PRACTICAL

ANTENNA

GUIDE

1
 TÜV

ZERTIFIKAT

KATHREIN WERKE KG

2
 PRACTICAL

ANTENNA

GUIDE

PREFACE

The expansion of radio communications, especially for public wireless communications,

attracts every day more professionals involved in the technology of the equipment,
accessories and infrastructure of wireless systems. The Radiating System as crucial
part of the infrastructure is based on Antennas. Their design, manufacturing and
application develloped to a technology of its own to which this booklet is dedicated.

KATHREIN - the oldest and nowadays biggest supplier of Antennas - is offering with
this GUIDE to all interested professionals a comprehensive handbook directed to the
day-to-day practice.

This guide was oriented by our professional spirit expressed in our slogan:

“ QUALITY LEADS THE WAY”

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Copyright: KATHREIN MOBILCOM BRASIL Ltda.
Rua Marcilio Dias, 138
04764-080 São Paulo - SP Brazil
Phone: (55 11) 5685-4290 Fax: (55 11) 5685-4292
WEB : www.kathrein.com.br
E- Mail : kathrein@kathrein.com.br

Authors : Ing. Eduardo Roberto Huemer

Dipl. Oec. Karl-Heinz Lensing

Al rights reserved. Total or parcial

reproduction is not permitted without
specific authorization of
KATHREIN MOBILCOM BRASIL LTDA

Printed by:
Dinâmica Gráfica e Editora Ltda.
Phone/Fax: 00 55 11 6947-7788
São Paulo/ Brazil

5th Edition, January 2000

Price: U$ 10,00/ Euro 10,00

This GUIDE is also available in:

- Spanish
- Portuguese

4
 INDEX

Page

1 INTRODUCTION 7

2 MOBILE COMMUNICATIONS 8

3 THEORY 9

4 DEFINITIONS 12
4.1 Polarization 12
4.2 Propagation Patterns 12
4.2.1 Thinking in 3-D 13
4.3 Half-Power Beam-Width - HPBW 13
4.4 Gain 14
4.4.1 Gain References (dBd or dBi) 15
4.5 Front-to-Back Ratio (FB) 16
4.6 Impedance 16
4.7 Return Loss (ROE / VSWR) 17
4.7.1 Connection Effects on the Return Loss 18
4.8 Downtilt 19
4.8.1 Calculating Downtilt for an Omni Antenna 21
4.8.2 Comparison of Mechanical and Electrical Downtilt 22
4.9 Mechanical Details 23
4.10 Intermodulation 24

5 THE RADIO BASE STATION 26

6 BASE STATION ANTENNAS 29

6.1 Comparison of Groundplane and Dipoles 29
6.2 The Influence of Reflections on Radiation Patterns 30
6.2.1 Omni Antenna 30
6.2.2 Directional Antennas with Pannel Reflector 33
6.2.3 Additional Effects with X-Pol Antennas 40
6.2.4 Conclusion 40
6.2.5 Calculating the HPBW 41
6.3 Broadside Arrays 42

7 PARTICULAR TECHNIQUES USED IN CELLULAR SYSTEM 45

7.1 Diversity 45
7.2 Space Diversity 46
7.3 Omni Base Station 47
7.4 Sectored Base Station 48
7.5 Polarization Diversity 49
7.6 Horizontal and Vertical Polarization 49
7.7 Antennas with Dual Polarization 49

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 7.8 Kathrein´s Dipole Based X-Pol Antenna Design 54
7.8.1 General Descriptions 54
7.8.2 Outstanding Characteristics 54
7.8.3 Typical Measurements 58
7.8.4 CPR x Azimuth 61

8 SPECIAL APPLICATIONS 62
8.1 Indoor Coverage System 62
8.2 Splitters 63
8.3 Duplexers 64

GLOSSARY 65

6
1 INTRODUCTION

Constantly we can observe the increase of communication systems based on

electromagnetic waves: Turning on the radio or the TV, reading a message on a pager
or answering a call with a wireless phone we are surrounded by these systems
nowadays.

With the development of these different systems in wide scale they became related to
some specific frequency ranges which follow a classification.

CLASSIFIED FREQUENCY RANGES

WAVE LENGHT FREQUENCY RANGE ABBREVIATION

10 km - 100 km 3 - 30 kHz VLF = Very Low Frequency
1 km - 10 km 30 - 300 kHz LF = Low Frequency
100 m - 1 km 300 - 3.000 kHz MF = Medium Frequency
10 m - 100 m 3 - 30 MHz HF = High Frequency
1 m - 10 m 30 - 300 MHz VHF = Very High Frequency
10 cm - 1 m 300 - 3.000 MHz UHF = Ultra High Frequency
1 cm - 10 cm 3 - 30 GHz SHF = Super High Frequency
1 mm - 1 cm 30 - 300 GHz EHF = Extreme High Frequency

The ranges of VHF, UHF and SHF were defined about hundred years ago. They have
their origin in the physical dimensions of the components the pioners of radio based
they experiments on and just by chance resonated in these frequencies.

In the VHF – frequency band Heinrich Hertz – lateron the indication “Hz” was derived
from his name – generated in 1884 waves of 3 meters length connecting an spark
transmitter to a dipole terminated with two metal discs as capacitive load. Lodge
substituted this circuit by a coesor of Branly with which he increased the coverage of the
VHF transmitter to a distance of 30 m. One year later Marconi started his experiments in
VHF with wave length of two meters.

In UHF, waves length of 30 centimeters were generated by Righi in Italy in 1890.

SHF appeared some years later in 1900 with the experience of Bhose in India and
simultaneously by other inventors in Italy.

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2 MOBILE COMMUNICATIONS

The last years brought an enormous technological jump in the field of mobile
communications with the introduction of new mobile communications networks such as
CDMA, TDMA, GSM, PCS, etc.
The number of worldwide subscribers increased over 300 milions.

Below is shown in a general way where some of the communication services in terms of
frequency range are allocated.

FREQÜÊNCY OPERATOR / COMMUNICAT ION SERVICE

88 – 108 MHz Broadcasting – FM
108 – 144 MHz Ground to Air Communications
144 – 148 MHz Amateur Radio
148 – 174 MHz Public System in General (Police, Fireworks, Road Services,
etc)
406 – 430 MHz WLL – Wireless Local Loop
430 – 440 MHz Amateur Radio
450 – 470 MHz Public System in General (Police, Fireworks, Road Services,
etc)
806 – 960 MHz Cellular Services (A and B Bands), Trunking, Paging
1850 – 1950 MHz WLL – Wireless Local Loop
3400 – 3450 MHz WLL – Wireless Local Loop
3500 – 3550 MHz WLL – Wireless Local Loop

Obs.: The frequencies shown here one generic and do not represent a Frequency Plan;
details have to be verified in the specific laws and rules of each country.

The requirements for antennas in expanding networks have been continuously risen:

- Radiating patterns strictly defined to assure a network planning with high accurancy.
- Controlled intemodulation levels for the increasing number of carriers transmitted by
just one antenna
- Dual polarized antennas
- Electrical Downtilt in vertical patterns.
- Design without obstructions.

In the next chapters we are going to describe the theory of antennas in general as well
as the most important types of antennas.

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3 THEORY
Antennas transform wire propagated waves into space propagated waves. They receive
electromagnetic waves and pass them onto a receiver or they transmitt electromagnetic
waves which have been produced by a transmitter. As a matter of principle all the
features of passive antennas can be applied for reception and transmission alike
(reciprocality).

Quad-gate

RF-cable Free space

Symmetry

Coaxial cable
Antenna

The principle of an antenna can be shown by bending a coaxial cable open.

a) A transmitter sends a high frequency wave into a coaxial cable. A pulsing electrical
field is created between the wires which cannot free itself from the cable.

Transmitter
Coaxial cable

Electrical field

b) The end of the cable is bent open. The field lines become longer and are ortthogonal
to the wires

Transmitter

Electrical Field

9
c) The cable is bent open at right angles. The field lines have now reached a length,
which allows the wave to free itself from the cable. The apparatus radiates an
electromagnetic wave, whereby the length of the two bent pieces of wire
corresponds to half of the wave length.

Transmitter

λ/2

Electrical Field

This simpliified explanation describes the basic principle of almost every antenna – the
λ/2 – dipole. Not only is an electrical field (E) created due to the voltage potential (U),
but also a magnetic field (H) which is based on the current (I).

Voltage distribution Current distribution

Electric field Magnetic field

10
 The amplitude distribution of both fields corresponds to the voltage and current
distribution on the dipole. The free propagation of the wave from the dipole is achieved
by the permanent transformation from electrical into magnetic energy and vice-versa.
The thereby resulting electrical and magnetic fields are at right angles to the direction of
propagation.

Magnetic field Magnetic field

Electric field Electric field Electric field

Wave propagation

Curiosity: The Origin of the Word Antenna

For wireless communications, the transmitter has to be connected to a component that

radiates the radio frequency under the desired conditions, and on the receiving side
another component that captures this radiation under the same conditions. This
radiating components are called ANTENNAS

The word ANTENNA has a latin background and means very flexible rod. The antenna
is not a human invention, but has been used for milions of years by lobsters, shrimps
and numerous insects as a sensor in a shape of a flexible rod.

It was the Russian physicist Popov who started to use this word for his invention of an
electricity captor of atmospheric storms; after this, all physicists using the Maxwell
equations adopted this expression.

11
4 DEFINITIONS

4.1 – Polarization

Polarization can be defined as the direction of oscillation of the electrical field vector.
Mobile Communications: Vertical polarization
Broadcast systems: horizontal polarization

4.2 – Propagation Pattern

In most cases the propagation characteristic of an antenna can be described via

elevations through the horizontal and vertical radiation diagrams. In mobile
communications this is defined by the magnetic field components (H-plane) and the
electrical field components (E-plane). Very often a 3-dimensional description is chosen
to describe a complex antenna.

Horizontal Plane Pattern (H)

Upper view, the energy distribution
of a directional panel antenna.

Horizontal Pattern

Vertical Plane Pattern (E)

Observing from the side and making
7o a cut referenced to the horizon line
the energy is being distributed this
way.

Vertical Pattern

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4.2.1 – Thinking in 3-D

To get a total view of how the energy of an antenna is distributed in space it is

necessary to join the two patterns (Vertical + Horizontal) and think tridimensional.

Below an example of a tridimensional pattern (omnidirectional antenna).

4.3 – Half Power-Beam-Width

This term defines the aperture of the antenna. The HPWB is defined by the points in the
horizontal and vertical diagrams, which show where the radiated power has reached
half the amplitude of the main radiation direction. These points are also called 3 dB
points.

Half power
beam width

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4.4 - Gain

In reality an increment of energy is not achieved via antenna gain. An antenna without
gain radiates energy direction. An antenna with gain concentrates the energy in a
defined angle segment of 3-dimensional space. The λ/2 – dipole is used as a reference
for definig gain.At higher frequencies the gain is often defined with reference to the
isotropic radiator. The isotropic radiator is an no-existant ideal antenna, which has also
an omnidirecional radiation characteristic in the E-plane and H-plane.
The gain is defined as the relation between the irradiated power in its main lobe and the
electrical power injected to the antenna, and it is expressed in dB.
The increase of energy concentration is obtained by stacking dipoles.

Half power beam width Gain

(ref. λ/2 dipole)
(1 λ/2 dipole)

(2 λ/2 dipoles)

(4 λ/2 dipoles)

(8 λ/2 dipoles)

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4.4.1 Gain References: dBd or dBi

dBi is defined as the reference of gain when measured with an isotropic source; in
general used in the specifications of Europeans Manufacturers.
dBd is defined as the reference of gain when measured with a half wave dipole; in
general used in the specifications of American Manufacturers.

Reminder:

dBi = dBd + 2,15

The gain of an antenna is directly linked to the characteristic of its radiation pattern. The
gain can be calculated through the half power angles at the horizontal and vertical
planes.

Gain
dBd

18

16

14

Vertical half-power beam-

12 width

o
10 6,5

8
o
13

o
25
4

2
o
78

0 o o o o o
45 90 180 270 360
o o
60 120

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4.5 – Front-to-Back Ratio (F/B)

For every directional antenna (Yagi, Panels, etc) this important parameter must be
considered.

Front-to-Back ratio is the ratio of the gain of the main lobe compared to the gain of the
rear lobe.

The higher the Front-to-Back ratio, the better the protection against noise or
interference behind the antenna.

Back Gain in dB Front Gain in dB

F/B = (Front) – (Back)

4.6 - Impedance

Characteristic impedance is one of the most important properties of the coaxial cable.
Electrically it means the ratio of the voltage between the conductors to the current
flowing in the same conductors. In a homogeneous coaxial cable the characteristic
impedance is constant along the whole length of the cable.

Characteristic impedance is important to be specified, because the cable shall be

terminated with an impedance which equals to the characteristic impedance of the
cable. In radio communication the most common characteristic impedance is 50 Ohm.
Other values, such as 75 Ohm are used in other applications, e.g. in cable TV systems
and video systems.

All equipment or passive components which are connected to the cable shall have the
same characteristic impedances cause mismatch and reflections which distort the
transmission.

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4.7 – Return Loss (ROE / VSWR )

An impedance of exactly 50 Ohm can only be practically achieved at one frequency.

The VSWR defines how far the impedance differs from 50 Ohm with a wide-band
antenna. The power delivered from the transmitter can no longer be radiated without
loss because of this incorrect compensation. Part of this power is reflected at the
antenna and is returned to the transmitter.

Antenna

Forward ratio Return ratio VSWR

PV/Uv Pr/Ur
S= Umax/Umin = (1+r) / (1-r)

Return loss attenuation a r

Standing wave
Factor of reflection:
r=Ur/Uv = (s-1) / (s+1)
Umáx
ar [dB] = -20 log r

Umín Reflected power

Pr/ Pv = 100 r2 [100%]

Coax-cable

Transmitter

The forward and return power forms a standing wave with corresponding voltage
minima and maxima (Umin / Umax). This wave ratio (Voltage Standing Wave Ratio)
defines the level of compensation of the antenna and was previously measured by
interval sensor measurement.

A VSWR of 1.5 is standard within móbile communications. In this case the real
component of the complex impedance may vary between the following values:

Maximum Value : 50 Ohms x 1,5 = 75 Ohms

Minimum Value : 50 Ohms ÷ 1,5 = 33 Ohms

17
The term return loss attenuation is being used more often in recent times. The reason
for this is that the voltage ratio of the return to the forward-wave U R/UV can be
measured via a directional couplear.

This factor is defined as the co-efficient of reflection. Figure shows the relationship
between the coefficient of reflection, return loss attenuation, VSWR and reflected
power.
Return loss attenuation in dB

VSWR

Factor of reflection

4.7.1 – Effect of Connections and Installation Quality on RL

Return loss (RL) is a system parameter, which includes the effect of the following
factors:
- Transmitter mismatch
- connector mismatch at the input of the cable
- SRL of the cable itself (measured on drum at the factory)
- Installation quality
- Connector mismatch at the output of the cable
- Antenna mismatch

Transmitter mismatch and antenna mismatch depend on the difference between the
output impedance of the transmitter or input impedance of the antenna and the
characteristic impedance of the cable.

Connections and installation quality are very important factors affecting the
resulting total RL.

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Connectors always have serial indutance and parallel capacitance, which cause
mismatch and the level of mismatch depends on the connector construction and the
mounting methods. Only good quality connectors should be used and the mounting
instructions given by the connector supplier should carefully be followed.

- When the cable is installed for example on the tower, good workmanship and skill
are required. RL can dramatically be degraded by improper handling of the cable
and by poor installation quality.

4.8 – Downtilt

The energy in each sector of a Base Station must be tailored in a way to avoid that the
signal penetrates in the territory of another cell causing interference.

Cell 3

Cell 1 Cell 4

Sector A
Sector C
Sector B

Cell 2
In order to place the energy in a certain target we can slant the m ain lobe lower than the
horizon line, a procedure called Downtilt.

The Downtilt can be mechanical:

- just slant the antenna to the desired angle.

In practice the typical slant vary from 3º to 15º.

19
The downtilt can be electrical:

- The antenna is being adjusted in factory with the main lobe already tilt
with a standard that can be 3º, 6º, 9º, 12º for example.

There are some antennas that have variable downtilt:

- On the back of the antenna is a lever with a graduated scale to choose
the desired electrical downtilt angle.

741 493

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4.8.1 – Calculating Downtilt for an Omnidirecinal Antenna

9980 m

3353 m

732 m

2622 m

Formula:

Angle = 1 / tang ((h1 – h2) / d)

h1 = Elevation of the base antenna (m)

h2 = Elevation of the mobile antenna (m)
d = Distance (m)

Example:

1 Km = 1000m
9,98 Km x 1000 = 9980,00 m
731,52 / 9980,00 = 0,0732986

1 / tang (0,0732986) = 4,2º

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4.8.2 – Comparison of Mechanical and Electrical Downtilt

Typical Pattern of Mechanical Downtitl

MECHANIC

- Downtilt angle varies over the azimuth range:

Set down angle only in main direction (0º)

No downtilt in tilt axis direction (+/- 90º from main beam)

- The horizontal half-power beam-width increases with greater downtilt angle.

- The resulting gain reduction depends on azimuth direction

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 Typical Pattern of Electrical Downtilt

ELECTRIC

- Constant downtilt angle over the whole azimuth range.

- Horizontal half -power beam independent of downtilt angle

- Identical gain reduction for all azimuth directions.

4.9 – Mechanical Features

Antennas are always mounted at exposed sites. This requires that antennas are
designed to withstand the required mechanical loading. Vehicle antennas, for example,
must withstand a high wind velocity, vibrations, saloon washing and still fulfil a limited
wind noise requirement. Antennas for portable radio equipment are often exposed to il-
handling and sometimes even played with by the user. Base station antennas are
exposed to high wind speed, vibrations, ice, snow, a corrosive environment and, of
course, also extreme electrostatic loading via lightning.

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4.10 - Intermodulation

The evolution of the technology in mobile communications, especially of digital

transmissions (CDMA, TDMA, GSM), pushed another parameter as important into the
foreground: intermodulation.

WHAT IS INTERMODULATION?

Passive intermodulation is built up at the passive elements of the radio communications

system. Passive elements are duplexers filters, combiners, connectors, feeders,
antennas, etc. The intermodulation is generated at the non-linear discontinuity points of
the inferfaces.

The space for the aerials is normally limited at the tower of the base station. Thus forces
to combine several transmitter and receiver signals to the same feeding line and aerial.
High power simultaneous transmitter carriers have tendency to interact together at the
non-linear points causing intermodulation interference to the receiving channels. Poor
intermodulation characters may disturb receiving channels severely. Passive
intermodulation is related to the multiple transmitter duplex communication systems.

Non-linearity produces harmonic frequencies. Combinations with the fundamental and

their harmonic frequencies will produce intermodulation. All the removable contacts like
connectors are potential sources for intermodulation

Non-linearity sources of connectors can be for example:

• Ferromagnetic materials
• Non-linear dielectrics
• Dissimilar materials at the contact
• Oxidized or improper surface of the contact
• Inadequate contact and low contact pressure leading to micro -arcing
• Corrosion, dirt, dust, oil, grease, fingerprints

The intermodulation can be of various harmonics.

Example : 3ª, 5ª e 7 ª harmonic

How to calculate the 3ª harmonic with two frequencies F1 e F2?

IM3 = 2 x F1 – F2,

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 CALCULATION EXAMPLE

Typical:

Level IM7 = Level IM5 – 15 dB = Level IM3 – 15 dB

Level Tx = 20 W = 43 dBm

System sensibility : - 113 dBm

à IM7 < - 156 dBc

à IM5 < - 141 dBc

à IM3 < - 126 dBc better – 140 dBc !

Specified : - 150 dBc

Band – Rx : 835 – 849 MHz

Band – Tx : 880 – 894 MHz

f 1 : 880 MHz f 2 : 894 MHz

IM3 : 2 x f 1 – f 2 = 866 MHz

IM3 : 2 x f 1 – f 2 = 908 MHz

IM5 : 3 x f 1 – 2 x f 2 = 852 MHz

IM5 : 3 x f 1 – 2 x f 1 = 922 MHz

IM7 : 4 x f 1 – 3 x f 2 = 838 MHz

IM7 : 4 x f 2 – 3 x f 1 = 936 MHz

25
5 THE BASE STATION

The installation of a base station requires special attention!

Example of a Base Station and its principal components:

Antenna
AP13- 850/065
Jumper
Lightining
Arrestor

Clamp

Jumper

Duplexer
792 951

Shelter

Tower: The special attention starts with the tower needing an appropriate corros ive
protection, because corroded metal parts and screws increase the level of
intermodulation.

Antennas: Remember that the antenna is the most diffiult point to access in installation
and maintance; therefore quality, durability and reliability is a must.

Connectors: Connectors are always a descontinuing point of the radiating system.

Therefore the selection of connectors as well as assembling them to the cable needs
special skills and attention. Type N and DIN 7/16 connectors are currently available for
all types of coaxial cables.

The connectors have to be assembled to the cable following stricly the manufacturer
instructions and - when reccomended – sealed with shrink isolation tapes or tubes.

26
Jumpers : Jumpers are the connecting elements between the feeder cables on top to the
antennas as well as between the feeder cable and the equipment in the shelter. As
adaptable part of the cable run jumpers must be more flexible than the feeder cables.
Only flexible coax cable should be used; Jumpers made with standart coax cable with
its high rigidness do not attend this requirement; forced into the connections such
jumpers may cause distorcion to the tranmission parameters as well as intermodulation.
Systematic measurement of VSWR and Intermodulation after assembly garanteering a
quality jumper avoids problems after installation.

Lightning arrestor: This component protects the system against electrical discharges;
typically they are applied next to the antenna and close to the shelter.

Coaxial cable

Transmiss ion cables

In a coaxial cable the transmission circuit is formed by three functional elements:

inner conductor, dielectric and outer conductor. All three elements are concentric,
i.e. they have the same central axis. The materials and dimensions of these three
elements determine the transmission and the other electrical characteristics of the
coaxial cable. Any coaxial cable also have a plastic sheath around its outer
conductor and may have some other constructional elements depending on the
application of the cable.
Outer conductor

Dielectric Inner conductor

Functional elements of a coaxial cable

The power rating of a coaxial cable is defined as the input power at any specified
frequency, temperature and pressure which can be handled continuously when the
cable is terminated by a load corresponding to the characteristic impedance.
The limitation may either be the maximum permissible operating voltage of the
cable. Thus the power rating is divided into two categories:
- average power rating, limited by the maximum permissible inner conductor
temperature.
- peak power rating, limited by the maximum permissible operating voltage.

Feeder Cables

Feeder cables are used to connect the transmission equipment to the antenna. The
most common applications are:
- base stations for móbile networks (AMPS, TDMA, CDMA, GSM etc);
- radio link systems;
- satellite communications systems.

27
 The function of the feeder cable is to transmit signal power between the
transmission equipment and the antenna with sufficient performance.

The most important transmission criteria for cable selection are:

- attenuation
- return loss or VSWR
- power rating

Frequency 150 MHz 450 MHZ 900 Mhz 1800 Mhz 2100 Mhz
(Feeder length)
< 25 m ½” - 50 Ω ½” – 50 Ω ½” – 50 Ω ? ” – 50 Ω ? ” – 50 Ω
25 ... 50 m ½” - 50 Ω ? ” – 50 Ω ? ” – 50 Ω 1 ¼” – 50 Ω 1 ? ” – 50 Ω
50 ... 75 m ½” - 50 Ω ? ” – 50 Ω 1 ¼” – 50 Ω 1 ? ” – 50 Ω 2 ¼” – 50 Ω
75 ... 100 m ? ” – 50 Ω 1 ¼” – 50 Ω 1 ? ” – 50 Ω 2 ¼” – 50 Ω -
100 ... 150 m ? ” – 50 Ω 1 ? ” – 50 Ω - - -
> 150 m 1 ? ” – 50 Ω - - - -
Installation

In all stages of installation it is important to follow the installation instructions and

limiting values given by the manufacturer such as:
- minimum bending radius during pulling and in final bending;
- minimum installation temperature;
- maximum pulling force.
The minimum bending radius is defined in order to prevent damage of cable
structure during bending. Too sharp bending may cause cable kink which results
in local changes in characteristic impedance and cause distorcion to the
transmission. The limiting values depend on the cable construction and they are
given by the manufacturers for each cable type.

Clamps: A careful instalation uses a clamp every meter to fix the cable properly to the
tower.

Grounding: A very good grounding of the tower and shelter is needed.

Note: The lighting arrestors should be connected to the grounding with a grounding
strap.

Wall Gland: Special plate and rubber isolator to pass the cables inside the shelter
avoiding water inside the shelter.

Inside the Shelter: Usually another lightning arrestor is connected between the feeder
and the last jumper before getting into the system.

Duplexer : This equipment is installed whenever the same antenna is to be used for
transmission and reception at the same time. Phisic ally it is installed inside the shelter.

28
6 BASE STATION ANTENNAS
6.1 – Comparison of Groundplane and Dipoles

The classical omnidirecional λ/2 antennas are of a groundplane or λ /4 – skirt nature.

K 51 26 2
146 – 174 MHz
K 55 26 28
164 – 174 MHz

K 75 11 61
806 – 960 MHz

The names indicate how the antenna is decoupled from the mast.

29
In the first case a conductive plane is achieved via 3 counterweighted poles, in the other
case the decoupling is achieved by using a λ/4 skirt.
The second type however only works across a very limited bandwitdth, so that for
example three versions are needed to cover the 2 m band. The groundplane antenna
on the other hand can cover the complete frequency range because it is a wideband
antenna.

6.2 – The Influence of Reflections on Radiation Patterns

The vertical and horizontal radiation patterns normally given in antenna datasheets
apply only to a reflection-free environment (free space propagation).
For real installations, this condition is sometimes hard to fulfil. Existing obstructions
such as mas ts on flat roofs, or near buildings cause scattered signals, which effect the
free-space patterns of the antenna.

In certain directions the direct signal from the antenna is superimposed by at least one
further signal which has been created by reflectio ns (Fig. 1).

The resulting total vector depends on the amplitude and phase of the reflected wave.
The amplitude and phase is determined by the reflection performance of the obstruction
as well as the difference in distance (running time).

Antenna

Direct signal

Reflected signal
With phase difference

Obstruction

Fig. 1 : Occuring reflections

6.2.1 – Omnidirecional Antennas

Omni antennas radiate a constant power across the full azimuth. Disturbances of the
free-field conditions therefore have a particularly intensive influence on the horizontal
radiation pattern of the antenna.

This means that a real circular horizontal pattern can only be created if the antenna is
mounted on the tip of a mast. Mounting on the side of a mast, which usually consists of
a good reflecting material (steel, concret), changes the pattern considerably.

30
Decisive factors are the spacing between the mast and the antenna as well as the mast
dimensions.

Cylindrical masts

As far as a cylindrical mast is concerned, the calculation of the resulting radiation

pattern is relatively simple. The uncomplicated and symmetrical reflection surface
creates pattern shapes, which are useful for network planning, and vary with the
spacing to the mast.

In order to consider the resulting patterns independent of the operating frequency, the
mast diameter and the spacing to the mast are given in wavelengths λ

Radiation Patterns
Side-Mounted / Omni S
S
M
M

- Spacing ¼ λ

A spacing of 0.25 λ is most frequently used. A smaller spacing should not be chosen
due to an increasing and therefore worsening of the antenna’s VSWR.
The result is an offset pattern, whose front-to-back ratio varies with the mast diameter.
The original omni pattern has changed into a directional pattern with a roughly 2 dB
higher gain. (Look at the table).

Spacing Mast diameter 0.04 λ Mast diameter 0.6 λ

1/4 λ

31
 - Spacing 0,5 λ

An increase of the spacing to 0.5 λ creates a bi-directional pattern perpendicular to the

line antenna – mast, which becomes more characteristic with bigger mast diameters.
This pattern shape provides 2-3 dB more gain and is especialy suitable for the coverage
of motorways and railway lines.

Spacing Mast Diameter 0,04 λ Mast Diameter 0,6 λ

1/2 λ

- Spacing 3/4 λ

At a spacing of 0.75 λ a further beam grows in the direction of the antenna; a tri-
directional pattern is formed.

Spacing Mast Diameter 0,04 λ Mast Diameter 0,6 λ

3/4λ

32
 - Spacing 20 λ

The number of beams becomes greater and the depths of the corresponding minima
become smaller as the spacing is increased; the pattern changes back into an omni
characteristic. However the influence of the mast can still be recognized up to spacings
of 20-25 λ.

Spacing Mast Diameter 0,04λ Mast Diameter 0,6 λ

20 λ

Lattice tower

The radiation pattern of an omni antenna side-mounted on a lattice tower is much more
difficult to determine. Each tower leg, the bracing and existing ladders and cable traces
within the tower cause reflections. Therefore larger spacings to the mast always create
the risk of unexpected nulls in the pattern.

At smaller spacings (0.25 λ / 0.5 λ) the tower leg on which the antenna is mounted, is
mainly responsible for the pattern. The principal pattern shapes of „offset“ and „bi-
directional characteristic“ still exist, but compared to a cylindrical mast the patterns will
have certain irregularities and discontinuities.

6.2.2 – Directional Antennas with Pannel Reflectors

Directional antennas only radiate their power into certain space segments, and have a
corresponding front-to -back ratio of 20 dB or more. This means that the rearside
radiation is relatively low and reflective obstructions in this area only have a very small
influence on the radiation pattern.

Therefore, mast side-mounted directional antennas provide patterns which are very
close to free space propagation in accordance with the datasheet.

Wall Mounting

Frequently the antenna installation of cell networks and WLL is carried out on building
facades, which do not fit with the direction of the cells to be covered.

33
A large plane behind the antenna is thereby illuminated by a significantly broader range
of radiation with a power level, which is not sufficiently reduced to be able to neglect the
influences on the radiation pattern.
A rotation of the antenna increases the radiated power towards the wall and thus the
resulting reflections (Fig. 2).

Azimuth :

0° 20°
40°

Radiation
against the
Reflective
plane

Building fascade

Fig.2.: 65° directional antenna wall-mounted on a building

In the enclo sed pages, a series of calculated horizontal radiation patterns for this
mounting situation is shown. The spacing, the angle and the half power beam width of
the antenna have been individually varied.

The calculations consider the wall as ideally reflective. This corresponds to the real
situation, e.g. for concrete walls or aluminum covered facades.
This method of calculation cannot be applied to brick walls for example, as the factor of
reflection may vary on account of rain, etc.

According to the calculations (which have been confirmed by measurements), the

patterns are more and more damaged with increasing:
- spacing;
- angle;
- half power beam width;

The following criteria should therefore be considered with wall-mounting of directional

anrennas :
§ Spacing to the wall reduced to a minimum (small phase difference between the
direct and the reflected signal)
§ A maximum rotation angle of approx. 20° with reference to the wall perpendicular
§ A maximum horizontal half power beam width of 65°

34
Radiation Patterns Direction 0°

800 MHz
Wall-mounted
Directional Antenna S
Building fascade
Spacing

Panel 65° Panel 105°

10 mm
150 mm
300 mm
600 mm

35
Radiation Pattern
Direction 22.5°
800 MHz
Wall Mounted
Directional Antenna
r S
Building fascade
Spacing

Panel 65° Panel 105°

150 mm
300 mm
600 mm

36
Radiation Pattern
Direction 45°
800 MHz
Wall-Mounted
Directional Antenna
S
Building Fascade
S pacing

Panel 65° Panel 105°

150 mm
300 mm
600 mm

37
It is sometimes suggested to mount the antenna system on the building apex in order to
improve the above situation (Fig. 3). However this arrangement is not recommendable
for the following reasons:

a) The radiation patterns of both Rx-antennas are shadowed by the radial shift of the
Tx-antenna.
b-) Mirror imaged reflections create unequal Rx radiation patterns, which have a
negative influence on the diversity performance of the system!

Rx1 Tx

Building Top View

Rx2

Fig 3:Mounting on a building apex

Mounting above a reflective plane

Antennas are frequently mounted on flat roofs. The recommended location for this kind
of installation is the roof`s edge, but for optical reasons the antennas are sometimes
placed within the roof plane for example on the top of an elevator shaft (Fig. 4).

elevator

Building side view

Fig. 4: Mounting on a reflective flat roof

38
Depending on the half-power beam-width of the vertical pattern, the plane between the
antenna and the roof`s edge creates reflections, which cause an uptilt of the resulting
final pattern.
To avoid this effect, the radiated power towards the roof must be limited, that means the
antenna has to be mounted with a sufficient height above the roof.

In practice the following rule of thumb is approved :

The radiated power towards the roof plane should be more than 10 dB less than the
maximum radiated power of the main beam !

Max. Power
(main direction)
α = 12°

Power: -10 dB

Fig. 5 : Vertical Radiation pattern of Antenna AP13 – 850 / 065

Gain 15.5 dBi
Horizontal half power beam width : 65°
Vertical half power beam width: 13°

The vertical radiation pattern of Fig. 5 belongs to a standard celular system – 800 Mhz -
antenna. The radia ted power (gain) is reduced by 10 dB at an angle α of 12° with
respect to the maximum power. The required antenna height can then be calculated
according to the geometrical relationship as described in Fig.6.

39
 L
α
H = L x tan α
elevator

Building side view

Fig. 6 : Calculation of the antenna mounting height

Example:

For a spacing L of 14 m to the roof edge the antenna height must be at least 3m above
the roof.

6.2.3 – Additional Effects with X-Pol Antennas

So far the effects on vertical polarized antennas have been discussed. These kind of
antennas are a standard in 900 MHz and 1800 MHz mobile communication networks
using space diversity.
The latest technology of polarization diversity systems base on so-called X-pol
antennas, which provide two slanted polarizations at an angle of +45° and -45°.

These polarizations can be seperated into vertical and horizontal components of equal
amplitude. Depending on the orientation of the obstructions, these components are
effected differently. Vertically orientated structures such as towers or building fascades
will have a higher influence on the vertical component, while a flat roof will change the
horizontal component more.

Therefore reflections do not only destroy the radiation patterns of X-Pol antennas but
the polarisation direction as well, which may result in a reduced diversity performance.

6.2.4 - Conclusion

Antenna site planning should consider the aspect of a reflection-free radiation. If

reflexions are expected due to existing obstructions, it is recommended to consider the
possible qualitative effects on performance.

40
 6.2.5 – Calculating HPBW Touchdown Point

70º

60,96 m

Soil

87,06 m

Formula (*) :

Distance = H / tang ( HPBW / 2 )

H = Height of antenna from the ground (m)

HPBW = Vertical half-power beamwidth (deg)

Example:

70º (HPBW) / 2 = 35
tang(35) = 0,7002

Distance = 60,96 m / 0,7002 = 87,06 m

(*) This formula is for level terrain calculations only.

41
6.3 – Broadside Arrays

Directional antennas whose mechanical features are orthogonal to the main radiation
beam are called “Broadside Arrays”.
Panels and corner reflector antennas are typical for this type.

K 73 12 21
400 – 700 MHz

730 684
890 – 960 MHz

Panels and corner reflector antennas are typical fo'r this type (Fig.l4).
Panel antennas are made up of several dip oles mounted in front of a reflector so that
gain can be achieved from both the horizontal and vertical plane. This type of antenna is
very well suited for antenna combinations. The reflector plate of a corner reflector
antenna is, as the name suggests, not straight but bent forwards. The chosen angle
influences the horizontal half-power-beamwidth, normaily the angle is 90 o. The corner

42
reflector antenna is only used singly, for example: for the coverage of railway lines and
motorways.

Special applications which cannot be realized by using a single antenna are very often
achieved via antenna combinations. The combination is made up of several single
antennas and a distribution system (power splitter and connecting cable). Very often a
combination is designed in order to achieve a higher gain.

Many different antennas are also used to achieve a wide range of horizontal radiation
characteristics by varying the number of antennas, the azimuth direction, the spacing,
the phase and the power ratio. Figure below shows 3 single examples.

Distance A = 20 mm
947 MHz
Antenna 730 360

43
A quase-omnidirecional pattern can also be produced. The required number of
antennas increases with the diameter of the tower. For examples 8 panels are required
at 900 MHz for a mast with a diameter of approximately 1.5 m.

The calculation of such radiation patterns is achieved via vector addition of the
amplitude and phase of each antenna. The amplitude of each pattern can be read from
the data sheet but the phase is only known by the antenna manufacter. However the
phase is the most important factor for the calculation because a rough estimate using
only the amplitude can lead to completely incorrect results.

44
7 PARTICULAR TECHNIQUES USED IN CELLULAR SYSTEM

7.1 - Diversity

Diversity is used to increase the signal level from the mobile to the base station (uplink).
The problem with this path is the fact that the mobile telephone only works with low
power and a short antenna. Diversity is applied on the reception side of the base
station.
A transmitted signal extremly rarely reaches the user via the most direct route. The
received signal is very often a combination of direct and reflected electromagnetic
waves.

The reflected waves have differing phase and polarization characteristics.

As a result there may be an amplification or in extreme cases a cancelling of the signal
at specific locations. It is not unknown, that the reception field strength may vary 20-30
dB within several meters.
Operation in a canyon-like street is often only possible by using these reflections. These
reflections from buildings, masts or trees are especially common, because mobile
communications predominantly uses vertical polarlzation.

45
 7.2 – Space Diversity

This system consists of two reception antennas spaced a distance apart. One antenna
has a certain field strength profile with maxima and minima from its coverage area, the
other antenna has a completely different field strength profile although only spaced a
few meters away. Ideally the minima of one antenna will be completely compensated by
the maxima of the other

Level Signal
signal
in dB Signal
Composed signal

Distance

The improvement in the average signal level achieved with this method is called
diversity-gain.

Diversity antennas are not RF-combined because this would lead to an unfavourable
radiation characteristic. Both antennnas function separately on different reception paths,
whereby the higher signal per channel and antenna is chosen by the base station.

46
7.3 – Omni Base Station

This typical Omni Base Station is made up of 3 antennas.

- one transmitting antenna (TX)

- two receiving antennas (RX)

The transmitting antenna is mounted higher and in the middle in order to guarantee a
cleaner omni-directional characteristic. Furthermore the influence of the Rx and Tx
antennas on each other is reduced (higher isolation). The two receiving antennas are
spaced at 12-20 λ to achieve a diversity gain of 4 -6 d B.

47
7.4 – Sectored Base Station

Omni base stations are mainly installed in regions with a relatively low number of
subscribers. For capacity reasons the communications cell is divided into 3 sectors of
120 o in urban areas. Directional antennas, for example panels, are used to cover these
sectors. All 3 antennas per sector can be mounted at the same height because
directional antennas have higher isoiation in comparison to omnidirectional antennas.

7.5 – Polarization Diversity

The reflections which take place within urban areas are not all of the same polarization,
i.e. horizontal components also exist. Furthermore a moibile telephone is never held
exactly upright which means that all polarizations between vertical and horizontal are
possible. It is therefore logical that these signals be also used. Space diversity uses 2
vertically polarized antennas as reception antennas and compares the signal level.
Polarization diversity uses 2 orthogonally polarized antennas and compares the
resulting signals.

7.6 – Horizontal and Vertical Polarization

The dipoles of both antenna systems are horizontally and vertically polarized
respectively. A spacial separation is not necessary which means that the differently
polarized dipoles can be mounted in a common housing. Sufficient isolation can be
achieved even if the dipoles are interlocked into one unit so that the dimensions of a
dual-polarized antenna are not greater than that of a normal polarized antenna.

7.7 - Dual Polarization Antennas

It is well known that in a cellular network móbile phones have considerably lower
transmission power than the transmitters of the base stations. This means that the
transmission from the mobile phone to the base station (Uplink) is much more
unfavourable in relation to the transmission from the base station to the mobile phone
(Downlink). To compensate this, a way of improving the quality of reception at base
stations had to be found.

Due to the multi-path signal propagation of radio signals, which particularly occurs in
urban areas, so called Space Diversity Reception has been introduced which provides
goods results in the field.

Space Diversity Reception is based on the following Idea:

The signal transmitted by a mobile phone is multi-reflected in the propagation field and
reaches the base station via different paths. The resulting signal at the base station
receiving antenna is the sum of various vectors with different amplitudes, phases and
polarizations.

48
If two receiving antennas are located at certain horizontal (or vertical) distance then it is
highly likely that one of them will provide the required signal strength (principle of
uncorrelated signals). A logic unit permanently ensures that the higher signal level of
the two receiving antennas is fed into the receiving system.

Depending on the individual situation in the propagation área, the use of a Space
Diversity Receiving System will produce a divesity gain of 3-5 dB, as compared to using
only one single receiving antenna.

fig. 1: Sector antenna system using Space Diversity Reception

3 antennas, 3 feeders

The space diversity antenna configuration certainly provides good electrical results, but
the number of antennas required is a negative factor with regard to the resulting optical
appearance, the increased space requirements and the greater amount of mechanical
hardware and feeder cables needed.

In view of the great difficulties involved in trying to obtain permission from the authorities
concerned and also in getting approval from property owners for the installation of
antenna systems, an advanced antenna system with a low-level optical impact had to
be found.

Extensive investigations and trials have shown that so-called Polarization Diversity
Reception is equivalent to or almost equivalent to Space Diversity reception.
Polarization Diversity Reception means that the reception levels of two orthogonally
polarized antennas are compared and then the stronger signal is led to the receiver.

49
The object of development was to design dual-polarized antennas that have the same
outer dimensions as single polarized antennas and also equivalent gain figures and
radiation patterns. The number of individuall antennas can thereby be considerably
reduced, resulting in improved optical appearance, reduced space requirements and
less mechanical hardware required.

Fig. 2: Sector antenna system with Polarization Diversity Reception

2 antennas, 3 feeders

50
 Duplexador
Duplexer

Tx1 Rx1 Rx2

Fig. 3: Sector antenna system with Polarization Diversity Reception using a duplex filter,
1 antenna, 2 feeders, 1 duplexer

Generally it can be Said, and this of course also applies to dual-polarized antennas, that
the isolation between neighbouring transmiting antennas, as well as between a
transmiting antenna and a receiving antenna, must amount to at least 30 dB in order to
avoid:

- Interfering intermodulation products;

- Blocking of the receivers;
- The activation of the transmitter´s VSWR monitoring system by an adjacent
transmitter;

Initially dual-polarized antennas with horizontal and vertical polarization were preferred
since this antenna concept easily provides the required 30 dB isolation figure between
the horizontally polarized system and the vertically polarized system.

Practical results with horizontal/ vertical dual-polarized antennas are fairly positive.
However, there is also a weakness.
Since the mobile station antennas (i.e. on cars or mobile phones) mainly operate in a
vertically polarized mode, the propagation efficiency is more favourable to the vertical
system of a horizontal/ vertical dual-polarized base station antenna than to the
horizontal system. Thus horizontal polarization is not really suitable for transmitting
purposes.

51
However, with +45º/-45º dual-polarized antennas both systems are equivalent as
regards their propagation efficiency. The two systems can therefore also be used with
good results for transmitting and receiving purposes. Moreover, this antenna concept
allows simultaneous transmission from two transmitter without the use of a transmitter
combiner.

Duplexador
Duplexer Duplexador
Duplexer

Tx1 Rx 1A + Rx2A Tx 2 Rx1B + Rx 2B

fig. 4: X-polarized antenna for 2 transmitting and 2 receiving channels

1 antenna, 2 feeders, 2 duplexers

Radiation patterns and half power beam widths of X-pol antennas

Vertically or horizontally polarized antennas show Constant polarization regardless of

the azimuth angle at which the antenna is observed.

However the polarization of a 45º polarized antenna is not always 45º, it varies with the
azimuth angle.

This concept is easy to understand if one considers the angles of orientation when a
slanted dipole is viewed from different perspectives.

52
A dipole which is set at a slant of +45º when viewed from the front will appear to be
vertically polarized when viewed from the side.

+45º polarized
Polarizado c/ + 45 o
Vertically
Polarizado
polarized
Verticalmente

-45º c/ - 45 o
polarized
Polarizado

Dipole
Dipolo

fig. 5: Varying polarization of a dipole set at a slant of 45º.

The vector of the radiated electrical field strength is fully descibed by a pair of two
orthogonal vector components, in other words, the vector is described by a rectangular
coordinate system.

According to Fig. 6, any field strength vector can be described either by a coordinate
system, defined by the EV vector and EH vector, or with the same preciseness by a
coordinate system defined by the E+45 o vector and the E -45o vector.

Vertical

+45o

E+45o

EV

45o

α Horizontal

EH
E-45o

-45 o

fig. 6: Polarization: EH=EV=E +45o- 3dB, E-45o=0

Separation of a vector E into orthogonal components

53
This means that the exactness of the 45º polarization of na X-polarized antenna can be
tested by measuring the radiation pattern in vertical polarization and in horizonal
polarization and in – 45º polarization.
If the field strength vector is exactly +45º, the co-polar value is 100% and the cross -
polar value is 0%.

In other words, if the polarization is almost to 45º, the radiation patterns measured in
vertical polarization Ev and in horizontal polarization EH will also be quite close to each
other, or referring to the second coordinate system, the cross-polar value E-45o of the
field strength will be much smaller than the co-polar one E+45 o.

If the polarization is exactly 45º, then the half power beam widths of the radiation
patterns measured in vertical polarization and in horizontal polarization are all of
the same value.

7.8 Kathrein´s Dipole Based Xpol-Antenna Design

7.8.1 General Description

Electrical:
Xpol antennas consist of two independently working slanted dipole systems, one for
+45º polarization and the other for –45º polarization.
The dipoles are symmetrically positioned in front of a reflector screen. Both the power
distribution and the impedance transformation are carried out by a low loss cable
harness. Additional elements for beam -shaping and isolation perfect the design.

Mechanical:
The radome consist of a completely closed self-supporting fiber-glass profile, into which
the metal parts are inserted.There are no drill-holes at all in the profile, which is closed
by two end caps with short sealing rings. This concept offers ideal permanent protection
against environmental influences and increases the mechanical stability.

The improved separation of the electrical and the mechanical function facilitates the
optimization of particular performances.

7.8.2 Outstanding Characteristics

Symmetrical construction

Xpol antennas are available with horizontal half power beam widths of 65º and 90º.
Starting from a standard vertical polarized antenna, the required dipole-pair for 65º and
the single dipole for 90º are rotated by +45º and –45º, resulting in orthogonal
polarizations (see fig. 1)

54
While the dipoles of the 90º type form an “X” on which the expression Xpol antenna is
based, the basic 65º dipole system is a rhomb.

Both designs are fully symmetrical referred to the center line of the reflector screen,
which is the basic condition for symmetrical horizontal radiation patterns.

65° Half-power Beam Width 90° Half-power Beam Width

Reflector

Dipole
system

Feeding
harness

-45° +45° -45° +45°

Fig. 1 : General construction of Xpol-antennas

Beam - shaping

The dipole technology offers a high flexibility in modeling the radiation patterns.
Beam width and shape are defined by the dipole position to the reflector and the
reflector dimensions. Particular the vertical edges of the reflector screen have a decisive
influence on vertically polarized components.

So the quality of the resulting pattern is improved regarding sidelobes and gain, and the
required number of single elements is minimized. (see item “Low-loss power distribution
by cables).

In addition, with the separate adjustability of the vertical and the horiz ontal components,
the resulting polarizations are controllable.

Orthogonal polarizations provide the best polarization diversity gain results, therefore
the horizontal radiation patterns for the vertical and the horizontal component are
standard measurements for Xpol antennas.

55
If the patterns half power beam widths and thereby the gain values resp. the amplitudes
are identical, the polarizations are orientated +/- 45º and consequently orthogonal. (fig.
2)

a) Equal amplitudes (V=1/H=1) à orthogonal polarizations

+45° -45° 90°

V V

H -H

b) Different amplitudes (V=1/H=0.7) à non-orthogonal polarizations

70°

+35° V V -35°

H -H

Fig. 2 : Vertical (V) and horizontal (H) components and resulting polarizations

A perfect polarization orthogonally results in a high cross-polar ratio (CPR), which is

determined by measuring the horizontal radiation patterns with the operating
polarizations +45º and –45º.
The CPR compares the level difference between the similar polarized signals (co-polar)
and the dissimilar polarized signals (cross-polar) of the radiated wave. A high CPR
stands for a high uncorrelation of the two signals and consequently fo a good
polarization diversity performance.

The dipole design provides excellent values also apart from the main direction
(coverage sector width +/- 60º) and even at +/- 90º.

High isolation between the two antenna systems

The polarization diversity technology assigns both systems of an Xpol-antenna to work

in the Rx and Tx mode simultaneously. Therefore a minimum isolation of 30 dB
between the antenna inputs is required.
Kathrein´s dipole design guarantees a min. isolation of 32 dB. Measurements of each
antenna during the production show a typical value of 35 dB!

56
Low-loss Power Distribution by Cables

Low-loss flexible semi-rigid coax cables distribute the power to each dipole and take
care of the impedance transformation. The diameter of the cables (and the
corresponding attenuation) varies with the application, diameters of 0.250”, 0.141” and
0.085” are in operation.

This system produces only a minimal attenuation, which will become apparent by
comparison it with a printed circuit solution. As a standard the corresponding cross -
section of the conductive lines is between the 0.085” and the 0.141” cable.

In addition these lines are open and radiate a part of the power, which causes further
losses.

Another advantage of the cable harness is the flexibility regarding versions with
electrical downtilt. The required variation of the phase relations between the radiating
elements is carried out easily by changing the length of the cables. It is not necessary to
redesign the entire antenna.

Low Intermodulation Products

Since more than 15 years Kathrein is doing research on the reduction of intermodulation
(IM) products. There was already a self-designed measuring device for IM products at
450 MHz with a dynamic ra nge of 160 dB in operation, when such a device was not
available on the market.

The extremely valuable experiences flowed into the antenna design and determine for
example the applied material, the possible material combinations and how a contact
between two parts should look like.

Kathrein antennas provide a typical 3rd order Im -products attenuation of –150 dBc
using two transmitters with an output power of 20 W (43 dBm) each.

Continuance of the Electrical Parameters against Enviromental Influences

Antennas are confronted with all the envvironmental influences such as cold and hot
temperatures, rain, ice, snow, lightning and high Wind velocities. KATHREIN antennas
are well prepared, the mechanical design is based on the environmental conditions to
ETS 300 019-1-4.

Regarding the deviation of the electrical parameters, especially rain, ice and snow on
the radome may cause problem because of their dielectric parameters. Due to the fact
that the antenna depths became smaller and smaller, this dielectric load is very close to
the radiating elements, working as an additional capacity. Consequently the operational
frequency range is shifted, which goes together with the deterioration of electrical
parameters like VSWR, isolation and CPR.

57
The KATHREIN dipole technology is highly resistant against rain, ice and snow. Dipoles
are very slim structures with a small surface and therefore the ocurring additional
capacity is relatively low.

Due to their larger surface, the capacity influence on patches is much higher. For
example, a wet radome can change the isolation of a patch antenna significantly, while
a dipole antenna reacts much more good natured.

7.8.3 - Typical Measurements

The following antenna parameters have a decisive influence on the network and are
important for the judgement of antennas:

- Half power beam width for co-polar polarization;

- Half power beam width for vertical/ horizontal polarization;
- Front-to-back ratio – co-polar;
- Front-to-back ratio – total power;
- Cross-polar ratio.

For a high cross-polar attenuation the half-power beam-widths of the three polarization
components co-polar, vertical and horizontal are similar. This feature is perfectlly
performed by Kathrein´s Xpol-antennas and consequently there is no need for network
planning reasons to differentiate between the above polarization components.

These measurements also provide the front-to-back ratio, which is na important feature
for the network planning. The front-to-back ratio can be determined as the worst case of
either the vertical or the horizontal polarized components. It is only required to calculate
the total power, if the two components have similar levels. In case of identical levels, the
total power value is 3 dB less compared to the individual components. Xpol dipole
antennas provide typical front-to-back ratios of 24-30 dB total power.

The following figures show the co-polar and cross -polar as well as the vertical and
horizontal polarized patterns of 65º and 90º antennas

Beside the symmetry of the patterns, the scalar printout with a linear scale in dB shows
clearly the cross -polar ratio in each azimuth direction. The dipole design provides
excellent values also apart from the main direction and even at +/- 90º! Please note as
well the high front-to-back ratio for the co-polar and the cross-polar signal.

58
 XPol A-Panel 800/900 65° 17dBi
horizontal radiation pattern
120°-sector
0
co-pol
-5
cross-pol
relative gain [dB]

-10
-15
-20
-25
-30
-35
-40
-180 -120 -60 0 60 120 180
azimuth [deg]

Fig. 3 : Typical horizontal co -polar and cross-polar pattern for 65º beam width (measurements)

XPol A-Panel 800/900 65° 17dBi

horizontal radiation pattern
120°-sector
0
hor. polarized
-5
vert. polarized
relative gain [dB]

-10
-15
-20
-25
-30
-35
-40
-180 -120 -60 0 60 120 180
azimuth [deg]

Fig. 4 : Typical 65º horizontal pattern of vertical and horizontal polarized compent
(measurement)

59
 XPol A-Panel 800/900 90° 17dBi
horizontal radiation pattern
120°-sector
0
co-pol
-5
cross-pol
-10
relative gain [dB]

-15

-20

-25

-30

-35

-40
-180 -120 -60 0 60 120 180
azimuth [deg]

Fig. 5 : Typical horizontal co -polar and cross-polar pattern for 90º beam width (measurement)

XPol A-Panel 800/900 90° 17dBi

horizontal radiation pattern
120°-sector
0
hor. polarized
-5
vert. polarized
relative gain [dB]

-10

-15
-20

-25
-30

-35
-40
-180 -120 -60 0 60 120 180
azimuth [deg]

Fig. 6 : Typical 90º horizontal pattern of vertical and horizontal polarized components
(measurement)

60
7.8.4 - CPR against Azimuth

As already mentioned, the dipole design provides excellent CPR values not only in main
direction but even at +/- 90º. It´s important for the coverage of a standard sector, to rely
on high CPR values and consequently on high diversity gains also at the sector edges ,
where the antenna gain is already considerably reduced.

XPol A-Panel 800/900 65° 17dBi

Cross Polar Ratio
120°-sector
30

25

20
CPR [dB]

15

10

0
-90 -60 -30 0 30 60 90
azimuth [deg]

Fig. 7 : CPR values against azimuth (according patterns fig. 3 and 4)

61
8 SPECIAL APPLICATIONS

8.1 Indoor Coverage System

With the public wireless cellular systems and the need of calling and talking from
everywhere a real challenge for all operators is to cover large indoor areas such as
Shopping, malls, buildings, parking lots, etc.

This indoor coverage was made possible by using microcells, repeaters and bi-
directional amplifiers which are connected to small discreet antennas displayed in
strategic spots to capture and send signals from inside to outside.

Typical example of indoor distribution with discreet antennas.

Outdoor antenna

Repeater

Coupler

Level 3
Indoor antenna
738 749

Level 2

Level 1
738 573

62
8.2 Splitters

Low-loss power splitters and tappers are used for combining antennas to obtain
particular radiation patterns or to set up indoor distribution networks.

- Low-loss coaxial-line transformation

- high power rating
- equal (splitters) or unequal (tappers) power rating
- suitability for indoor and outdoor use
- extremely small dimensions
- multi-band versions for 800-2200 MHz

63
8.3 Duplexers

Duplexers are filters with ressonant cavities was the principal function to isolate two
frequencies or frequency beam widths from each other.
To this device the antenna is connected to its output and on the inputs the transmitter
and receiver are connected, each to its designated port.

Antenna

Transmitter Receiver

This way it is possible to transmit and receive radio frequency signals with only one
antenna.
Special requirements to choose a best fitting duplexer are:

- Maximum input power;

- Frequency spacing between Tx and Rx. I.e. for 800 MHz celullar 45 MHz spacing;
- Isolation between Tx and Rx. A good duplexer has it better than 70 dB;
- Special attention to the intermodulation specifications.

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 GLOSSARY

ACI - Adjacent Channel Interference: Interference caused in a channel by its adjacent

channel.

A / D: Conversion from Analog to Digital.

Adjacent Channel: Near channel next or behind.

AGC - Automatic Gain Control: A feedback control circuit which maintains the gain or
output power level of an amplifier constant over a wide range of input signals levels.

Airtime: Time spent on a cellular phone call, which is usually billed to the subscriber on
a per minute basis.

Amplifier: Device increasing the intensity of a signal.

AMPS - Advanced Mobile Phone System: Standard for analog cellular phone systems.

Analog: Continuously varying electrical signal in the shape of a wave, transmitted

electronically in a form analogous to the spoken word; a form of information which is
represented by continuous wave forms which vary as the source varies.

Analog Driver: An accessory circuit for an oscillator of filter which permits its frequency
to be changed by a continuously varying signal.

ANSI - American National Standard Institute (EUA).

Attenuation: Decrease of the power signal expressed in dB. The reduction of a signal
from one point to another. For an electrical surge, attenuation refers to the reduction of
an incoming surge by a limiter (attenuator). Wire resistance, arresters, power
conditioners attenuate surges to varying degrees.

Attenuator: Component that causes attenuation of a signal.

Azimuth: Angular diference measured against the horizon.

Band: A certain frequency range of the electromagnetic spectrum.

A Band: Frequencies alocated for the public wireless system in USA and South
American Countries in 800 MHz. Rx – 824-835 MHz (ERB), Tx – 869-880 MHz

B Band: Frequencies alocated for the public wireless system in USA and South
American countries in 800 MHz. Rx – 835-849 MHz (ERB), Tx – 880-894 MHz

Bandwidth: Range of frequencies a transmission line or channel can carry: the larger
the bandwidth, the larger the information - carrying capacity of a channel. For a digital

65
channel this is defined in bit/s. For an analog channel it is dependent on the type and
method of modulation used to encode the data.

3 dB Bandwidth: The frequency span (in Mhz) between the points on the selectivity
curve at which the insertion loss is more than3 dB greater than the minimum insertion
loss. Also called 3 dB passband.

Base Station: Fixed transmitter/receiver with which a mobile radio transceiver

establishes a communication link to gain access to the public -switched telephone
network.

Baud: Measure of signal changes per second. Often used incorrectly instead of bps
(bits per second)..

Beam: Main lobe where most of the energy is concentrated.

BER - Bit Error Rate.

Bidirectional: Network that allows signal traffic simultaneously in two directions.

BIT/BITE: Built-in Test/Built-in Test Equipment - Some products have provisions for
connection to customer-supplied test or test equipment that is a part of the system in
which the products are used. Generally, a military/aerospace term for equipment that
contains an automatic self-testing function.

Broadband: Technologies communications channels that are capable of carrying a

wide range of frequencies. Broadcast television, cable television, microwave and
satellite are examples of broadband technologies. These technologies are capable of
carrying a great deal of information in a short amount of time, but are more expensive in
use than technologies like telephone which require less bandwidth.

Cable Loss: Reduction of the signal level/ power through the internal resistance of
the cable.

Carrier: A high-frequency radio signal which is modulated to carry information at long

distances through space or via cable.

Carrier signal: The underlying frequency or frequencies that are to carry information.
They are modulated through one or more modulation techniques to impose information

Cavity: Metallic enclosure to resonate at a desired frequency. Primarily used to

describe a cavity filter, which is a highly-selective tuning element that may be used as
the frequency-determining element of an oscillator or as a lowpass, bandpass or
highpass filter. Generally of fixed frequency or mechanically tunable over a very limited
frequency range.

CCITT - Consultative Committee for International Telephony and Telegraphy

66
CDMA - Code-Division Multiple-Access : A digital technology using a low -power signal
"spread" across a wide band-width. With CDMA a phone call is assigned a code instead
of a frequency. Using the identifying code and a low power signal, a large number of
callers can use the same transmission group of channels. The Telecommunications
Industry Association (TIA) has awarded CDMA interim standard approval (IS-95).

CDPD - Cellular Digital Packet Data

Cell: The geographic area served by a single low-power transmitter/receiver. The area
of service of a system is divided into multiple “ cells”.

Cellsite: Place/ installation of a Radio -Base-Station.

Channel: The width of the spectrum band taken up by a radio signal, usually measured
in kilohertz (kHz). Most analog cellular phones use 30-kHz channel.

Channel Capacity: The maximum number of channels that can be distributed in a

system.

Circuit: Interconnection of the number of electrical elements and/or devices, performing

desired electrical function.

CNR - Carrier-to-Noise Ratio : Value that quantifies the quality of a signal.

Coax Cable: Cable to conduct signals in a shielded environment, composed of internal

conductor covered by an isolator/ dieletric and outer conductor.

Convergence: Technical and market tendency of integrating various different services

such as voice, vídeo and data transfer.

Conversion Loss: The ratio (in dB) of the intermediate frequency output power of a
mixer to the RF input power. All conversion loss measurements and specifications are
normally based on the mixer being installed in a system with wideband 50 resistive
terminations on all ports and a stated low output signal power level being applied.

Cross Modulation Distortion: The amount of modulation impressed on an

unmodulated carrier when a signal is simultaneously applied to the radio frequency port
of a mixer under specified operating conditions. The tendency of a mixer to produce
cross modulation is decreased with an increase in conversion compression point and
intercept point.

CW - Continuous Wave: Signal of constant amplitude.

D / A: Conversion from Digital to Analog.

dB (Decibel): A unit of gain equal to ten times the common logarithm of the ratio of two
power levels or 20 times the common logarithm of the ratio of two voltage levels.

dBc: Decibel related to the signal carrier level

67
dBi: Measured in dB reference to an isotropic source ( eg.: antenna ).

dBm: Decibels related to 1mW - the standard unit of power level used in microwave
work. For example, 0dBm= 1mW, +10 dBm = 10mW, +20dBm=100 mW, etc.

dBw: Measured gain or loss in dB of the power of an equipment.

DC - Directional Coupler

DCC - Digital Cross Connection

Demodulation: Recovery of an original signal transmitted modulated.

Digital: Digital signals, including pictures, sounds or computer data, are represented by
a code of "on" and "off' signals. Since this system ignores all but these two signals, it is
more precise and less susceptible to interference than the analog system.

Digital Compression: Compression technique of digital signals where equal and

redundant bits are agregated, reducing the bandwidth needed to transmit the
information.

Digital Driver: Accessory circuit for an oscillator or filter which permits its frequency to
be varied by changing a digital "word." A digital driver is also an accessory circuit
interfacing a switch or attenuator to a digital command circuit.

Digital Modulation: Method of transmitting a human voice using the computer's binary
code. Digital transmission offers a cleaner signal than analog technology. Cellular
systems providing digital transmission are currently in operation in several locations.

Digital Signalling: An electrical signal in which the signal state is discontinuous with
time and is characterized by abrupt changes. The conversion of voice or data into a
stream of binary information for transmission to a remote location, as opposed to
Analog Signalling.

Digital Transmission: A code of discrete binary signals (on and off; zero and one, high
and low, etc.), as opposed to continuously variable analog type signals. Digital
transmission is expressed by numbers of bits per second, or data rate.

Downlink: Signal from antenna/ base-station to cellular handset.

Downtilt: Inclination of main lobe of antenna.

DSP - Digital Signal Processing (or Processors).

EAMPS - Expanded Advanced Mobile Phone Service.

EIA - Eletronic Industries Association ( USA).

EIRP – Effective Isotropic Radiated Power.

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E-TDMA - Enhanced TDMA Access

ETSI - European Telecommunications Standards Institute.

FCC - Federal Communications Commission. The U.S. government agency responsible

for allocation of radio spectrum for communication services.

FDM – Frequency Division Multiplexing.

Feeders: Transmission lines supplying power to a distribution system.

Frequency: The rate at which a current alternates on a telecommunications medium,

measured in Hertz (Hz).

Frequency Range: Usually presented as the minimum and maximum frequencies

between which a particular component will meet all guaranteed specifications.

GSM - Global Systems for Mobile Communications (originally called the Groupe
Speciale Mobile). Digital cellular standard for Europe; widespread also in Africa and
Asia; few systems in the America.

Handoff: Cellular systems are designed so that a phone call can be initiated in one cell
and continued in other cells. The transfer to the next cell, called a handoff, is designed
to be transparent to the cellular phone user. During a cellular conversation, assign,
computers in the network assign another tower in the next cell to provide the phone with
continuing service.

Harmonic Intermodulation Distortion: Ratio (in dB) of distortion to the intermediate

frequency output waveform caused by mixer-generated harmonics of the radio
frequency and low output input signals.

Harmonic Signals: Signals which are coherently related to the output frequency. In
general, these signals are integer multiples of the output frequency.

Hertz (Hz): Unit of measuring frequency signals (one cycle per second).

HF – High Frequency

IF - Intermediate Frequency: In superheterodyne receiving systems, the frequency to

which all selected signals are converted for additional amplification, filtering and
eventual direction.

Impedance: Forces which resist current flow in A.C. circuits, i.e. resistance, inductive
reactance, capacitive reactance.

IN – Intermodulation Noise

Insertion Loss: Transmission loss measured in dB at that point in the passband which
exhibits the minimum value.

69
ISO - International Standards Organization

Isolator: Device that permits microwave energy to pass in one direction while providing
high isolation to reflected energy in the reverse direction. Used primarily at the input of
communications-band microwave amplifiers to provide good reverse isolation and
minimize VSWR. Consists of microwave circulator with one port (port 3) termin ated in
the characteristic impedance.

Modulation: Imposing na information signal on a provider signal by changing the

signal´s frequency, amplitude and/ or phase.

N-AMPS - Narrowband Advanced Mobile Phone Services

Output Power: The minimum and/or maximum output power at the output frequency
under all specified conditions. Usually the specified conditions are temperature, load,
VSWR and supply voltage variations. It is typically expressed in dBm or milliwatts (mW).

PCS – Personal Communication System (3rd generation of Cellular Systems).

Power Divider: A passive resistive network which equally divides power applied to the
input port between any particular number of output ports without substantially affecting
the phase relationship or causing distortion.

Return Loss: When expressed in dB is the ratio of reflected power to incident power. It
is a measure of the amount of reflected power on a transmission line when it is
terminated or connected to any passive or active device. Once measured, it can be
converted by equation to reflection coefficient which can be converted to VSWR.

RF - Radio Frequency: Generally referring to any frequencies at which the radiation of

electromagnetic energy is possible.

Roaming: Using a cellular phone in another area than the one in which it is subscribed.

S / N (Signal-to-Noise Ratio): The ratio of noise to actual total signal, and it shows how
much higher the signal level is than the level of noise. It is expressed in decibels (dB)
and the bigger the value is, the more crisp and clear the picture and sound will be
during playback.

SCC - Switching and Control Center.

Sensitivity: The normalized change in YIG component's center frequency resulting

from a change in tuning coil current, specified in MHz/mA.

Signal loss: Weakening (or attenuation) of a signal, measured in decibels.

Simplex: Network that transmits in only one direction only.

TDMA - Time Division Multiple Access: Digital transmission standard based on time
division access.

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Trunk: A large-capacity, long-distance channel used by a common carrier to transfer
information between its customers.
VSWR – Voltage Standing Wave Radio : Relation of the stationary wave in relation to
the output power and the reflected power.

Wave lenght: Distance of one cicle wave calculated by dividing the propagation speed
by its frequency.

WLL - Wireless Local Loop: Fixed wireless telephone system.

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NOTES

72