unwilling belief." DURING several years Kepler remained,
After exhausting other topics sug- as he himself forcibly expressed it,
gested by this new star, he examines the begging his bread from the emperor at
different opinions on the cause of its ap- Prague, and the splendour of his nomi-
nal income served only to increase his
pearance. Among others he mentions
the Epicurean notion, that it was a for- irritation, at the real neglect under
tuitous concourse of atoms, whose ap- which he nevertheless persevered in his
labours. His family was increasing,
pearance in this form was merely one of
the infinite number of ways in which, and he had little wherewith to support
them beyond the uncertain proceeds of
since the beginning of time, they have
been combined. Having descanted for his writings andnativities. His salary
some time on this opinion, and declared was charged partly on the states of Si-
himself altogether hostile to it,Kepler pro- lesia, partly on the imperial treasury ;
ceeds as follows " When I was a but it was in vain that repeated orders
:
youth,
with plenty of idle time on my hands, were procured for the'payment of the
I was much taken with the vanity, of arrears due to him. The resources of
which some grown men are not ashamed, the empire were drained by the constant
of making anagrams, by transposing the demands of an engrossing war, and
letters of my name, written in Greek, Kepler had not sufficient influence to
so as to make another sentence out of enforce his claims against those who
:
in Latin, out of Joannes Keplerus came upon him ill spent, in fostering profit-
less speculations. In consequence of
Serpens in akule&\. But not being satis-
fied with the meaning of these words,
this niggardliness,Kepler was ^forced to
and being unable to make another, I postpone the publication of the Rudol-
trusted the thing to chance, and taking phine Tables, which he was engaged in
out of a pack of playing cards as many constructing from his own and Tycho
as there were letters in the name, I wrote Brahe's observations, and applied him-
one upon each, and then began to shuffle self to other works of a less costly de-
them, and at each shuffle to read them scription. Among these may be men-
in the order they came, to see if any
* In one of his
meaning came of it, Now, may all the anonymous writings Kepler has
anagrammatized his name, Joannes Keplerus, in a
Epicurean gods and goddesses confound variety of other forms, probably selected from the
"
*
luckiest of his shuffles :
Kleopas Herennius,
The tapster of the Sirens, tielenor Kapuensis, Raspinus Enkeleo, Kanones
t A serpent in his sting. Pueriles,"
14 KEPLER.
tioned a " Treatise on Comets," written The following tedious specimen of Kep-
on occasion of one which appeared in ler'smode of examining physical pheno-
3607 in this h? suggests that they are
: mena is advisedly selected to contrast
planets moving in straight lines. The with his astronomical researches though
:
book published in 1G04, which he en- the luck and consequently the fame that
titles
" A Supplement to Vitellion," attended his divination were widely dif-
may be considered as containing the ferent on the two occasions, the method
first reasonable and consistent theory of pursued was the same. After comment-
optics, especially in that branch of ing on ,the points of difference between
it usually termed dioptrics, which re- Rothman and Tycho Brahe, Kepler pro-
lates to the theory of vision through trans- ceeds to enumerate his own endeavours
parent substances. In it was first ex- to discover the law of refraction.
"
plained the true use of the different parts did not leave untried whether,
I
of the eye, to the knowledge of which by assuming a horizontal refraction
Baptista Porta had already approached according to the density of the medium,,
very nearly, though he stopped short of the rest would correspond with the sines
the accurate truth. Kepler remarked of the distances from the vertical direc-
the identity of the mechanism in the eye tion, but calculation proved that it w as
r
\vith that beautiful invention of Porta's, not so : and indeed there was no occa-
the camera obscura ; showing, that the sion to have tried it, for thus the refrac-
light which falls from external objects on tions would increase according to the
the eye is refracted through a transpa- same law in all mediums, which is con-
rent substance, called, from its form and tradicted by experiment.
" The same kind of
composition, the crystalline lens, and objection may be
makes a picture on the fine net- work of brought against the cause of refraction
nerves, called the retina, which lies at the alleged by^Alhazen and Vitellion. They
back of the eye. The manner in which say that "the light seeks to be compen-
the existence of this coloured picture on sated for the loss sustained at the ob-
the retina causes to the individual the lique impact so that in proportion as
;
filled by the denser medium under the the proportion may be imagined, either
force of the rarer one. in the straight lines, as if one should
" Let A BC E
Q, illuminated by
be the place of the light, say that the line
the surface of the denser medium, DE refraction, is to EH
illuminated directly,
its bottom . Let A B A G, A F be rays
, as the density of the one medium is
falling obliquely,
which would arrive at to that of the other Or another may
D, I, H, if the medium were uniform. suppose the proportion to be between
But because it is denser, suppose the FC and FH
Or it may be conceived
bottom to be depressed to K L, deter- to existamong surfaces, or so that
mined by this that there is as much of some power of E Q should be to some
the denser matter contained in the space power of E H
in this proportion, or
DC as of the rarer in LG and thus, on : the circles or similar figures described
the sinking of the whole bottom DE, the on them. In this manner the proportion-
points D, I, H, E will descend vertically of E Qto E P would be double that of
to L, M, N, K. Join the points B L, H
E to El Or the proportion may be
GM, FN, cutting D E in O,P, Q ;
conceived existing among the solidities
the refracted rays will be A B O, A G P, of the pyramidal frustums FHEC,
AFQ." ''This method refuted by is FQEC Or, since the proportion of
experiment ; it gives the refractions near the mediums involves a threefold con-
the perpendicular A
C too great in re- sideration, since they have density in
spect of those near the horizon. Who- length, breadth, and thickness, 1 pro-
ever has leisure may verify this, either ceeded also to examine the cubic propor-1
subsequently rise more and more ac- in water also, that the images rise and
cording to the sines of the inclinations ? approach the surface, not according to
For so the proportion would be com- the law of the greater or less density in
pound, and would become different
in the water, as the view is J less or more
different mediums. There is nothing in oblique, but solely because of the re-
it: for the calculation disagreed with fraction of the ray of light passing
experiment. And generally it from the object to the eye. On which
is in vain
to have regard to the image or the place assumption, it is plain that every attempt
of the image, for that very reason, that I had hi!herto made to measure refrac-
it is imaginary. For there is no con- tions by the image, and its elevation,
nexion between the density of the me- must fall to the ground. And this be-
dium or any real [quality or refraction of came more evident when I discovered
the light, and an accident of vision, by the true reason why the image is in the
an error of which the image happens. same perpendicular line with the object
"
Up to this point, therefore, I had fol- both in mirrors and in dense mediums.
lowed a nearly blind mode of inquiry, and When I had succeeded thus far by
had trusted to good fortune but now
; analogy in this most difficult investiga-
I opened the other eye, and hit upon a tion, as to the place of the image, I be-
sure method, for I pondered the fact, gan to follow out the analogy further, led
that the image of a thing seen under on by the strong desire of measuring
water approaches closely to the true refraction. For I wished to get hold of
ratio of the refraction, and almost mea- some measure of some sort, no matter
sures it ; that it is low if the thing is how blindly, having no fear but that so
viewed directly from above ; that by de- soon as the measure should be accurately
grees it rises as the eye passes towards known, the cause would plainly appear.
the horizon of the water. Yet, on the I went to work as follows. In convex
other hand, the reason alleged above, mirrors the image is diminished, and just
proves that the measure is not to be so in rarer mediums in denser mediums
;
is not a thing actually existing, but arises In convex mirrors the central parts of
from a deception of vision which is the image approach, and recede in con-
purely accidental. By a comparison of cave farther than towards the circumfe-
these conflicting arguments, it occurred rence ; the same thing happens in different
to me at length, to seek the causes them- mediums, so that in water the bottom
selves of the existence of the image un- appears depressed, and the surrounding
der water, and in these causes the mea- parts elevated. Hence it appears that a
sure of the refractions. This opinion denser medium corresponds with a con-
was strengthened in me by seeing that cave reflecting surface, and a rarer one
opticians had not rightly pointed out the with a convex one it was clear, at the
:
cause of the image which appears both same time, that the plane surface of the
KEPLER. 17
reader, you and I have been detained fraction would alter, if the height of the
sufficiently long whilst I have been at- atmosphere should vary and also, that ;
I will
say
ance by argument to their rash insults something for you to attack or examine.
of Tycho, and attacks upon this whole The sun's rays are not coloured, except
matter of refractions who, if they had
; with a definite quantity of refraction.
kept to themselves their puerile errors Whether you are in the optical cham-
and naked ignorance, might have escaped ber, or standing opposite glass globes',
censure ; for that may happen to many or walking in the morning dew,
every-
great men. But since they venture forth where it is obvious that a certain and de-
publicly, and with thick books and sound- finite angle is observed, under which,
ing titles, lay baits for the applause of when seen in dew, in glass, in water, the
the unwary, (for now-a-days there is sun's splendour appears coloured, and
more danger from the abundance of bad under no other angle. There is no
books, than heretofore from the lack of colouring by mere reflexion, without the
good ones,) therefore let them know that refraction of a denser medium." How
a time is set for them publicly to amend closely does Kepler appear, in this pas-
theirown errors. If they longer delay sage, to approach the discovery which
doing this, it shall be open, either to me forms not the least part of Newton's
or any other, to do to these unhappy fame !
meddlers in geometry as they have taken We also find in this work a defence of
upon themselves to do with respect to men the opinion that the planets are lumi
18 KEPLER.
nous of themselves on the ground that
;
early instructor, seldom mentioned to him
the inferior planets would, on the contrary the name of Galrleo, without some con-
supposition, display phases like those of temptuous expression of dislike. These
the moon when passing between us and statements have rather disturbed ,the
the sun. 1 he use of the telescope was
chronological order of the account of
not then known; and, when some years Kepler's works. We
now return to the
later the form of the disk of the
planets year 1609, in which he published his
was more clearly defined with their great and extraordinary book,
**
On the
assistance, Kepler had the satisfaction Motions of Mars ;" a work which holds
of finding his assertions verified by the the intermediate place, and is in truth
discoveries of Galileo, that these changes the connecting link, between the disco-
do actually take place. In another of veries of Copernicus and Newton.
his speculations, connected with the same
subject, he was less fortunate. In 1607
CHAPTER IV.
a black spot appeared on the face of sun, Sketch of the Astronomical Theories.
such as may almost always be seen with before Kepler.
the assistance of the telescope, although KEPLER had begun to labour upon
they are seldom large enough to be visible these commentaries from the moment
to the unassisted eye. Kepler saw it for when he first made Tycho's acquaint-
a short time, and mistook it for the planet ance and it is on this work that his re-
;
Mercury, and with his usual precipi- putation should be made mainly to rest.
tancy hastened to publish an account of It is marked in many places with his
his observation of this rare phenomenon. characteristic precipitancy, and indeed
A few years later, Galileo discovered with one of the most important discoveries
his glasses, a great number of similar announced in it (famous among astro-
spots ; and Kepler immediately retracted nomers by the name of the Equable
the opinion announced in his treatise, Description of Areas) was blundered upon,
and acknowledged his belief that previous by a lucky compensation of errors, of
accounts of the same occurrence which the nature of which Kepler remained
he had seen in old authors, and which ignorant to the very last. Yet there is
he had found great difficulty in recon- more of the inductive method in this than
ciling with his more accurate knowledge in any of his other publications ; and the
of the motions of Mercury, were to be unwearied perseverance with which he ex-
referred to a like mistake. On this occa- hausted years in hunting down his often
sion of the invention of the telescope, renewed theories, till at length he seemed
Kepler's candour and real love of truth to arrive at the true one, almost by having
appeared in a most favourable light. previously disproved every other, excites
Disregarding entirely the disagreeable a feeling of astonishment nearly ap-
necessity, in consequence of the dis- proaching to awe. It is wonderful how
coveries of this new instrument, of retract- he contrived to retain his vivacity and
ing several opinions which he had main- creative fancy amongst the clouds of
tained with considerable warmth, he figures which he conjured up round him ;
ranged himself at once on the side of Gali- for the slightest hint or shade of proba-
leo, in opposition to the bitter and deter- bility was sufficient to plunge him into
mined hostility evinced by most of those the midst of the most laborious compu-
whose theories were endangered by the tations. He was by no means an accu-
new views thus offered of the heavens. rate calculator, according to the follow-
Kepler's quarrel with his pupil, Horky, on ing character which he has given of him-
"
this account, has been mentioned in the self:
Something of these delays must
" Life of Galileo and this is only a se- be attributed to my own temper, for non
;"
lected instance from the numerous occa.- omnia possumus omnes, and I am totally
sions on which he espoused the same unable to observe any order; what I do
unpopular side of the argument He suddenly, I do confusedly, and if I pro-
published a dissertation to accompany duce any thing well arranged, it has been
" done ten times over. Sometimes an
Galileo's Intelligencer of the Stars,"
in which he warmly expressed his ad- error of calculation committed by hurry ^
miration of that illustrious inquirer into delays me a great length of time. I
nature. His conduct in this respect was could indeed publish an infinity of things,
the more remarkable, as some of his most for though my reading is confined,
intimate friends had taken a very opposite my imagination is abundant, but I grow
view of Galileo's merit, and seem to dissatisfied with such confusion I get
:
have laboured much to disturb their mu- disgusted and out of humour, and either
tual regard : Mastlin especially, Kepler's throw them away, or put them aside to
KEPLER. 19
l>elooked at again ; or, in other words, to DEd, the angle described by the
to be written again, for that is generally centre of the epicycle in the deferent.
the end of it. I entreat you, my friends, The angle d between Ejo, the direc-
pE
not to condemn me for ever to grind in tion in which a planet so moving would
the mill of mathematical calculations : be seen from the earth, supposed to be
allow me some time for philosophical at E, and E d the direction in which it
speculations, my only delight." would have been seen had it been mov-
He was very seldom able to afford ing in the centre of the deferent, was
the expense of maintaining an assist- called the equation of the orbit, the
ant, and was forced to go through most word equation, in the language of astro-
of the drudgery of his calculations by nomy, signifying what must be added
himself; and the most confirmed and or taken from an irregularly
varying
merest arithmetician could not have quantity to make it vary uniformly.
toiled more doggedly than Kepler did in As the accuracy of ^observations in-
the work of which we are about to speak. creased, minor irregularities were dis-
In order that the language of his as- covered, which were attempted to be
tronomy may be understood, it is neces- accounted for by making a second
sary to mention briefly some of the older deferent of the epicycle, and making
theories. When it had been discovered the centre of a second epicycle revolve
that the planets did not move regularly in the circumference of the first, and
round the earth, which was supposed to so on, or else by supposing the revo-
be fixed in the centre of the world, a me- lution in the epicycle not to be com-
chanism was contrived by which it was pleted in exactly the time in which its
thought that the apparent irregularity centre is carried round the deferent.
could be represented, and yet the prin- Hipparchus was the first to make a re-
ciple of uniform motion, which was ad- mark by which the geometrical repre-
hered to with superstitious reverence, sentation of these inequalities was consi-
might be preserved. This, in its sim- derably simplified. In fact, if EC
be
plest form, consisted in supposing the taken equal to p d, Cd will be a paral-
planet to move uniformly in a small lelogram, and consequently Cp equal
circle, called an epicycle, the centre of to E d, so that the machinery of the
which moved with an equal angular first deferent and epicycle amounts to
motion in the opposite direction round supposing that Ihe planet revolves uni-
the earth*. The circle D
d, described formly in a circle round the point C,
by D, the centre of the epicycle, was not coincident with the place of the
called the deferent. For instance, if the earth. This was consequently called
planet was supposed to be at when A the excentric theory, in opposition to
the centre of the epicycle was at D, its the former or concentric one, and was
received as a great improvement. As
the point d is not represented by this
construction, the equation to the orbit
was measured by the angle CpE,
which is equal top Ed. It is not ne-
cessary to give any account of the man-
ner in which the old astronomers de-
termined the magnitudes and positions
of these orbits, either in the concentric
or excentric theory, the present object
being little more than to explain the
meaning of the terms it will be neces-
sary to use in describing Kepler's in-
vestigations.
when the centre of the epicycle To explain the irregularities observed
position,
had removed to d, would be at p, found in the other planets, it became neces-
stood whenever these or similar expressions are of the epicycle, instead of revolving uni-
repeated. formly round C, the centre of the deferent,
KEPLER.
planet's place in its circumference : it was
called indifferently the
equation of the
orbit, or of the argument. In order to
account for the apparent stations and
retrogradations of the planets, it be-
came necessary to suppose that many
revolutions in the latter were completed
during one of the former. The va-
riations of latitude of the
planets were
exhibited by supposing not
only that the
planes of their deferents were oblique to
the plane of the ecliptic, and that the
plane of the epicycle was also oblique to
that of the deferent, but that the inclination
as it had hitherto been made to do, was of the two latter was
continually chang-
supposed to move in its circumference ing, although Kepler doubts whether
with an uniform angular motion round this latter complication was admitted
by
a third point, Q the necessary effect of
; Ptolemy. In the inferior planets, it was
which supposition was, that the linear even thought necessary to give to the
motion of the centre of the epicycle plane of the epicycle two oscillatory mo-
ceased to be uniform. There were thus tions on axes at right angles to each
three points to be considered within the other.
deferent E, the place of the earth ;
;
The astronomers at this period
C, the centre of the deferent, and some- were much struck with a remarkable
times called the centre of the orbit and ;
connexion between the revolutions of
Q, called the centre of the equant, be- the superior planets in their
epicycles,
cause, if any circle were described round and the apparent motion of the sun; for
Q, the planet would appear to a spec- when in conjunction with the sun, as
tator at Q, to be moving equably in it. seen from the earth, they were
always
It was long uncertain what situation found to be in the apogee, or point of
should be assigned to the centre of the greatest distance from the earth, of their
equant, so as best to represent the ir- epicycle ; and when in opposition to the
regularities to a spectator on the earth, Sun, they were as regularly in the peri-
until Ptolemy decided on placing it (in gee, or point of nearest approach of the
every case but that of Mercury, the epicycle. This correspondence between
observations on which were very doubt- two phenomena, which, according to
ful) so that C, the centre of the orbit, lay the old astronomy, were
entirely uncon-
just half way in the straight line, joining nected, was very perplexing, and it seems
Q, the centre of equable motion, and E, to have been one of the facts which led
the place of the earth. This is the famous Copernicus to substitute the theory of
principle, known by the name of the the earth's motion round the sun.
bisection of the excentricity. As time wore on, the superstructure
The first equation required for the ofexcentrics and epicycles, which had
planet's motion was thus supposed to be been strained into representing the ap-
due to the displacement of E, the earth, pearances of the heavens at a particular
from Q, the centre of uniform motion, moment, grew out of shape, and the
which was called the excentricity of the natural consequence of such an artifi-
equant it might be represented by the
: cial system was, that it became next to
angle d E
M, drawing E M
parallel to impossible to foresee what ruin might
Qd for clearly
; M
"would have been be produced in a remote part of it "by
the place of the centre of the epicycle any attempt to repair the derangements
at the end of a time proportional to and refit the parts to the changes, as
D d, had it moved with an equable angu- they began to be remarked in any par-
lar motion round E
instead of Q. This ticular point. In the ninth century of
angle dE
M, or its equal Erf Q, was called our era, Ptolemy's tables were already
the equation of the centre (i. e. of the useless, and all those that were con-
centre of the epicycle) ; and is clearly trived with unceasing toil to
supply
greater than if E Q, the excentri- their place, rapidly became as unser-
city of the equant, had been "no greater viceable as they. Still the triumph of
than E C, called the excentricity of the genius was seen in the veneration that
orbit. The second equation was mea- continued to be paid to the assump-
sured by the angle subtended at E by d, tions of Ptolemy and Hipparchus and;
the centre of the epicycle, and p the even when the great reformer, Coper-
KEPLER. 21
nicus, appeared, he did not for along planetary motions to one centre, and
time intend to do more than slightly did not hesitate to embrace it. The idea
modify their principles. That which he of explaining the daily and principal
found difficult in the Ptolemaic system, apparent motions of the heavenly bodies
was none of the inconveniences by which, by the revolution of the earth on its
since the establishment of the new sys- axis, would be the concluding change,
tem, it has become common to demon- and became almost a necessary con-
strate the inferiority of the old one ; it sequence of his previous improvements,
was the displacement of the centre of it was
as manifestly at variance with
the equant from the centre of the orbit his principles to give to all the pla-
that principally indisposed him
against nets and starry worlds a rapid daily
it, and led him to endeavour to represent motion round the centre of the earth,
the appearances by some other combina- now that the latter was removed from
tions of really uniform circular motions. itsformer supposed post in the centre of
There was an old system, called the the universe, and was itself carried with
Egyptian, according to which Saturn, an annual motion round another fixed
Jupiter, Mars, and the Sun circulated point.
round the earth, the sun carrying with The reader would, however, form an
it, as two moons or satellites, the other inaccurate notion of the system of Co-
two planets, Venus and Mercury. This pernicus, if he supposed that it com-
system had never entirely lost credit :
prised no more than the theory that
it had been maintained in the fifth cen- each planet, including the earth among'
tury by Martianus Capella*, and in- them, revolved in a simple circular orbit
deed it was almost sanctioned, though round the sun. Copernicus was too well
not formally taught, by Ptolemy himself, acquainted with the motions of the hea-
when he made the mean motion of the venly bodies, not to be aware that such
sun the same as that of the centres of orbits would not accurately represent
the epicycles of both these planets. The them the motion he attributed to the
;
remark which had also been made by the earth round the sun, was at first merely
old astronomers, of the .connexion be- intended to account for those which
tween the motion of the sun and the revo- were called the second inequalities of the
lutions of the superior planets in their planets, according to which they ap-
epicycles, led him straight to the expec- pear one while to move forwards, then
tation that he might, perhaps, produce the backwards, and at intermediate periods,
uniformity he sought by extending the stationary, and which thenceforward
Egyptian system to these also, and this were also called the optical equations,,
appears to have been the shape in which as being merely an optical illusion.
his reform was originally projected. With regard to what were called the
It was already allowed that the centre of first inequalities, or physical equations,
the orbits of all the planets was not coin- arising from a real inequality of motion,,
cident with the earth, but removed from he still retained the machinery of the
it by the space E C. This first change deferent and epicycle and all the al-
;
merely made E C the same for all the teration he attempted in the orbits of
planets, and equal to the mean distance the superior planets was an| extension
of the earth from the sun. This sys- of the concentric theory to supply the
tem ^afterwards acquired great cele-
place of the equant, which he considered
brity through its adoption by Tycho the blot of the system. His theory for
Brahe, who believed it originated with this purpose is shown in the accompany-
himself. It might perhaps have been ing diagram, where S represents the sun,.
at this period of his researches, that
Copernicus was struck with the pas-
sages in the Latin and Greek authors,
to which he refers as testifying the ex-
istence of an old belief in the motion
of the earth round the sun. He im-
mediately recognised how much this
alteration would further his princi-
ples of uniformity, by referring all the
* Venus
Mercuriusque, licet ortus occasusque
quotidianos ostendunt, tamen eorum circuli terras
omnino non ambiunt, sed circa solem laxiore am-
bitu circulantur. Denique circulorura suorum
centron in sole constituunt. De Nuptiis Philolo-
gise et Mercurii. Vicentije. 1499. D d, the deferent or mean orbit of the
KEPLER.
planet, on \vhich revolves the centre of in C, which is the position of tVie centre
the great epicycle, whose radius, F, D of Ptolemy's deferent, the planet will,
\vas taken at | of Ptolemy's excentricity according to Copernicus, move very
of the equant and round the circum-
; nearly, though not exactly, in the same
ference of this revolved, in the opposite circle, whose radius is C P, as that
direction, the centre of the little epicycle, given by the simple excentric theory.
\vhose radius, F P, \vas made equal to The explanation offered by Coperni-
the remaining of the excentricity of the cus, of the motions of the inferior pla-
equant. nets, differed again in form from that of
The planet P revolved in the circum- the others. He here introduced what
ference^of the little epicycle, in the same was called a hypocycle, which, in fact,
direction with the centre of the great epi- was nothing but adeferent not including
the sun, round which the centre of the
cycle in the circumference of the defe-
rent, but with a double angular velocity. orbit revolved. An epicycle in addition
The planet was supposed to be in the to the hypocycle was introduced into
perigee of the little epicycle, when its Mercury's orbit. In this epicycle he
centre was in the apogee of the greater ;
was not supposed to revolve, but to
and whilst, for instance, D moved equably librate, or move up and down in its
though the angle DSd, F moved through diameter. Copernicus had recourse to
h d f= D S d, and P through r f p = this complication to
satisfyan erroneous
assertion of Ptolemy with regard to some
It is easy to show that this construc- of Mercury's inequalities. He also re-
tion gives nearly the same result as tained the oscillatory motions ascribed
Ptolemy's ; for the deferent and great by Ptolemy to the planes of the epicy-
epicycle have been already shown ex- cles, in order to explain the unequal
latitudes observed at the same distance
actly equivalent to an excentric circle
round S, and indeed Copernicus latterly from the nodes, or intersections of the
so represented it: the effect of his con- orbit of the planet with the
ecliptic. Into
struction, as given above, may therefore this intricacy, also, he was led by placing
be reproduced in the following simpler too much confidence in Ptolemy's obser-
form, in which only the smaller epicycle vations, which he was unable to satisfy
is retained : by an unvarying obliquity. Other very
important errors, such as his belief that
the line of nodes always coincided with
the line of apsides, or places of greatest
and least distance from the central body,
(whereas, at that time, in the case of
Mars, for instance, they were nearly 90
asunder,) prevented him from accurately
representing many of the celestial phe-
nomena.
These brief details may serve to show
that the adoption or rejection of the
theory of Copernicus was not altogether
so simple a question as sometimes it
In this construction, the place of the may have
been considered. It is, how-
is found at the end of ever, not a
"planet any time little remarkable, while it is
proportional to F /, by drawing r /
strongly illustrative of the spirit of the
parallel to SF, and taking rfp = 2 F of. times, that these very intricacies, with
Hence it is plain, if we take O Q, equal which Kepler's theories have enabled us
to F P, (already assumed equal to of to dispense, were the only parts of the
Ptolemy's excentricity of the equant,) system of Copernicus that were at first
since S O is equal to f cf the same, received with approbation. His theory
that S Q is the whole of Ptolemy's ex- of Mercury, especially, was considered
centricity of the equant and therefore, a masterpiece of subtle invention.
;
that Q is the position of the centre of Owing to his dread of the urifavourable
his equant. It is also plain if we
join judgment he anticipated on the main
Qp, sincerfp = 2Fo/, and oQ = principles of his system, his work re-
.fp,'\ that p Q is parallel to fo, and, mained unpublished during forty years,
therefore, p Q P is proportional to the and was at last given to the world only
time ;
so that the planet moves uni- just in time to allow Copernicus to re-
formly about the same point Q, as in ceive the first copy of it a few hours
Plolwiry's theory ;
and if we bisect S Q before his death.
KEPLER.
CHAPTER V. the vast importance of this book there
can be no doubt and throughout the
Account of the Commentaries on the
;
without prejudice to his piety, my advice nevertheless, they are too important to
to such a one is, that he should quit the Kepler's reputation to be omitted here,
astronomical schools, and condemning, containing as they do a distinct and
if he has a mind, any or all of the theories
positive enunciation of the law
of uni-
of philosophers, let him look to his own versal gravitation. It does not appear,
affairs,and leaving this worldly travail, however, that Kepler estimated rightly
let him go home and plough his fields: the importance of the theory here traced
and as often as he lifts up to this goodly out by him, since on every other occa-
heaven those eyes with which alone he sion he advocated principles with which
is able to see, let him pour out his it is scarcely reconcileable. The dis-
heart in praises and thanksgiving to cussion is introduced in the following
God the Creator ; and let him not fear terms :
quial motto which he prefixed to his they can, that such power can be pos-
work. It consists in the first instance sessed by a point, which neither is a
of an extract from the writings of the body, nor is conceived unless by rela-
celebrated and unfortunate Peter Ramus. tion alone. It is impossible that the
This distinguished philosopher was pro- form* of a stone should, by moving its
fessor of mathematics in Paris, and in own body, seek a mathematical point,
the passage in question, after calling on or in other words, the centre of the uni-
his contemporaries to turn their thoughts verse, without regard of the body in
towards the establishment of a system of which that point exists. Let physicians
Astronomy unassisted by any hypo- prove if they can, that natural things
thesis, he promised as an additional in- have any sympathy with that which is
ducement to vacate his own chair in fa- nothing. Neither do heavy bodies
tend
vour of any one who should succeed in to the centre of the universe by reason
this object. Ramus perished in the that they are avoiding the extremities of
massacre of St. Bartholomew, and Kepler the round universe ; for their distance
" It
apostrophizes him as follows : is from the centre is insensible, in propor-
well, Ramus, that you have forfeited your tion to their distance from the extremi-
pledge, by quitting your life and profes- ties of the universe. And what reason
sorship together :"for if you still held it, could there be for this hatred ? How
I would certainly claim it as of right be- strong, howwise must those heavy
longing to me on account of this work, bodies be, to be able to escape so care-
as I could convince you even with your fully from an enemy lying on all sides of
own logic." It was rather bold in Kepler
to assert his claim to a reward held out * It is not
very easy to carry the understanding
for a theory resting on no hypothesis, by aright among these Aristotelian
ideas. Many
at the present day might think they understood
light of a work filled with hypotheses of better what is meant, if for
" form" had been
the most startling description ; but ot" written " nature."
~K
24 KEPLER.
them : what activity in the extremities tractive virtue which is in the moon ex-
of the world to press their enemy so tends as far as the earth, and entices up
closely! Neither are heavy bodies the waters but as the moon flies rapidly
; ,
driven into the centre by the whirling of across the zenith, and the waters cannot
the first moveable, as happens in revolv- follow so quickly, a flow of the ocean is
ing water. For if we assume such a occasioned in the torrid zone towards
motion, either it would not be con- the westward. If the attractive virtue
tinued down to us, or otherwise we of the moon extends as far as the earth,
should feel it, and be carried away with it follows with
greater reason that the
it, and the earth also with us ; nay, attractive virtue of the earth extends as
rather, we should be hurried away first, far as the moon, and much farther;
and the earth would follow ; all which and in short, nothing which consists of
conclusions are allowed by our oppo- earthly substance any how constituted,
nents to be absurd. It is therefore plain although thrown up to any height, can
that the vulgar theory of gravity is erro- ever escape the powerful operation of this
neous. attractive virtue. Nothing which consists
The true theory of gravity is founded of corporeal matter is absolutely light,
on the following axioms :
Every corpo- but that is comparatively lighter which
real substance, so far forth as it is corpo- is rarer, either by its own nature, or by
real, has a natural fitness for resting in accidental heat. And it is not to be
every place where it may be situated by thought that light bodies are escaping to
itself beyond the sphere of influence of a the surface of the universe while they are
body cognate with it. Gravity is a mu- carried upwards, or that they are not
tual affection between cognate bodies attracted by the earth. They are at-
towards union or conjunction (similar in tracted, but in a less degree, and so are
kind to the magnetic virtue), so that the driven outwards by the heavy bodies ;
earth attracts a stone much rather than which being done, they stop, and are kept
the stone seeks the earth.Heavy bodies by the earth in their own place. But
(if we begin by assuming the earth to although the attractive virtue of the
be in the centre of the world) are not earth extends upwards, as has been said,
carried to the centre of the world in its so very far, yet if any stone should be at
quality of centre of the world, but as to a distance great enough to become sen-
the centre of a cognate round body, sible, compared with the earth's dia-
namely, the earth ; so that wheresoever meter, it is true that on the motion of
the earth may be placed, or whitherso- the earth such a stone would not follow
ever it may be carried by its animal altogether ; its own force of resistance
faculty, heavy bodies will always be would be combined with the attractive
carried towards it. If the earth were force of the earth, and thus it would
not round, heavy bodies would not tend extricate itself in some degree from the
from every side in a straight line towards motion of the earth/'
the centre of the earth, but to different Who, after perusing such passages in
points from different sides. I f two stones the works of an author, whose writings
were placed in any part of the world were in the hands of every student of as-
near each other, and beyond the sphere of tronomy, can believe that Newton waited
influence of a third cognate body, these for the fall of an apple to set him think-
stones, like two magnetic needles, would ing for the first time on the theory which
come together in the intermediate point, has immortalized his name ? An apple
each approaching the other by a space may have fallen, and Newton may have
proportional to the comparative mass of seen it; but such speculations as those
the other. If the moon and earth were which it is asserted to have been the
not retained in their orbits by their ani- cause of originating in him had been
mal force or some other equivalent, the long familiar to the thoughts of every
earth would mount to the moon by a one in Europe pretending to the ritinu
lifty-fourth part of their distance, and of natural philosopher.
the moon fall towards the earth through As Kepler always professed to have
the other fifty-three parts and they would derived his notion of a magnetic attrac-
there meet ; assuming however that the tion among the planetary" bodies from
substance of both is of the same density. the writings of Gilbert, it may be worth
If the earth should cease to attract its while to insert here an extract from the
" "
waters to itself, all the waters of the sea New Philosophy of that author, to
would be raised and would flow to 1he show in what form lie presented a simi-
body Of the moon. The sphere of the at- lar theory of the tides, winch aiibuls the
KEPLER. 25
several instances, be traced back to the and general language and those who
;
accurate, to the determination of the lati- the second inequalities were made con-
tudes, with which it could in no way be ducive towards fixing the relative posi-
made to agree. Kepler had already sus- tion of the orbit and equant, to which
pected the cause of this imperfection, and they did not naturally belong, there was
was confirmed in the 'view he took of an additional perplexity in accounting
their theory, when, on a more careful for the remainder of them by the size
examination, he found that they over- and motion of the epicycle. As the line
rated the accuracy even of their longi- of nodes of every planet was also made to
tudes. The errors in these, instead of pass through C instead of S, there could
not fail to be corresponding errors in the
amounting as they said, nearly to 2',
rose sometimes above 21'. In fact they latitudes. It would only be in the rare
had reasoned ill on their own principles, case of an opposition of the planet, in
and even if the foundations of their the line C S, that the time of .its taking
theory had been correctly laid, could not place would be the same, whether O, the
have arrived at true results. But Kepkr centre of the orbit, was placed in C Q or
had satisfied himself of the contrary, S Q. Every other opposition would in-
and the following diagram shews the na- volve an error, so much the greater as
ture of the first alteration he introduced, it was observed at a greater distance
confusion into which it had fallen, till in order to remove his doubts as to the
this important change had been effected. possibility that a method could be erro-
practice of Tycho Brahe, indeed
The neous which, as he still thought, had
of astronomers till the time of Kepler,
all given him such accurate longitudes,
had been to fix the position of the pla- Kepler undertook the ungrateful labour
"
net's orbit and equant from observa- of the first part of his Commentaries."
tions on its mean oppositions, that is to He there shewed, in the three systems of
say, on the times when
it was
precisely Copernicus, Tycho Brahe, and Ptolemy,
six signs or half a circle distant from and in both the concentric and excentric
the mean place of the sun. In the theories, that though a false position
annexed figure, let S represent the sun, were given to the orbit, the longitudes
C the centre of the earth's orbit, T /. of a planet might be so represented, by
a proper position of the centre of the
equant, as never to err in oppositions
above 5' from those given by observa-
tion though the second inequalities and
;
the constancy of the inclination of the angular motion. He had once before ad-
planet's orbil, which naturally strength- mitted the possibility of the former of
ened him in his new theory. these facts, conceiving it possible that the
Having gone through these preliminary motion of the planets is not at all curvi-
inquiries, he came at last to fix the pro- linear, but that they move in polygons
portions of the orbit and, in doing so, he
;
round the sun, a notion to which he pro-
determined, in the first instance, not to as- bably inclined in consequence of his fa-
sume, as Ptolemy appeared to have done vourite harmonics and geometrical
arbitrarily, the bisection of the excen- figures.
tricity, but to investigate its proportion In consequence of the failure of a
along with the other elements of the orbit, theory conducted with such care in all
which resolution involved him in much its practical details, Kepler determined
more laborious calculations. After he that his next trial' should be of an en-
had gone over all the steps of his theory no tirely different complexion. Instead of
less than seventy times an appalling la- first satisfying the first inequalities of
bo ur,especially if we remember that loga- the planet, and then endeavouring to ac-
rithms were not then invented his final count for the second inequalities, he re-
result, was, that in 1587, on the 6th of solved to reverse the process, or, in
h
March, at 7 23', the longitude of the other words, to ascertain as accurately
aphelion of Mars was 4 s 28 48' 55" ;
as possible what part of the planet's
that the planet's mean longitude was apparent motion should be referred
7
6s 51' 35 ; that if the semidiameter of solely to the optical illusion produced
the orbit was taken at 1000UO, the excen- by the motion of the earth, before pro-
tricity was 1 1 332 ; and the excentricity of ceeding to any inquiry of the real in-
the equant 18564. He fixed the radius equality of the planet's proper motion.
of the greater epicycle at 14988, and It had been hitherto taken for granted,
that of the smaller at 3628. that the earth moved equably round the
When he came to compare the longi- centre of its orbit ; but Kepler, on re-
tudes as given by this, which he after- suming the consideration of it, recurred
wards called the vicarious theory, with to an opinion he had entertained very
the observations at opposition, the result early in his astronomical career (rather
seemed to promise him the most bril- from his conviction of the existence of
liant success. His greatest error did general laws, than that he had then felt
not exceed 2'; but, notwithstanding the want of such a supposition), that it
these flattering anticipations, he soon required an equant distinct from its
found by a comparison of longitudes orbit no Jess than the other planets.
out of opposition and of latitudes, that He now saw, that if this were admitted,
it was yet far from being so com- the changes it would everywhere intro-
plete as he had imagined, and to his in- duce in the optical part of the planet's
finite vexation he soon found that the irregularities might perhaps relieve him
labour of four years, which he had ex- from the perplexity "in which the vica-
pended on this theory, must be consi- rious theory had involved him. Ac-
dered almost entirely fruitless. Even cordingly he applied himself with re-
his favourite principle of dividing the newed assiduity to the examination of
excentricity in a different ratio from '
this important question, and the result
Ptolemy, was found to lead him into of his calculations (founded principally
greater error than if he had retained the on observations of Mars' parallax) soon
old bisection. By restoring that, he made satisfied him not only that the earth's
his latitudes more accurate, but pro- orbit does require such an equant, but
duced a corresponding change for the that its centre is placed according to the
worse in his longitudes and although
; general law of the bisection of the ex-
the errors of 8', to which they now centricity which he had previously found
-
23 KEPLER.
indispensable in the other planets. This was removed, his former ideas recurred
\v as an innovation of the first to him with increased force, and he set
magni-
tude, and accordingly Kepler did not himself diligently to consider what re-
venture to proceed farther in his theory, lation could be found between the ve-
till
by evidence of the most varied and locity and distance of a planet from tli3
satisfactory nature, he had established sun. The method he adopted in the be-
it
beyond the possibility of cavil. ginning of this inquiry was to assume
It may be here remarked, that this as approximately correct Ptolemy's doc-
principle of the bisection of the eccen- trine of the bisection of the excentricity,
tricity, so familiar to the Ptolemaic as- and to investigate some simple relation
tronomers, is identical with the theory nearly representing the same effect.
afterwards known by the name of the In the annexed figure, S is the place
simple elliptic hypothesis, advocated by. of the sun, C the centre of the planet's
Seth Ward and others. That hypothesis*
consisted in supposing the sun to be
placed in one focus of the elliptic orbit
of the planet, whose angular motion was
uniform round the other focus. In
Ptolemaic phraseology, that other focus
was the centre of the equant, and it is
well known that the centre of the ellipse
lies in the middle point between the two
foci.
It was at this period also, that
Kepler
firstventured upon the new method of
representing inequalities which termi-
nated in one of his most celebrated dis-
coveries. Wehave already seen, in the
account of the " Mysterium Cosmogra-
phicum," that he was speculating, even
at that time, on the effects of a whirling orbit A
B a b, Q the centre of the equant
force exerted by the sun on the planets
represented by the equal circle D E d e,
with diminished energy at increased dis-
AB, ab, two equal small arcs described
tances, and on the proportion observed
by the planet at the apsides of its orbit :
any point of its orbit, and its distance Q D, nearly. Therefore, D E A B :.: :
at that point from the sun. Hence he S A Q D, nearly, and in the same man-
:
equalities, than from th.3 imaginary Therefore at the apsides, the times of
But these ingenious ideas had
equant. passing over equal spaces, on Ptolemy's
been checked in the outset by the errone-
theory, are nearly as the distances from
ous belief which Kepler, in common with the sun, and Kepler, with his usual
other astronomers, then entertained of hastiness, immediately concluded that
the coincidence of the earth's equantr this was the accurate and general law,
with its orbit ; in other words, by the and that the errors of the old theory
belief that the earth's linear motion was arose solely from having departed from ii.
uniform, though it was known not to It followed immediately from this
remain constantly at the same distance
assumption, that after leaving the point
from the sun, As soon as this prejudice A, the time in which the planet would
KEPLER. 29
arrive at any point P of its orbit not to admire Kepler's singular good
would be proportional to, and might be fortune in arriving at this correct result
represented by, the sums of all the lines in spite, or rather through the means, of
that could be drawn from S to the arc his erroneous principles. It is true that
A P, on the same scale that the whole the labour which he bestowed unspar-
period of revolution would be denoted by ingly upon every one of his successive
the sum of all the lines drawn to every guesses, joined with his admirable can-
point of the orbit. Kepler's first at- dour, generally preserved him from long
tempt to verify this
supposition ap- retaining a theory altogether at variance
proximately, was made by dividing the with observations ; and if any relation
whole circumference of the orbit into subsisted between the times and dis-
360 equal parts, and calculating the tances which could any way be express-
distances at every one of the points of ed by any of the geometrical quantities
division. Then supposing the planet to under consideration, he could scarcely
move uniformly, and to remain at the have failed it might be twenty years
same distance from the sun during the earlier or twenty years later, to light
time of passing each one of these divisions, upon it
having once put his in-
at last,
(a supposition which manifestly would not defatigable fancy upon this scent. But
differ much from the former one, and in order to prevent an over-estimate of
would coincide with it more nearly, the his merit in detecting this beautiful law
greater was the number of divisions of nature, let us for a moment reflect
taken) he proceeded to add together these what might have been his fate had he
calculated distances, and hoped to find endeavoured in the same manner, and
that the time of arriving at any one of the with the same perseverance, to discover
divisions bore the same ratio to the whole a relation, where, in reality, none exist-
period, as the sum of the corresponding ed. Let us take for example the incli-
set of distances did to the sum of the nations or the excentricities of the
whole 360. planetary orbits, among which no rela-
This theory was erroneous but by al-;
tion has yet been discovered ; and if any
most miraculous good fortune, he was exists, it is probably of too complicated
led by it in the following manner to the a nature to be hit at a venture. If Kep-
true measure. The discovery was aeon- ler had exerted his ingenuity in this
sequence of the tediousness of his first direction, he might have wasted his life
method, which required, in order to in fruitless labour,and whatever repu-
know the time of arriving at any point, tation he might have left behind him as
that the circle should be subdivided, until an industrious calculator, it would have
one of the points of division fell exactly been very far inferior to that which has
upon the givenplace. Kepler therefore procured for him the proud title of the
endeavoured to discover some shorter "
Legislator of the Heavens."
method of representing these sums of However this may be, the immediate
the distances. The idea then occurred consequence of thus lighting upon the
to him of employing for that purpose real law observed by the earth in its pas-
the area inclosed between the two dis- sage round the sun was, that he found
tances, S A, S P, and the arc P, A himself in possession of a much more ac-
in imitation of the manner in which curate method of representing its inequa-
he remembered that Archimedes had lities than had been reached by any of his
found the area of the circle, by dividing predecessors and with renewed hopes
;
it into an infinite number of small tri- he again attacked the planet Mars,
angles by lines drawn from the centre. whose path he was now able to Consider
He hoped therefore to find, that the undistorted by the illusions arising out
time of passing from A
to P bore nearly of the motion of the earth. Had the
the same ratio to the whole period of path of Mars been accurately circular,
revolution that the area ASP
bore to or even as nearly approaching a circle as
the whole circle. that of the earth, the method he chose
This last proportion is in fact accu- of determining its position and size by
rately observed in the revolution of one means of three distances carefully
body round another, in consequence of calculated from his observed parallaxes,
an attractive force in the central body. would have given a satisfactory result ;
Newton afterwards proved this, ground- but finding, as he soon did, that almost
ing his demonstration upon laws of every set of three distances led him to a
motion altogether irreconcileable with different result, he began to suspect
Kepler's opinions ; and it is impossible another error in the long-received opi-
30 KEPLER.
nion, that the orbits of the planets must Mercury's epicycle, by reason of the
consist of a combination of circles ; he motions above-mentioned, does not, as
therefore determined, in the first in- is the case with the other planets, de-
stance, to fix the distances of the planet scribe the circumference of a circular
at the apsides without any reference to deferent, but rather the periphery of a
the form of the intermediate orbit. Half figure resembling a plane oval." To this
the difference between these would, of is added the following note by Reinhold.
"
course, be the excentricity of the orbit ; The centre of the Moon's epicycle de-
and as this quantity came out very scribes a path of a lenticular shape ;
nearly the same as had been determined Mercury's on the contrary is egg-shaped,
on the vicarious theory, it seemed clear the big end lying towards his apogee,
that the error of that theory, whatever it and the little end'towards his perigee*."
might be, did not lie in these elements. The excentricity of Mercury's orbit is,
Kepler also found that in the case of in fact, much greater than "that of any
this planet likewise, the times of describ- of the other planets, and the merit of
ing equal arcs at the apsides
were pro- making this first step cannot reasonably
portional to its distances from
the sun, be withheld from Purbach and his com-
and he naturally expected that the me- mentator, although they did not pursue
thod of areas would measure the planet's the inquiry so far as Kepler found him-
motion with as much accuracy as he had self in a condition to do.
found in the case of the earth. This hope Before proceeding to the considera-
was disappointed when he calculated the
: tion of the particular oval which Kepler
motion of the planet by this method, he fixed upon in the first instance, it will
obtained places too much advanced when be necessary, in order to render intelli-
near the apsides, and too little advanced gible the source of many of his doubts
at the mean distances. He did not, on and difficulties, to make known some-
that account, immediately reject the thing more of his theory of the moving
opinion of circular orbits, but was force by which he supposed the planets
rather inclined to suspect the principle to be carried round in their orbits. In
of measurement, at which he felt that conformity with the plan hitherto pur-
he had arrived in rather a precarious sued, this shall be done as much as pos-
manner. He was fully sensible that sible in his own words.
his areas did not accurately represent " It is one of the commonest axioms in
the sums of any distances except those natural philosophy, that if two things al-
measured from the centre of the circle ;
ways happen together and in the same
and for some time he abandoned the manner, and admit the same measure,
hope of beino; able to use this substitu- either the one is the cause of the other,
tion, which he always considered merely or both are the effect of a common cause.
as an approximate representation of the In the present case, the increase or lan-
true measure, the sum of the distances. guor of motion invariably corresponds
But on examination he found that the with an approach to or departure from
errors of this substitution were nearly the centre of the universe. Therefore,
insensible, and thoseit did in fact pro- either the languor is the cause of the
duce, were in the contrary direction of departure of the star, or the departure
the errors he was at this time combating. of the languor, or both have a common
As soon as he had satisfied himself of cause. But no one can be of opinion
this, he ventured once more on the sup- that there is a concurrence of any third
this time had, in his
position, which by thing to be a common cause
of these
eyes, almost acquired
the force of demon- two effects, and in the following chap-
stration, that the orbits of the planets ters it will be made clear that there is
are not circular, but of an oval form, no occasion to imagine any such third
the circle at the mean themselves
retiring within thing, since the two are of
distances, and coinciding with it at the sufficient. Now, it is not agreeable to
the nature of things that activity or
apsides.
This notion was not altogether new ; languor in linear motion should
be the
it had been suggested in the case of cause of distance from the centre. For,
"
Mercury, by Purbach, in his Theories distance from the centre is conceived
In the edition of this In fact
of the Planets." anteriorly to linear motion.
work published by Reinhold, the pupil linear motion cannot exist without dis-
of Copernicus, \ve read the following
"
passage. Sixthly, it appears from * Theories novre plauetarum. G. Purbachii,
what lias been said, that the centre of rurisiis, K>'>o.
KEPLER. 31
tance from the centre, since it requires the body of the sun, so this virtue, em-
space for its accomplishment, but dis- bracing and moving all the planetary
tance from the centre can be conceived bodies, is the immaterial species of that
without motion. Therefore distance is virtue which resides in the sun itself, of
the cause of the activity of motion, and incalculable energy, and so the primary
a greater or less distance of a greater or act of all mundane motion. I should
less delay. And since distance is of the like to know who ever said that there
kind of relative quantities, whose es- was anything material in light ! Guided
sence consists in boundaries, (for there by our notion of the efflux of this
is no efficacy in relation per se without species (or archetype), let us con-
regard to bounds,) it follows that the template the more intimate nature of
cause of the varying activity of motion the source itself. For it seems as, if
rests in one of the boundaries. But the something divine were latent in the body
body of the planet neither becomes of the sun, and comparable to our own
heavier by receding, nor lighter by ap- soul, whence that species emanates
proaching. Besides, it would perhaps which drives round the planets just as
;
be absurd on the very mention of it, from the mind of a slinger the species
that an animal force residing in the of motion sticks to the stones, and car-
moveable body of the planet for the pur- ries them forward, even after he who
pose of moving it, should exert and re- cast them has drawn back his hand.
lax itself so often without weariness or But to those who wish to proceed
decay. It remains, therefore, that the soberly, reflections differing a little from
cause of this activity and languor re- these will be offered."
sides at the other boundary, that is, in Our readers will, perhaps, be satisfied
the very centre of the world, from which with the assurance, that these sober
the distances are computed. Let us considerations will not enable them to
continue our investigation of this mov- form a much more accurate notion of
ing virtue which resides in the sun, and Kepler's meaning than the passages
we shall presently recognize its very already cited. We shall therefore pro-
close analogy to light. And although ceed to the various opinions he enter-
this moving virtue cannot be identical tained on the motion of the planets.
with the light of the sun, let others look He considered it as established by his
to it whether the light is employed as theory, that the centre E of the planet's
a sort of instrument, or vehicle, to con- epicycle (see fig. p. 33.) moved round
vey the moving virtue. There are these the circumference of the deferent ~Dd,
seeming contradictions: first, light is according to the law of the planet's dis-
obstructed by opaque bodies, for which tances the point remaining to be settled
;
reason if the moving virtue travelled on was the motion of the planet in the
the light, darkness would be followed epicycle. If it were made to move ac-
by a stoppage of the moveable bodies. cording to the same law, so that when
Again, light flows out in right lines the centre of the epicycle reached E,the
spherically, the moving virtue in right planet should be at F, taking the angle
lines also, but cylindrically that is, it
; BEF equal to BSA, it has been shewn
turns in one direction only, from west to (p. 19) that the path of F would still be
east ;
not in the opposite direction, not a circle, excentric from Dd by the DA
towards the poles, &c. But perhaps radius of the epicycle.
we shall be able presently to reply to But Kepler fancied that he saw many
these objections. In conclusion, since sound reasons why this could not be the
there is as much virtue in a large and true law of motion in the epicycle, on
remote circle as in a narrow and close which reasons he relied much more
one, nothing of the virtue perishes in firmly than on the indisputable fact,
the passage from its source, nothing is which he mentions as a collateral proof,
scattered between the source and the that it was contradicted by the observa-
moveable. Therefore the efflux, like that tions. Some of these reasons are sub-
" In
of light, is not material, and is unlike that joined the beginning of the work
:
illuminates all earthly things, is the im- serve for a distinguishing mark. And
material species of that fire which is in although you should say, that the planet
32 KEPLER.
has respect to the sun, and knows be- ber of absurd conclusions it will be found
forehand, and remembers the order in to involve, the more ready will a physi-
which the distances from the sun are cian be, when we come to the fifty- second
comprised, so as to make a perfect ex- chapter, to admit what the observations
centric ;
in the first place, this is rather testify, that the path of the planet is not
far-fetched, and requires, in any mind, circular."
means for connecting the effect of an The first oval path on which Kepler
accurately circular path with the sign was induced to fix, by these and many
of an increasing and diminishing dia- other similar considerations, was in the
meter of the sun. Butthere are no first instance
very different from the
such means, except the position of the true elliptical form. Most authors would
centre of the excentric at a given dis- have thought it unnecessary to detain
tance from the sun ; and I have already their readers with a theory which they
beyond the power of a
said, that this is had once entertained and rejected but ;
"
While thus triumphing over Mars,
and preparing for him, as for one
altogether vanquished, tabular prisons,
and equated eccentric fetters, it is
buzzed here and there that the victory
is vain, and that the war is
raging
anew as violently as before. For the
enemy, left at home a despised captive,
has burst all the chains of the equations,
and broken forth of the prisons of the
tables. For no method of geometrically
administering the theory of the 45th
at D, when the planet is at A. the aphe- chapter was able to come near the accu-
lion,the motion in the deferent is less than racy of approximation of the vicarious
the mean motion, the planet will have ad- theory of the 16th chapter, -which gave
vanced through an angle B E P greater me true equations derived from false
than B E F or B S A, through which the principles. Skirmishers, disposed all
centre of the epicycle has moved and;
round the circuit of the excentric, (I
consequently, the path will lie every- mean the true distances,) routed my
where within the circle A
a, except at forces of physical causes levied out of
the apsides. Here was a new train of the '45th chapter, and shaking off the
laborious calculations to undergo for the yoke, regained their liberty. And now
purpose of drawing the curve a AP there was little to prevent the fugitive
according to this law, and of measuring enemy from effecting a junction with his
the area of any part of it. After a rebellious supporters, and reducing me
lating the proportions of the oval path the radius in the optical equation S F C
he had imagined. "In order that at that point. It is still more extraor-
you may see the cause of the impracti- dinary that a substitution made for such
cability of this method which we have a reason should have the luck,"as is
just gone through, consider on what again the case, to be the right one.
foundations it rests. The planet is sup- This substitution in fact amounted to
posed to move equably in the epicycle, supposing that the planet, instead of
and to be carried by the Sun unequably being at the distance S P or S F, was
in the proportion of the distances. But at S n ; or, in other words, that instead of
by this method it is impossible to be revolving in the circumference, it librated
known how much of the oval path cor- in the diameter of the epicycle, which was
responds to any given time, although to him an additional recommendation.
the distance at that part is known, un- Upon this new supposition a fresh set of
less we first know the length of the distances was rapidly calculated, and to
whole But the length of the oval
oval. Kepler's inexpressible joy, they were
cannot be known, except from the law found to agree with the observations
of the entry of the planet within the within the limits of the errors to which
sides of the circle. But neither can the the latter were necessarily subject; Not-
law of thisentry be known before we withstanding this success, he had to
know how much of the oval path cor- undergo, before arriving at the success-
responds to any given time. Here you ful termination of his labours, one more
see that there is a petitio principii ; and disappointment. Although the distance
in my operations I was assuming that of corresponding to a time from the aphe-
which [ was in search, namely,the length lion represented approximately by the
of the oval. This is at least not the area ASF, was thus found to be accu-
fault of my understanding, but it is also rately represented by the line S n, there
most alien to the primary Ordainer of was still an error with regard to the di-
the planetary courses I have never yet
: rection in which that distance was to be
found so ungeometrical a contrivance measured. Kepler's fir.^t idea was to set
in his other works. Therefore we must it off in the direction S F, but this he
either hit upon some other method of found to lead to inaccurate longitudes ;
the court, and my wife, who had for a to consider it, but at last she very
long time been suffering under low quietly excused herself." It must have
spirits and despondency, was taken been from a recollection of this lady's
violently ill towards the end of 1610, with good qualities that Kepler was induced
the Hungarian fever, epilepsy, and phre- to make his offer ;
for we learn rather
nitis. She was scarcely convalescent unexpectedly, after being informed of
when all my three children were at once her decision,' that when he soon after-
attacked with small-pox. Leopold with wards paid his respects to her, it was
his army occupied the town beyond the for the first time that he had seen her
river, just as I lost the dearest of my during the last six years and he found,
;
sons, him whosenativity you will find to his great relief," that "there was no
in my book on the new star. The town single pleasing point about her." The
on this side of the river where I lived truth seems to be that he was nettled
was harassed by the Bohemian troops, by her answer, and he is at greater
whose new levies were insubordinate pains than appear necessary, consider-
and insolent: to complete the whole, ing this last discovery, to determine
the Austrian army brought the plague why she would not accept his offered
with them into the city. I went into hand. Among other reasons he sug-
Austria, and endeavoured to procure the gested her children, among whom were
situation which I now hold. Return- two marriageable daughters ;
and it is
ing in June, I found my wife in a decline diverting afterwards to find them also
from her grief at the death of her son, in the catalogue which Kepler appeared
and on the eVe of an infectious fever ;
to be making of all his female acquaint-
and I lost her also, within eleven days ance. He seems to have been much
after my return. Then came fresh an- perplexed in attempting to reconcile his
noyance, of course, and her fortune astrological theory with the fact of his
was to be divided with my step-sisters. having taken so much trouble about a
The Emperor Rodolph would not agree negotiation not destined to succeed.
to my departure; vain hopes were given " Have the stars exercised
any influence
me of being paid from Saxony my ;
here ? For just about this time the
time and money were wasted together, direction of the Mid-Heaven is in hot
till on the death of the emperor, in 1612, opposition to Mars, and the passage of
I was named again by his successor, Saturn, through the ascending point of
and suffered to depart to Linz. These, the zodiac, in the scheme of my nativity,
methinks, were reasons enough why I will happen again next November and
should have overlooked not only your December. But if these are the causes,
letters, but even astronomy itself." how do they act ? Is that explanation
Kepler's first marriage had not been the true one which I have elsewhere
a happy one ; but the necessity in which given ? For I can never think of
he felt himself of providing some one to handing over to the stars the office of
take charge of histwo surviving children, deities to produce effects. Let us there-
of whom
the eldest, Susanna, was born fore suppose it accounted for by the
in 1602,and Louis in 1607, determined stars, that at this season I violentam
him on entering a second time into the in my temper and affections, in rashness
married state. The account he has left of belief, in a shew of pititul tender-
us of the various negotiations which heartedness ;
in catching at reputation
preceded hi* final choice, does not, in by new and paradoxical notions, and the
KEPLER. 37
complying, and her friends also pre-: a tolerable knowledge how to manage a
sently, whether she did or did not con- family middle-aged, and of a disposition
;
sent, not only I, but she herself did not and capability to acquire what she still
know. After the lapse of a few days, wants. Her I shall marry by favour of
came a renewed promise, which how- the noble baron of Stahrenberg at twelve
ever had to be confirmed a third time ; o'clock on the 30th of next October, with
and four clays after that, she again re- all Eferdingen assembled to meet us, and
pented her confirmation, and begged to we shall eat the marriage-dinner at
be excused from it. Upon this I gave Maurice's at the Golden Lion."
her up, and this time all my counsellors Hantsch has made an absurd mistake
were of one opinion." This was the with regard to this marriage, in stating
longest courtship in the list, having that the bride was only twelve years old.
lasted three whole months ; and quite Kastner and other biographers have
disheartened by its bad success, Kepler's been content to repeat the same asser-
next attempt was of a more timid com- tion without any comment, notwith-
plexion. His advances to No. 9, were standing its evident improbability.
made by confiding to her the whole The origin of the blunder is to be found
story of his recent disappointment, pru- in Kepler'scorrespondence with Berneg-
dently determining to be guided in his ger, to whom, speaking of his wife, he
" She
behaviour, by observing whether the says has been educated for twelve
treatment he had experienced met with >ars by the Lady of Stahrenberg."
a proper degree of sympathy. Appa- his isby no means a single instance of
rently the experiment did not succeed ; carelessness in Hantsch Kastner has;
and almost reduced to despair, Kepler pointed out others of greater consequence.
betook himself to the advice of a friend, It was owing to this marriage, that
who had for some time past complained Kepler took occasion to write his new
that she was not consulted in this diffi- method of gauging, for as he tells us in
cult negotiation. When she produced his own " last November
peculiar style
No. 10, and the first visit was paid, the I brought home a new wife, and as the
" She
report upon her was as follows : whole course of Danube was then
has, undoubtedly, a good fortune, is of covered with the produce of the Aus-
good family, and of economical habits : trian vineyards, to be sold at a rea-
but her physiognomy is most horribly sonable rate, I purchased a few casks,
ugly; she would be stared at in the thinking it my duty as a good husband
streets, not to mention the striking dis- and a father of a family, to see that my
proportion in our figures. I am lank, household was well provided with drink."
lean, and spare she is short and thick
; : When the seller came to ascertain the
in a family notorious for fatness she is method
quantity, Kepler objected to his
38 KEPLER.
of gauging, for he allowed no difference, would suffer me to perish with hunger.'"
whatever might be the proportion of the Kepler published this Ephemeris an-
bulging parts. The reflections to which nually till 1620 ten years later he added
;
this incident gave rise, terminated in the those belonging to the years from 1620
publication of the above-mentioned to 1628.
treatise, which claims a place among In 1617 Kepler was invited into Italy,
the earliest specimens of what is now to succeed Magini as Professor of Ma-
called the modern analysis. In it he thematics at Bologna. The offer tempted
extended several properties of plane him; but, mature consideration, he
after
figures to segments of cones and cylin- rejected on grounds which he thus
it,
" these
ders, from the consideration that explained to Roffini: "By birth and
spirit I am a German, imbued with Ger-
solids are incorporated circles," and,
therefore, that those properties are true man principles, and bound by such fa-
of the whole which belong to each com- mily ties, that even if the emperor should
ponent part. That the book might end consent, 1 could not, without the greatest
as oddly as it began, Kepler concluded difficulty, remove my dwelling-place from
it with a
parody of Catullus :
Germany into Italy. And although the
" Et cum glory of holding so distinguished a situa-
pocula mille mensi erimus tion among the venerable professors of
Conturbabimus ilia, ne sciamus. "
Bologna stimulates me, and there ap-
His new residence at Linz was not pears great likelihood of notably in-
long undisturbed. He quarrelled there, creasing my fortune, as well from the
as he had done in the early part ef great concourse to the public lectures, as
his life at Gratz, with the Roman Ca- from private tuition ; yet, on the other
tholic party, and was excommunicated. hand, that period of my life is past which
"
Judge," says he to Peter Hoffman, was once excited by novelty, or which
" how far I can assist
you, in a place might promise itself a long enjoyment of
where the priest and school- inspector these advantages. Besides, from a boy
have combined to brand me with the up to my present years, living a German
public stigma of heresy, because in every among Germans, I am accustomed to a
question I take that side which seems to degree of freedom in my speech and
me to be consonant with the word of manners, which, if persevered in on my
God." The particular dogma which oc- removal to Bologna, seems likely to draw
casioned his excommunication, was con- upon me, if not danger, at least notoriety,
nected with the doctrine of transubstan- and might expose me to suspicion and
tiation. He published his creed in a party malice. Notwithstanding this an-
copy of Latin verses, preserved by his swer, I have yet hopes that your most
biographer Hantsch. honourable invitation will be of service
Before this occurrence, Kepler had to me, and may make the imperial trea-
been called to the diet at Ratisbon to surer more ready than he has hitherto
give his opinion on the propriety of been to fulfil his master's intentions to-
adopting the Gregorian reformation of wards me. In that case I shall the sooner
the calendar, and he published a short be able to publish the Rudolphine Tables
essay, pointing out the respective con- and the Ephemerides, of which you had
venience of doing so, or of altering the scheme so many years back and in ;
the old Julian Calendar in some other this manner you and your advisers may
manner. Notwithstanding the readi- have no reason to regret this invitation,
ness of the diet to avail themselves of though for the present it seems fruit-
his talents for the. settlement of a dif- less."
ficult question, the arrears of his salary In 1619, the Emperor Matthias died,
were not paid much more regularly than and was succeeded by Ferdinand III,,
they had been in Rodolph's time, and he who retained Kepler in the post he had
was driven to provide himself with money filled under his two predecessors on the
" His-
by the publication of his almanac, of imperial throne. Kiistner, in his
which necessity he heavily and justly tory of Mathematics," has corrected a
" In order to
complained. pay the ex- gross error of Hantsch, in asserting that
pense of the Ephemeris for these two Kepler prognosticated Matthias's death.
years, I have also written
a vile prophe- The letter to which Hantsch refers, in
sying almanac, which is scarcely more support of his statement, does indeed
respectable than begging; unless it be mention the emperor's death, but merely
because it saves the emperor's credit, as a notorious event, for the purpose of
who abandons me entirely and with all
; recalling a. date to the memory of his
his frequent and recent orders in council, correspondent.
KEPLER. 39
senting an analogous idea to that con- soning powers, it is not of much conse-
tained in one of the extracts already quence that it should be accurately
given fropi the Commentaries on Mars. traced.
" The
heptagon, and all other polygons It is to be observed, that he does not
and stars beyond it, which have a prime in this treatise modify or recant anything
number of sides, and all other figures of his earlier opinions, but refers to the
derived from them, cannot be inscribed favourable judgment of his contem-
geometrically in a circle; although their porary philosophers as a reason for
sides have a necessary magnitude, it is embodying them in a regular form.
" Since
equally a matter of necessity that we many very celebrated professors
remain ignorant of it. This is a ques- of philosophy and medicine are of opinion
KEPLER.
that Ihave created a new and most true emotion of the bowels of the earth, bear
philosophy, this tender plant, like all like witness to thesame feelings, espe-
novelties, ought to be carefully nursed cially at those when the rays of
times
and cherished, so that it may strike root the planets form harmonious configura-
in the minds of "
philosophers, and not be tionson the earth." I have been con-
choked by the excessive humours of vain firmed in this theory by that which
sophistications, or washed away by the might have deterred others ;
I mean, by
torrents of vulgar prejudices, or frozen observing that the emotions do not agree
by the chill of public neglect ; and if I nicely with the instants of the configu-
succeed guarding it from these
in Yations but the earth sometimes ap-
;
duration. I "have not formed an opinion throw it into one of the mountain lakes,
on this matter without good grounds, which beyond doubt are bottomless, a
like the common herd of prophesiers, storm will immediately arise, just as
who describe the operations of the stars when you thrust a straw into the ear or
as if they were a sort of deities, the lords nose of a ticklish animal, it shakes its
of heaven and earth, and producing head, or runs shuddering away. What
everything at their pleasure. They never so like breathing, especially of those fish
trouble themselves to consider what who draw water into their mouths and
means have of working any
the stars spout it out again through their gills, as
effects among us on the earth, whilst that wonderful tide! For although it
they remain in the sky, and send down is so regulated according to the course
instance, in war you may see that the trine of the same planet, close to the
tumults, battles, fights, invasions, as- Bull's Eye, even in latitude. The 25th
saults, attacks, and panic fears, gene- degree of Gemini was rising, and the
rally happen at the time of ihe aspects 22d of Aquarius culminating. That
of Mars and Mercury, Mars and Ju- there was this triple configuration on
piter, Mars and the Sun, Mars and that day namely, the sextile of Saturn
Saturn, &c. In epidemic diseases, a and the Sun, the sextile of Mars and
greater number of persons are attacked Jupiter, the quadrature of Mercury and
at the times of the powerful aspects, Mars, is proved by the change of wea-
they suffer more severely, or even die, ther; for, after a frost of some days,
owing to the failure of nature in her that very day became warmer, there
strife with the disease, which strife (and was a thaw and a fall of rain.*"
"
not the death) is occasioned by the I do not wish this single instance to
aspect. It is not the sky which does all be taken as a defence and proof of all
these things immediately, but the faculty the aphorisms of astrologers, nor do I
of the vital soul, associating its operation attribute to the heavens the government
with the celestial harmonies, is the prin- of human affairs : what a vast interval
cipal agent in this so-called influence of still
separates these philosophical obser-
the heavens. Indeed this word influ- vations from that folly or madness as it
ence has so fascinated some philosophers should rather be called. For, following
that they prefer raving with the sense- up this example, I knew a ladyt, born
less vulgar, to learning the truth with under nearly the same aspects, whose
me. This essential property is the prin- disposition, was exceedingly
indeed,
cipal foundation of that admirable ge- restless, but whonot only makes no
nethliac art. For when anything begins progress in literature (that is not strange
to have its being when that is working in a woman), but troubles her whole fa-
harmonies, the sensible harmony of the mily,, and is the cause to herself of de-
rays of the planets has peculiar influence plorable misery. What, in my case,
on it. This then is the cause why those assisted the aspects was firstly, the
who are born under a season of many fancy of my mother when pregnant
aspects among the planets, generally with me, a great admirer of her mother-
turn out busy and industrious, whether in-law, my grandmother, who had some
they accustom themselves from child- knowledge of medicine, my grandfather's
hood to amass wealth, or are born or profession; a second cause is, that I
chosen to direct public affairs, or finally,
have given their attention to study. If
* Tliis mode of verifying configurations, though
any one think that I might be taken as something of the boldest, was by no means un-
an instance of this last class, I do not usual. ,Ona former occasion Kepler, wishing to
cast the nativity of his friend Zehentmaier, and
grudge him the knowledge of my na- being unable to procure more accurate informa-
tivity. I am not checked by the re- tion than that he was born about three o'clock in
the afternoon of the 21st of October, 1751, sup-
proach of boastfulness, notwithstanding
those who, by speech or conduct, con- plied the deficiency by a record of fevers and acci-
dents at known periods of his life, from which he
demn as folly all kinds of writing on deduced a more exact horoscope.
this subject; the idiots, the half-learned, f Kepler probably meant his own mother, whose
horoscope he in many places declared to be nearly
the inventors of titles and trappings, to the same as his own,
L2
KEPLER.
was born a male, and not a female, for seen from the exulting rhapsody with
astrologers have sought in vain to dis- which he announced it. "What Ipro-
tinguish sexes in the sky ; thirdly, I de- phecied two-and-twenty years ago, as
rive from my mother a habit of body, soon as I discovered the five solids
more fit for study than other kinds of among the heavenly orbits what I
life : fourthly, my parents' fortune was firmly believed long before I had seen
not large, and there was no landed pro- Ptolemy's
*
Harmonics what I had '
perty to which I might succeed and be- promised my friends in the title of this
come attached ; fifthly, there were the book, which I named before I was sure of
schools, and the liberality of the magis- my discovery what, sixteen years ago, I
tracy towards such boys as were apt urged as a thing to be sought that for
for learning. But now if I am to which I joined Tycho Brahe, for which
speak of the result of my studies, what I settled in Prague, for which I have
I pray can I find in the sky, even re- devoted the best part of my life to astro
motely alluding to it. The learned con- nomical contemplations, at 'length I
fess that several not despicable
branches have brought to light, and have recog-
of philosophy have been newly extri- nized its truth beyond my most san-
cated or amended or brought to per- guine expectations. Great as is the
fection by me but here my constella-
: absolute nature of Harmonics with all
tions were, not Mercury from the east, its details,as set forth in my third book,
in the angle of the seventh, and in it is all found among the celestial mo-
quadratures with Mars, but Copernicus, tions, not indeed in the manner which
but Tycho Brahe, without whose books I imagined, (that is not the least part of
of observations everything now set by my delight,) but in another very differ-
me in the clearest light must have re- ent, and yet most perfect and excellent.
mained buried in darkness ; not Saturn It is now eighteen months since I got
predominating Mercury, but my Lords the glimpse of light, three months
first
the Emperors Rodolph and Matthias ; since the dawn, very few days since the
not Capricorn, the house of Saturn, but unveiled sun, most admirable to gaze
Upper Austria, the home of the Em- on, burst out upon me. Nothing holds
peror, and the ready and unexampled me ;
I will indulge in my sacred fury ;
bounty of his nobles to my petition. I will triumph over mankind by the
Here is that corner, not the western one honest confession, that I have stolen
of the horoscope, but on the Earth, the golden vases of the Egyptians*, to
whither, by permission of my imperial build up a tabernacle for my God far
master, I have betaken myself from a away from the confines of Egypt. If
too uneasy court ; and whence, during you forgive me, I rejoice; if you are
these years of my life, which now tends angry, I can bear it the die is cast,
:
towards its setting, emanate these Har- the book is written to be read either
;
monies, and the other matters on which now or by posterity, I care not which :
I am engaged." it
may well wait a century for a reader,
" as God has waited six -thousand years
However,it
may be owing to Ju-
piter's ascendancy that I take greater for an observer."
delight in the application of geometry He has told, with his usual particu-
to physics, than in that abstract pursuit larity, the manner and precise moment
which partakes of the dryness of Saturn ; of the discovery. " Another part of my
1
and it is perhaps the gibbous moon, in Cosmographical Mystery,' suspended
the bright constellation of the Bull's twenty-two years ago, because it was
forehead, which fills my mind with fan- then undetermined, is completed and in-
tastic images." troduced here, after I had discovered
The most remarkable thing contained
the true intervals of the orbits, by means
in the 5th Book, is the announcement of Brahe's observations, and had spent
of the celebrated law connecting the the continuous toil of a long time in in-
mean distances of the planets with the vestigating the true proportion of the
periods of their revolution about the periodic times to the orbits,
Sun. This law is expressed in mathe- Sera quidem respexit inertcm,
matical language, by saying that the Respexit tamen, et longo post tempore venit.
squares of the times vary as the cubes If you would know the precise moment,
of the distances*. Kepler's rapture on the firstidea came across me on Hie 8th
detecting it was unbounded, as may be March of this year, 1G18 ; but chancing
* See Preliminary
Treatise, p. 13. * Jn allusion to the Harmonics of Ptolemy.
KEPLER. 43
it with new force on the 1 5th May, and ertness or quietude, in consequence of
it has dissipated the darkness of my which they remain still in every situation
mind by such an agreement between where they are placed alone."
" P. Is it then the
this ideaand my seventeen years' labour sun, which by its
on Brahe's observations, that at first I turning carries round the planets ? How
thought I must be dreaming, and had can the sun do this, having no hands to
taken my result for granted in my first seize the planet at so great a distance,
assumptions. But the fact is perfect, and force it round along with itself?
the fact is certain, that the proportion Its bodily virtue, sent forth in straight
existing between the periodic times of lines into the whole space of the world,
any two planets is exactly the
sesquipli- serves instead of hands and this virtue,
;
cate proportion of the mean distances of being a corporeal species, turns with the
the orbits." body of the sun like a very rapid vortex,
There is high authority for not attempt- and travels over the whole of that space
ing over anxiously to understand the which it fills as quickly as the sun re-
rest of the work. Delambre sums it up volves in its very confined space round
as follows: "In the music of the ce- the centre.
"
lestial bodies it appears that Saturn and P. Explain what this virtue is, and
Jupiter take the bass, Mars the tenor, belonging to what class of things ?
the Earth and Venus the counter-tenor, As there are two bodies, the mover and
and Mercury the treble." If the patience the moved, so are there two powers by
of this indefatigable historian gave way, which the motion is obtained. The one
as he confesses, in the perusal, any is passive, and rather belonging to
further notice of it here may be well matter, namely, the resemblance of the
excused. Kepler became engaged, in body of the planet to the body of the
consequence of this publication, in an sun in its corporeal form, and so that
angry controversy with the eccentric part of the planetary body is friendly, the
Robert Fludd, who was at least Kepler's opposite part hostile to the sun. The
match in wild extravagance and mysti- other power is active, and bearing more
cism, if far inferior to him in genius. It relation to form, namely, the body of
isdiverting to hear each reproaching the the sun has a power of attracting the
other with obscurity. planet by its friendly part, of repelling
In the " Epitome of the Copernican it
by the hostile part, and finally, of re-
Astronomy," which Kepler published taining it if it be placed so that neither
about the same time, we find the manner the one nor the other be turned directly
in which he endeavoured to deduce the towards the sun.
" P. How can it be that the
beautiful law of periodic times, from whole body
his principles of motion and radiation of the planet should be like or cognate to
of whirling forces. This work is in the body of the sun, and yet part of the
fact a summary of all his astronomi- planet friendly, part hostile to the sun ?
cal opinions, drawn up in a popular Just as when one magnet attracts
style in the form of question and an- another, the bodies are cognate ; but at-
swer. We find there a singular argu- traction takes place only on one side, re-
ment against believing, as some did, pulsion on the other.
" P.
that each planet is carried round by an Whence, then, arises that differ-
angel, for in that case, says Kepler, ence of opposite parts in the same body ?
" the orbits would be In magnets the diversity arises from
perfectly circular ;
but the elliptic form, which we find in the situation of the parts with respect to
them, rather smacks of the nature of the whole. In the heavens the matter is
the lever and material necessity." a little differently arranged, for the sun
The investigation of the relation be- does not, like the magnet, possess only
tween the periodic times and distances on one side, but in all the parts of its
of the planets is introduced by a query substance, this active and energetic fa-
whether or not they are to be considered culty of attracting, repelling, or retain-
heavy. The answer is given in the fol- ing the planet. So that it is probable
"
lowing terms :
Although none of the that the centre of the solar body corre-
celestial globes are heavy, in the sense sponds to one extremity or pole of the
in which we say on earth that a stone is magnet, and its whole surface to the
heavy, nor light as fire is light with us, other pole,
"
yet have they, by reason of their mate* P. If this were so, all the planets
44 KEPLER.
would be restored* in the same time with The
circular paths of the planets are in
the sun ? True, if this were all but it :
simple ratio of the distances
the the
;
has been said already that, besides this weights or quantities of matter in diffe-
carrying power of the sun, there is also in rent planets are in the subduplicate ratio
the planets a natural inertness to motion, of the same distances, as has been
which causes that, by reason of their already proved; so that with every in-
material substance, they are inclined to crease of distance, a planet, has more
remain each in its place. The carrying matter, and therefore is moved more
power of the sun, and the impotence or slowly, and accumulates more time in its
material inertness of the planet, are thus revolution, requiring already as it did
in opposition. Each shares the victory ; more time by reason of the length of the
the sun moves the planet from its place, way. The third and fourth causes com-
although in some degree it escapes from pensate each other in a comparison of
the chains with which it was held by the different planets: the simple and sub-
sun, and so is taken hold of successively duplicate proportion compound the ses-
by every part of this circular virtue, or r quiplicate proportion, which therefore is
as it may be called, solar circumference, the ratio of the periodic times."
namely, by the parts which follow those Three of the four suppositions here
from which it has just extricated itself. made by Kepler to explain the beautiful
" P. But how does one
planet extricate law he had detected, are now indisputa-
itself more than another from this vio- bly known to be false. Neither the
lence First, because the virtue emana- weights nor the sizes of the different
ting from the sun has the same degree of planets observe the proportions assigned
weakness at different distances, as the by him, nor is the force by which they
distances or the width of the circles de- are retained in their orbits in any respect
scribed on these distancest. This is the similar in its effects to those attributed
principal reason. Secondly, the cause by him to it. The wonder which might
is partly in the greater or less inertness naturally be felt that he should never-
or resistance of the planetary globes, theless reach the desired conclusion, will
which reduces the proportions to one- be considerably abated on examining the
half; but of this more hereafter. mode in which he arrived at and satisfied
" P. How can it be that the virtue ema-
himself of the truth of these three sup-
nating from the sun becomes weaker at positions. It has been already mentioned
a greater distance ? What is there to that his notions on the existence of a
hurt or weaken it ? Because that whirling force emanating from the sun,
virtue is corporeal, and partaking of and decreasing in energy at increased
quantity, which can be spread
out and distances, are altogether inconsistent
rarefied. Then, since there is as much with all the experiments and observa-
virtue diffused in the vast orb of Sa- tions we are able to collect. His reason
turn as is collected in the very narrow for asserting that the sizes of the dif-
one of Mercury, it is very rare and there- ferent planets are proportional to their
fore weak in Saturn's orbit, very dense distances from the sun, was simply be-
and therefore powerful at Mercury. cause he chose to take for granted that
" P. You said, in the
beginning of this either their solidities, surfaces, or dia-
inquiry into motion, that the periodic meters, must necessarily be in that
times of the planets are exactly in the proportion, and of the three, the solidities
or
sesquiplicate proportion of their orbits appeared to him least liable, to objection.
circles:
pray what is the cause of this ? The last element of his precarious rea-
Four causes concur for lengthening soning rested upon equally groundless
the periodic time. First, the length of assumptions. Taking as a principle, that
the path; secondly, the weight or quan- where there is a number of different
tity of matter
to be carried ;thirdly, the things they must be different in every
degree of strength of the moving virtue respect, he declared that it was quite
;
fourthly, the bulk or space into which unreasonable to suppose all the planets
is spread out the matter to be moved. of the same density. He thought it in-
* This is a word borrowed from the Ptolemaic disputable that they must be "rarer as they
which the sun and were farther
from the sun, and yet not
astronomy, according to
planets are hurried from their places by
the daily in the proportion of their^distances, for
motion of the primum mobile, and by their own thus we should sin against the law of
peculiar motion seek to regain or be restored to
their former places. variety in another way, and
make the
>
also have occasion presently to mention conclusions will be altered if the body
some where no visible connexion
forces from time to time is forced towards S.
exists between the moving body and We will suppose it moving uniformly
that towards which the motion takes from A to B
as before, no matter for the
place, and from which the force is said present how it got to A, or into the
to proceed. direction A
B. If left to itself it would,
A second law of motion, founded upon in an equal time (say 1") go through
experiment, is this if a body have mo-
:
B C' in the same straight line with and
tioncommunicated to it in two directions, equal to AB. But just as it reaches
by one of which motions alone it would B, and is beginning to move along B C',
have passed through a given space in a let it be suddenly pulled towards S with
given time, as for instance, through B C' a motion which, had it been at rest,
in one second, and by the other alone would have carried it in the same time,
through any other space Be in the same- 1", through any other space B c. Ac-
time, it will, when both are cording to the second law of motion, its
given to it at the same in direction during this I", in consequence
stant, pass in the same of the two motions combined, will be
time (in the present in- along B C, the diagonal of the parallelo-
stance in one second) through B C the gram of which B C', B c, are sides. In-
46 KEPLER.
this case, as this figure is drawn, B C, responding to the four areas A S B,
though passed in the same time, is longer B S C, C S D, D S E, that is, to the area
than A
B ; that is to say, the body is ABODES, are passed in the same
moving quicker than at first. How is it time as the fourE F, F G, GH, A, cor- H
with the triangular areas, supposed as responding to the equal area E F S. GHA
before to be swept by a string constantly Hence it may be seen, if the whole
stretched between S and the body ? It time of revolution from A
round to A
will soon be seen that these still remain again be called a year, that in half a
equal, notwithstanding the change of year the body will have got to E,
which
direction,and increased swiftness. For in the present figure is more than half
since C C' is parallel to B c, the tri- way round, and so of any other pe-
angles SC'B are equal, being
SCB, riods.
on the same base S B, arid between The more frequently the pulls are
the same parallels S B, C C', and S C'B supposed to recur, the more frequently
is equal to S B A
as before, therefore will the body change its direction and if ;
S C B, S B A
are equal. The body is the pull were supposed constantly ex-
now moving uniformly (though quicker erted in the direction towards S, the body
than along A
B) along B C. As before, would move in a curve round S, for no
it would in a time equal to the time of three successive positions of it could be
passing along B C, go through an equal in a straight line. Those who are not
space C D' in the same straight line. familiar with the methods of measuring
But if at C it has a second pull towards curvilinear spaces must here be con-
S, strong enough to carry it to d in the tented to observe, that the law holds,
same time, its direction will change a however close the pulls are brought to-
second time to C D, the diagonal of the gether, and however closely the polygon
parallelogram, whose sides are C D', C d\ is consequently made to resemble a
and the circumstances being exactly curve they may, if they please, consider
:
similar to those at the first pull, it is the minute portions into which the curve
shewn in the same manner that the is so divided, as differing insensibly
triangular area =SDC SCB
= SBA. from little rectilinear triangles, any equal
Thus it appears, that in consequence number of which, according to what has
of these intermitting pulls towards S, been said above, wherever taken in the
the body may be moving round, some- curve, would be swept in equal times.
times faster, sometimes slower, but that The theorem admits, in this case also,
the triangles formed by any of the a rigorous proof; but it is not easy to
straight portions of its path (which are make it entirely satisfactory, without
all described in equal times), and the entering into explanations which would
lines joining S to the ends of that por- detain us too long from our principal
tion, are all equal. The path it will take subject.
depends of course, in other respects, The proportion in which the pull
upon the frequency and strength of the is strong or weak at different dis-
different pulls, and it
might happen, if tances from the central spot, is called
"
they were duly proportionate, that when the law of the central or centripetal
at H, and moving off in the direction force," and it
may be observed, that
H A', the pull H a might be such as just after assuming the laws of motion, our
to carry the body back to A, the point investigations cease to have anything
from which it started, and with such a
hypothetical or experimental in them ;
motion, that after one pull more, b, at A and that if we wish, according to these
A, it might move along A
B as it did at principles of motion, to determine the
first. If this were so, the body would law of force necessary to make a body
continue to move round in the same move in a curve of any required form,
polygonal path, alternately approaching or conversely to discover the form of
and receding from S, as long as the the curve described, in consequence of
same pulls were repeated in the same any assumed law of force, the inquiry
order, and at the same intervals. is purely geometrical, depending upon
Itseems almost unnecessary to re- the nature and properties of geometrical
mark, that the same equality which sub- quantities only. This distinction be-
sists between any two of these triangular tween what is hypothetical, and what
areas subsists also between an equal necessary truth, ought never to be lost
number of them, from whatever part of sight of.
the path taken so that, for instance, the
; As the object of the present treatise
four paths AB, B C, CD, D E, cor- is not to teach geometry, we shall de-
KEPLER.
scribe, in very general terms, the manner
moving body describe an ellipse round
in which Newton, who was the first who foci>s, which Kepler's observations
its
systematically extended the laws of mo- had established to be the form of the or-
tion to the heavenly bodies, identified bits of the planets round the sun. The
their results with the two remaining result of the inquiry shewed that this
"
laws of Kepler. His Principles of curve required the same law of the force,
Natural Philosophy" contain general varying inversely as the square of the
propositions with regard to any law of distance, which therefore of course re-
centripetal force, but that which he sup- ceived additional confirmation. His me-
posed to be the true one in our system, is thod of doing this may, perhaps, be un-
expressed in mathematical language, by derstood by referring to the last figure
saying that the centripetal force varies but one, in which C d, for instance,
inversely as the square of the distance, representing the space fallen from
which means, that if the force at any any point C towards S, in a given
distance be taken for the unit of force, time, and the area C S being pro D
at half that distance, it is two times portional to the corresponding time,
twice, or four times as strong at one-
; the space through which the body would
third the distance, three times thrice, or have fallen at C in any other time (which
nine times as strong, and so for other would be greater, by Galileo's law, in
distances. He shewed the probability proportion to the squares of the times),
of this law in the first instance by com- might be represented by a quantity va-
paring the motion of the moon with that rying directly as C d, and inversely in the
of heavy bodies at the surface of the duplicate proportion of the triangular
earth. Taking L P* area C S D, that is to say, proportional to
to represent part of
the moon's orbit de-
scribed in one minute,
the line P Mbetween perpendicular on S C. If this polygon
D
the orbit and the represent an ellipse, so that C repre-
sents a small arc of the curve, of which
tangent at L would
shew the space through which the central S is the focus, it is found by the nature
force at the earth (assuming the above _
of that curve, that is the same at
principles of motion to be correct) would
,
,
(D liy
draw the moon. From the known dis- all points of the curve, so that the law of
tance and motion of the moon, this line variation of the force in the same ellipse
P M is found to be about sixteen feet.
The distance of the moon is about sixty is represented solely by p 2
. If C d,
times the radius of the earth, and there-
fore if the law of the central force in this
Cd
Sec. are drawn so that is not the
instance were such as has been supposed,
the force at the earth's surface would sameat every point, the curve ceases to
be 60 times 60, or 3600 times stronger, be anellipse whose focus is at S, as
and at the earth's surface, the central Newton has shewn in the same work.
forcewould make a body fall through
3600 times 16 feet in one minute. Ga- The line to which is found to be
lileohad already taught that the spaces
equal, is one drawn through the focus at
through which a body would be made
to fall, by the constant action of the right angles to the longest axis of the
same unvarying force, would be pro- ellipse till it meets the curve; this line
is called the latus rectum, and is a
portional to the squares of the times du- third proportional to the two principal
ring which the force was exerted, and axes.
therefore according to these laws, a
Kepler's third law follows as an im-
body at the earth's surface ought (since mediate consequence of this determina-
there are sixty seconds in a minute) to
tion ; for, according to what has been
fall through 1 6 feet in one second, which
was precisely the space previously esta- already shown, the time of revolution
blished by numerous experiments.
round the whole ellipse, or, as it is corn-
With this confirmation of the suppo- there is a point to which the name of centre is
sition, Newton proceeded to the purely given, on uccount of peculiar properties belonging
but the term " centripetal force" always re-
geometrical calculation of the law of
to it :
the ellipses directly, and the areas de- lileo was at the same time pleading his
scribed in the 'unit of time inversely, cause at Rome with too much violence.
are in the compound ratio of the rec- Copernicus has been corrected in the
same manner for some lines, at least in
tangle of the axes directly, and subdu-
the beginning of his first book. But by
plicatly as a third proportional to the
axes inversely ; that is to say, the squares Obtaining a permission, they may be
"
of these times are proportional to the read (and, as I suppose, this Epitome"
cubes t of the longest axes, which is also) by the learned and skilful in this
science, both at Rome and throughout
Kepler's law.
all Italy. There is therefore no ground
CHAPTER VIII. for your alarm, either in Italy or Austria;
only keep yourself within bounds, and
The Epitome prohibited at Rome Lo- 11
bookseller, has left in Austria at my de- name has escaped my memory), who has
sire will be endangered, and the ultimate made a famous contrivance, by which
KEPLER. 49
of 100,000 divided by the first ten num- where one number is to be divided by
bers, then proceeding by the quotients of another, the difference ;
and the num-
every ten to 100, and by hundreds to ber corresponding to this sum or differ-
1 00,000. In the supplement published the ence, as the case may be, will be the
following year, is a curious notice of the required product or quotient. This,
manner in which this subtle contrivance 1 say, is the use of logarithms. But
was at first received " In the year 1621,
: in the same work in which I gave
when I had gone into Upper Austria, and the demonstration of the principles, I
had conferred everywhere with those could not satisfy the unfledged arith-
skilled in mathematics, on the subject of metical chickens, greedy of facilities,
Napier's logarithms, I found that those and gaping with their beaks wide
whose prudence had increased, and open, at the mention of this use, as
whose readiness had diminished, through if to bolt down every particular gobbet,
age, were hesitating whether to adopt till
they are crammed with my precepti-
this new sort of numbers, instead of cles."
a table of sines ; because they said The year 1622 was marked by the ca-
it was disgraceful
a professor of
to tastrophe of a singular adventure which
mathematics to exult like a child at befell Kepler's mother, Catharine, then
some compendious method of working, nearly seventy years old, and by which
and meanwhile to admit a form of cal- he had been greatly harassed and an-
culation, resting on no legitimate proof, noyed during several years. From her
and which at some time might entangle youth she had been noted for a rude and
us in error, when we least feared it. passionate temper, which on the present
They complained that Napier's demon- occasion involved her in serious diffi-
stration rested on a fiction of geometri- culties. One of her female acquaint-
cal motion, too loose and slippery for a ance, whose manner of life had been by
sound method of reasonable demonstra- no means unblemished, was attacked
" This led
tion to be founded on itt. after a miscarriage by violent head-
aches, and Catharine, who had often
* The
meaning of this passage is not very clear: taken occasion to sneer at her noto-
Kepler evidently had seen and used logarithms at
the time of writing this letter; yet there is nothing rious reputation, was accused with hav-
method to this
" At
in the justify expression,
tamen opus est ipsi Tangentium canone." ing produced these consequences, by
f This was the objection originally made to
the administration of poisonous potions.
Newton's " Fluxions," and in fact, Napier's idea of She repelled the charge with violence,
logarithms is identical with that method of con- and instituted an action of scandal against
ceiving quantities. This may be seen at once from
a few of his definitions, this person, but was unlucky (according
1 A line is said to increase uniformly, when
Def. to Kepler's statement) in the choice of a
the point by which it is described passes
through equal intervals, in equal times. young doctor, whom she employed as
2 Def. A line is said to diminish to a shorter one her advocate. Considering the suit to be
proportionally, when the point passing along
it cuts off in equal times segments propor- very instructive, he delayed its termina-
tional to the remainder. tion during five years, until the judge
6 Def. The logarithm of any sine is the number beforewhom it was tried was displaced.
most nearly denoting the line, which has
increased uniformly, whilst the radius has He was succeeded by another, already in-
disposed against Catharine Kepler, who
diminished to that sine proportionally, the
initial velocity being the same in both mo-
tions. (Mirifici logarithmorum cauonis
on some occasion had taunted him with
descriptio, Edinburgi 1614.) his sudden accession to wealth from a
This last definition contains what we should now
very inferior situation. Her opponent,
-
her from the question, but she was not said that he had incurred the Emperor's
finally acquitted and released,
from pri- displeasure, and that a large sum was
son till November in the following year. set upon his head. At this period Mat-
Kepler then returned to Linz, leaving thias had been succeeded by Ferdi-
behind him his mother, whose spirit nand III., who still continued to Kepler
seemed in no degree broken by the un- his barren title of imperial mathema-
expected turn in the course of her liti- tician.
gation. She immediately commenced In 1624 Kepler went to Vienna, in
a new action for costs and damages the hopes of getting money to complete
against the same antagonist,
but this theRudolphineTables,but was obliged to
was stopped by her death, in April 1622, be satisfied with the sum of 6000 florins
in her seventy-fifth year. and with recommendatory letters to the
In 1620 Kepler was visited by Sir States of Suabia, from whom he also
Henry Wotton, the English ambassador collected some money due to the em-
at Venice, who finding him, as indeed peror. On his return he revisited the
he might have been found at every period University of Tubingen, where he found
of his oppressed by pecuniary diffi-
life, his old preceptor, Mastlin, still alive,
culties,urged him to go over to England, but almost worn out with old age.
where he assured him of a welcome Mastlin had well deserved the' regard
and honourable reception; but Kepler Kepler always appears to have enter-
could not resolve upon the proposed tained for him he had treated him with
;
honour of the empire are getting the poverty he contrived to send his old
upper hand everything in my neigh- master a handsome silver cup, in ac-
bourhood seems abandoned to flame and knowledging the receipt of which Mast-
Shall I then cross the sea, lin says,
" Your mother had taken it
destruction.
whither Wotton invites me ? I, a Ger- into her head that you owed me two
man ? a lover of firm land ? who dread hundred florins, and had brought fifteen
the confinement of an island ? who pre- florins and a chandelier towards reducing
sage itsdangers, and must drag along the debt, which I advised her to send to
with me my little wife and flock of chil- you. I asked her to stay to dinner, which
dren? Besides my son Louis, now she refused however, we handselled
:
thirteen years old, 1 have a marriage- your cup, as you know she is of a thirsty
able daughter, a two-year old son by my temperament."
second marriage, an infant daughter, and The publication of the Rudolphine
its mother but just recovering from Tables, which Kepler always had so
her confinement." Six years later, he much at heart, was again delayed, not-
says again, "As soon as the Rudol- withstanding the recent grant, by the
phine Tables are published, my
desire will disturbances arising out of the two par-
be to find a place where I can lecture ties into which the Reformation had
on them to a considerable assembly if ; divided the whole of Germany. Kepler's
possible,-
in Germany ; if not, why then library was sealed up by desire of the
in Italy, France, the Netherlands, or Jesuits, and nothing but his connexion
England, provided the salary is ade- with the Imperial Court secured to him
quate for a traveller." his own personal indemnity. Then fol-
In the same year in which he received lowed a popular insurrection, and the
KEPLER. 51
peasantry blockaded Linz, so that it was for by this means it may come to be
not until 1627 that these celebrated tables corrected."
finally made their appearance, the ear- This is probably one pf the earliest
liest calculated on the supposition that announcements of the method of deter-
the planets move in elliptic orbits. mining longitudes by occultations the ;
Ptolemy's tables had been succeeded by imperfect theory of the moon long re-
" mained a principal obstacle to its intro-
the Alphonsine," so called from Al-
phonso, King of Castile, who, in the duction in practice. Another interesting
thirteenth century, was an enlightened passage connected with the same object
patron of astronomy. After the disco- may be introduced here. In a letter to
veries of Copernicus, these again made his friend Cruger, 'dated in 1616, Kep-
"
way for the Prussian, or Prutenic tables," ler says : You propose a method of
calculated by his pupils Reinhold and observing the distances of places by sun-
Rheticus. These remained in use till dials and automata. It is good, but needs
the observations of TychoBrahe showed a very accurate practice, and confidence
their insufficiency, and Kepler's new in those who have the care of the clocks.
theories enabled him to improve upon Let there be only one clock, and let it
them. The necessary types for these be transported and in both places let
;
tables were cast at Kepler's own expense. meridian lines be drawn with which the
They are divided into four parts, the clock may be compared when brought.
first and third containing a variety of The only doubt remaining is, whether a
logarithmic and other tables, for the greater error is likely from the unequal
purpose of facilitating astronomical cal- tension in the automaton, and from its
culations. In the second are tables of motion, which varies with the state of
the elements of the sun, moon, and the air, or from actually measuring the
planets. The fourth gives the places of distances. For if we trust the latter,
1000 stars as determined byTycho, and we can easily determine the longitudes
by
also at the end his table of refractions, observing the -differences of the height
which appears to have been different for of the pole."
the sun, moon, and stars. Tycho Brahe In an Appendix to the Rudolphine
assumed the horizontal refraction of the Tables, or, as Kepler calls it, " an
sun to be 7' 30", of the moon 8', and of alms doled out to the nativity casters,"
the other stars 3'. He considered all he has shown how they
may use his
refraction of the atmosphere to be in- tables fbr their astrological predictions.
sensible above 45 of altitude, and Everything in his hands became an
even at half that altitude in the case of allegory ; and on this occasion he says,
the fixed stars. A
more detailed ac- "Astronomy is the daughter of As-
count of these tables is here obviously trology, and this modern
Astrology,
unsuitable: it will be sufficient to say again, is the daughter of
Astronomy,
merely, that if Kepler had done' nothing bearing something of the lineaments of
in the course of his whole life but con- her grandmother; and, as 1 have al-
struct these, he would have well earned ready said, this foolish daughter, Astro-
the title of a most useful and indefati- logy, supports her wise but
needy mother,
gable calculator. Astronomy, from the profits of a profes-
Some copies of these tables have pre- sion not generally considered credit-
fixed to them a very remarkable map, able."
divided by hour lines, the object of Soon after the publication of these
which is thus explained :
tables, the Grand Duke of Tuscany sent
"
The use of this nautical map is, that him a golden chain and if we remem-
;
if at a given hour the place of the moon ber the high credit in which Galileo
is known by its edge
being observed to stood at this time in Florence, it does
touch any known star, or the edges of not seem too much to attribute this
the sun, or the shadow of the earth ; honourable mark of approbation to his
and if that place shall (if necessary) be representation of the value of
Kepler's
reduced from apparent to real by clear- services to astronomy. This was soon
ing it of
parallax and if the hour at followed by a new and final
;
change in his
Uraniburg be computed by the Rudol- fortunes. He received permission from
phine tables, when the moon occupied the emperor to attach himself to the
that true place, the difference will show celebrated Duke of
Friedland, Albert
the observer's meridian, whether the Wallenstein, one of the most remark-
picture of the shores be accurate or net, able men in the history of that time.
52 KEPLER.
Wallenstein was a firm believer in as- 24,000 florins were due to him, chiefly
trology, and the reception Kepler ex- on account of his salary from the em-
perienced by him was probably due, in peror. His daughter Susanna, Bartsch's
great measure, to his reputation in that widow, managed to obtain a part of these
art. However that may be, Kepler arrears by refusing to give up Tycho
found in him a more munificent pa- Brahe's observations till her claims were
tron than any one of his three em- satisfied. The widow and younger chil-
perors but he was not destined long to
; dren were left in very straightened cir-
enjoy the appearance of better fortune. cumstances, which induced Louis, Kep-
Almost the last work which he published ler's eldest son, to print, for their relief,
was a commentary on the letter address- one of his father's works, which had
ed, by the missionary Terrentio, from been left by him unpublished. It was
China, to the Jesuits at Ingolstadt. The not without much reluctance, in conse-
object of this communication was to ob- quence of a superstitious feeling which
tain from Europe means for carrying he did not attempt to conceal or deny.
into effect a projected scheme for im- Kepler himself, and his son-in-law,
proving the Chinese calendar. In this Bartsch, had been employed in prepar-
essay Kepler maintains the opinion, ing it for publication at the time of
which has been discussed with soiimich their respective deaths ; and Louis con-
warmth in more modern times, that the fessed that he did not approach the task
pretended ancient observations of the without apprehension that he was in-
Chinese were obtained by computing curring some risk of a similar fate.
"
them backwards from a much more re- This little rhapsody is entitled a Dream
cent date. Wallenstein furnished him on Lunar Astronomy;" and was in-
with an assistant for his calculations, and intended to illustrate the appearances
with a printing press ; and through his which would present themselves to an
influence nominated him to the profes- astronomer living upon the moon.
sorship in the University of Rostoch, in The narrative in the dream is put into
the Duchy of Mecklenburg. His the .mouth of a personage, named Du-
claims on the imperial treasury, which racoto, the son of an Icelandic enchan-
amounted at this time to 8000 crowns, tress, of the name of Fiolxhildis. Kep-
and vvhich Ferdinand would gladly have ler tells us that he chose the last name
transferred to the charge of "Wallenstein, from an old map of Europe in his house,
still remained unsatisfied. Kepler made in which Iceland was called Fiolx Du- :
journey brought on a fever, which un- to mariners, and used to collect herbs
expectedly put an end to his life, in the to use in her incantations on the sides
early part of November, 1630, in his of Mount Hecla, on the Eve of St.
fifty-ninth year. His old master, Mast- John. Duracotb cut open one of his
lin, survived him for* about a year, dy- mother's bags, in punishment of which
ing at the age of eighty-one. she sold him to some traders, who
Kepler left behind him two children brought him to Denmark, where he be-
by his first wife, Susanna and Louis and
; came acquainted with Tycho Brahe.
three sons and two daughters, Sebald, On his return to Iceland, Fiolxhildis
Cordelia, Friedman, Hildebert, and Anna received him kindly, and was delighted
Maria, by his widow. Susanna mar- with the progress he had made in astro-
ried, a few months before her father's nomy. She then informed him of the
death, a physician named Jacob Bartsch, existence of certain spirits, or demons,
the same who latterly assisted Kepler from whom, although no traveller her-
in preparing his "Ephemeris." He died self, she acquired a knowledge of other
very shortly after Kepler himself. Louis countries, and especially of a very re-
studied medicine, and died in 1663, markable country, called Livania. Du-
whilst practising as a physician at racoto requesting further information,
Konigsberg. The other children died the necessary ceremonies were performed
young. for invoking the demon ; Duracoto and
Upon Kepler's death the Duke of Fried- his mother enveloped their heads
" the
in their
land caused an inventory to be taken of clothing, and presently screaking of
his effects, when it appeared that near a harsh dissonant voice began to speak
KEPLER. 53
in'the Icelandic tongue." The island of volumes. The plan met no encourage-
Livania is situated in the depths of ment, and nothing was published but a
ether, at the distance of about 250000 single folio volume of letters to and from
miles ; the road thence or thither is very Kepler, which seem to have furnished
seldom open, and even when it is the principal materials for the memoir
passable, mankind find the journey a prefixed to them. After various un-
most difficult and dangerous one. The availing attempts to interest different
demon describes the method employed learned bodies in their appearance, the
by his fellow spirits to convey such manuscripts were purchased for the
travellers as are thought fit for the library at St. Petersburg, where Euler,
"
undertaking : We
bring no sedentary Lexell, and Kraft, undertook to examine
people into our company, no corpulent them, and select the most interesting
or delicate persons but we pick out
; parts for publication.The result of this
those who waste their life in the con- examination does not appear.
tinual use of post-horses, or who sail Kepler's body was buried in St. Pe-
frequently to the Indies who are ac-
;
ter's churchyard at Ratisbon, and a
customed to live upon biscuit, garlic, simple inscription was placed on his
and such abominable feeding.
dried fish, tombstone. This appears to have
Those withered old hags are exactly fit been destroyed not long after, in the
for us, of whom the story is familiar course of the wars which still deso-
that they travel immense distances by lated the country. In 1786, a proposal
night on goats, and forks, and old petti- was made to erect a marble monument
coats. The Germans do not suit us to his memory, but nothing was done.
at all; but we do not reject the dry Kastner, on whose authority it is men-
Spaniards." This extract will probably upon this, rather bitterly,
tioned, says
be sufficient to show the style of the matters little whether or not Ger-
that it
work. The inhabitants of Livania are many, having almost refused him bread
represented to be divided into two during his life, should, a, century and a
classes, the Privolvans and Subvolvans, half after his death, offer him a stone.
by whom are meant those supposed to Delambre mentions, in his History of
live in the hemisphere facing the earth, Astronomy, that this design was resumed
which is called the Volva, and those on in 1803 by the Prince Bishop of Con-
the opposite half of the moon but stance, and that a monument has been
:
there is nothing very striking in the ac- erected in the Botanical Garden at Ra-
count given of the various pheno- tisbon, near the place of his interment.
mena as respects these two classes. In It is built in, the form of a temple, sur-
some notes which were added some time mounted by a sphere in the centre is ;
after the book was first written, are placed a bust of Kepler, in Carrara
some odd insights into Kepler's method,. marble. Delambre does not mention the
of composing. Fiolxhildis had been made original of the bust but says it is not
;
to invoke the daemon with twenty-one unlike the figure engraved in the frontis-
characters Kepler declares, in a note,
; piece of the Rudolphine Tables. That
that he cannot remember why he fixed frontispiece consists of a portico of ten
on this number, "except because that is pillars, supporting a cupola covered with
the number of letters in A&tronomia astronomical emblems. Copernicus,
Copernicana, or because there are Tycho Brahe, Ptolemy, Hipparchus, and
twenty-one combinations of the planets, other astronomers, are seen among them.
two together, or because there are In one of the compartments of the com-
twenty-one different throws upon two mon pedestal is apian of the observatory
dice." The dream is abruptly termi- at Uraniburg in another, a printing
;
nated by a storm, in which, says Kep- press ; in a third is the figure of a man,
"
ler, I suddenly waked the Demon,
;
meant for Kepler, sealed at a table. He
Duracoto, and Fiolxhildis were gone, is identified by the titles of his works,
and instead of their covered heads, I which are round him but the whole is ;
found myself rolled up among the so small as to convey very little idea of
blankets." his figure or countenance. The only
Besides this trifle, Kepler left behind portrait known of Kepler was given by
him a vast mass of unpublished writings, him to his assistant Gringallet, who pre-
which came at last, into the hands of his sented it'toBernegger; and it was placed
biographer, Hantsch. In 17 14, Hantsch by the latter in the library at Strasburg.
issued a prospectus for publishing them Hantsch -had a copy taken for the purpose
by subscription, in twenty -two folio of engraving it, but died before it was
KEPLER.
completed. A
portrait of Kepler is en- sidering these matters in another point of
graved in the seventh part of Boissard's view, it is not impossible to convince
Bibliotheca Chalcographica. It is not ourselves that Kepler may have been
known whence this was taken, but it always the same. Ardent, restless,
may, perhaps, be a copy of that which burning to distinguish himself by his
was engraved by desire of Bernegger in discoveries, he attempted everything ;
1620. The likeness is said not to have and having once obtained a glimpse of
" His heart and
been well preserved. one, no labour was too hard for him in
" are
genius," says Kiistner, faithfully following or verifying it. All his at-
depicted in his writings ;
and that may tempts had not the same success, and,
console us, if we cannot entirely trust in fact, that was impossible. Those
his portrait." In the preceding pages, it which have failed seem to us only
has been endeavoured to select such fanciful those which have been more
;
De Cometis
Harm on ice Mundi
Kanones Pueriles
....
Ephemerides 16171620
Epitomes Astron. Copern. Libri
.
.
.
i. ii. iii.
.
.
Aug.
.
Lincii, 1616, 4to.
Lentiis, 1618, 8vo.
Vindelic. 1619,4lo.
Lincii. 1619, fol.
UlmcK, 1620
Epitomes Astron. Copern. Liber iv. Lentiis, 1622, 8vo.
Epitomes Astron. Copern. Libri v. vi. vii. Francofurti, 1622, 8vo.
Discurs von der grossen Conjunction iMZ. Ifi23, 4to.
Chilias Logarithmorum . Marpurgi, 1624, fol.
Ephemerides
Somnium .
....
De anni 1631 phaenomenis
Terrentii epistolium cum conimentatiuncu]& ,
Lipsa,
Sagani,
Sagani,
1629,
1630,
1630,
desk of any
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