14/10/2019

DISTANCE MEASUREMENT

Mohd Effendi Daud (Assoc. Prof., Sr., Dr.Sc)

B.Surv (UTM, Malaysia) Msc (UTM, Malaysia), Dr.Sc, (Nagoya Univ., Japan)
(Geomatic Division)
Faculty of Civil & Environmental Engineering,
Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia, 86400 Batu Pahat, Johor, MALAYSIA.
Phone : +6074564380; +60197363740; Fax : +6074536588
E-mail : effendi@uthm.edu.my
Web: http://www.fkass.uthm.edu.my/

Measurement
• What is measured?
– Distance
• to calculate areas, volumes, etc.
• to draw plans, maps, etc.
– Angles or Bearings
• Both horizontal and vertical
– Heights
• Level or elevation

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Measurement
• How are these measured and Which instruments should I use?
– Distances
• Taping (steel tape), tacheometry (theodolite), electronic (total station, GPS)
– Angles or Bearings
• Compass, tacheometry (theodolite), total station
– Heights
• Leveling (level, theodolite, GPS)

Linear Distances

• Slope Distance

A SAB

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Linear Distances

• Horizontal Distance

HAB

Linear Distances

• Vertical Distance

A
VAB

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Linear Measurement….
INTRODUCTION
• One of the fundamentals of geomatic measurements
(surveying) is the need to measure distance.
• Distance are not necessarily linear, especially if they occur on
the spherical earth.
• In this course we deal with linear distances, which we can
consider a straight line from one point or features to another

Linear Measurement….
INTRODUCTION
• Many varied methods have been developed to measure
distances.
• It depends on the desired quality and accuracies of the result.
• A brief summary of relevant techniques and their respective
accuracies is explained.

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Linear Measurement….
INTRODUCTION
• Distance (linear measurement) is the basis of all surveying.
• Involving measuring the distance between two or more fixed points.
• Direct distance (linear measurements) can be obtained or
estimated through a number of methods, but the most common
method in linear measurements are:
• Pacing,
• Measuring wheel,
• Taping, and
• Electronic distance measurement (EDM) devices

Linear Measurement….
PACING
• The ability to pace distance is very useful
• A person can determine their pace by counting the number of
paces necessary to walk a distance that has been previously
measured.
• A pace is defined as one step
• A stride is consider two steps

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Linear Measurement….
MEASURING WHEEL

Linear Measurement….
TAPING
• Taping applies to measurement using a steel band, fiber glass
tape, metal tape, or linen tape.
• It is fairly quick, easy and cheap, and hence is the common
form of distance measurement.
• Taping is prone to errors and mistakes and these will discussed
later, but this the fundamental technique used for distance
measurement in planar geomatics science.

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Linear Measurement….
TAPING
• Taping equipment
– Measuring Tape
• Standard is 30 m length. Normally made of fiberglass.

Linear Measurement….
TAPING
• Conditions for Taping
– The following conditions must be taken into consideration;
• Taping must always be straight and must not be twisted
• Use chaining arrows for intermediate points
• Taping must be horizontal if possible
• Make the taping on the ground if possible
• Slope measurement needs to be reduced.

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Linear Measurement….
TAPING
• Taping Procedure
– It must be remembered in geomatics that all distances are presumed
to be horizontal distances and not surface distances.
– Every field measurement taken be either measured horizontally or, if
not, reduced to a horizontal distance mathematically.

Linear Measurement….
TAPING
• Tape Corrections
– Are applied to account for systematic errors incorporated into the
measured lengths due to incorrect tape graduation, temperature
variation, sag, and/or slope.
– Tape corrections are typically relatively small about <1% of the
measured distance, but still significant for the corrections to be
applied.

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Linear Measurement….
TAPING
– The corrections are categorized as follow:
• Standardization
– The tape has a nominal length under certain conditions. After certain period the tape
stretches. Therefore, standardization needs to be carried out frequently with the usage
of a reference tape or baseline.

Standardization Correction = L(l’ – l)/l

where,
L = recorded length of line
l = nominal length of field tape (30 m)
l’ = standardized length of field tape (30.011 )

Linear Measurement….
TAPING
– The corrections are categorized as follow:
• Slope Correction
– Slope correction is usually made by observing the angle
() of the slope between the measuring head.

Slope Correction = L Cos or –L(1-Cos)

This correction is always –ve as the slope distance is always longer than the horizontal
distance required.

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Linear Measurement….
TAPING
– The corrections are categorized as follow:
• Temperature Correction
– The phenomenon of thermal expansion plays an important role in many engineering
applications. Steel tapes are calibrated at a standard temperature of 20°C.
– We need to establish a correction that can account for the change in length of a steel
tape due to the influence of temperature.
– Therefore, temperature should be corrected for improved precision.

Linear Measurement….
TAPING
Temperature Correction = L(tf – ts)

where,
 = the coefficient of expansion of the tape
tf = mean field temperature (°C)
ts = temperature of standardization (20°C)

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Linear Measurement….
EDM
• EDMs are very useful in measuring distances that are difficult
to access or long distances.

Linear Measurement….
EDM
• Concept of measuring

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Linear Measurement….
EDM/Total Station
• A Total station is an electronic/optical instrument used in
modern surveying.
• The total station is an electronic theodolite integrated with an
electronic distance meter (EDM) to read distances from the
instrument to a particular point.
• Measurement of distance is accomplished with a modulated
microwave or infrared carrier signal and reflected by a prism
reflector.

Linear Measurement….
EDM/Total Station

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SIGNIFICANT FIGURES

Significant Figures
• The significant figures of a measurement are those digit that
are known, plus one estimated digit following the known
digits.
• Measurements can be precise only the degree that the
measuring instrument is precise.

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Significant Figures
Example:

“What if I tell you go down Batu Pahat-Kluang Road 1.5 km and

turn left, what should you do? What if I said instead, go down
Batu Pahat-Kluang Road 1.53 km and turn left”

• How is that different?

Significant Figures
Mathematic Operations
• When the answers to a calculation contain too many significant
figures, it must be rounded off.
• One way of rounding off involves
– Underestimating: the answer for five of digits (0, 1, 2, 3, and 4).
– Overestimating: the answer for the other
five (5, 6, 7, 8, and 9)

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Significant Figures
Mathematic Operations – cont’d
• The approach to rounding off is summarized as follows:
– If the digits is smaller than 5, drop this and leave the remaining
number unchanged.
• Thus, 1.684 becomes 1.68
– If the digits is 5 or larger, drop this digit and add 1 to the preceding
digit.
• Thus, 1.247 becomes 1.25

ERRORS IN MEASUREMENTS

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Errors in Measurements
• The main task in geomatics measurements is to accurately
measure the earth.
• It is a well recognized fact that all measurements, except
counting, contained errors.
• There are natural in any measurement because of residual
errors, in the manufacture of the instruments, human
observations, and environmental conditions.

Errors in Measurements
• A well designed survey will eliminate blunders and mistakes,
account for any systematic errors within the measurement
process, and
• Minimize the effects of random errors that will still exist after
blunders and systematic errors have been either eliminated or
corrected.
• The types of errors in linear measurement and their sources of
error are described as follow:

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Errors in Measurements
• Systematic nor Cumulative Errors
– These errors exist in any survey measurement and each additional
measurement increase the effect of the error.
– Such errors which may be either +ve or –ve, can have any appreciable
effect, but this can be reduced as required by taking suitable field
precautions or correcting the observed measurements.

Errors in Measurements
• Systematic nor Cumulative Errors
– Due to instruments or operators, and have cumulative effect.
– The example of systematic errors are as follow:
• Wrong length of tape (+ve or –ve),
• Slope (+ve or –ve),
• Sag (+ve or –ve), and
• Temperature (+ve or –ve)

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Errors in Measurements
• Systematic nor Cumulative Errors
– Systematic errors can be eliminated by procedures such as
• Balancing foresight and backsight in a level loop,
• By applying a correction such as a temperature correction to a taped
measurement,
• By applying a calibration for EDM or Total Station, and
• Taking suitable field precautions.

Errors in Measurements
• Compensating/Accidental/Random Errors
– Although every precaution may be taken, certain unavoidable errors
always exist in any measurement.
– Sometimes +ve or –ve, they tend to cancel each other out in the long
run.
– Some examples of accidental errors are holding and marking,
instrument pointing, and variation in tension.

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Errors in Measurements
• Compensating/Accidental/Random Errors
– These are unavoidable errors arising from weather condition, change
in temperature, humidity, mood of observer, etc.

Errors in Measurements
• Gross / Blunders Errors
– These errors arise from mistakes, carelessness or lack of experience.
– They are quite random and allowance cannot be made fro them.
– Examples of gross errors are:
• Miscounting tape lengths,
• Misreading the tape, and
• Wrong booking

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Errors in Measurements
• Gross / Blunders Errors
– Usually be detected by
• Computing survey closures,
• Carefully checking recorded, and
• Computed values and checking observations

Errors in Measurements
• Summary of Errors Sources
– Nature
• Changes in temperature, working environment, electronic noise & etc.
– Instruments
• Failure to calibrate
• Parallax
– Human (man-made)
• Mistake

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Errors in Measurements

ACCURACY & PRECISION

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Accuracy & Precision

• Terms used in describing errors
• The term accuracy and precision are often confused, even
though their meaning are quite different.
• Is a measurement accurate? Is it precise?

Accuracy & Precision

• Accuracy
– Accuracy is the degree of closeness to the truth.
– If one measurement is taken and happens to agree with a known true value,
then it is an accurate measurement.
• Precision
– Precision is the degree of repeatability in repeated measurements.
– If repeated measurements agree with other, then they are precise.

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Accuracy & Precision

Suppose that you measure the same line five times.

The first party reports the following measurements:

736.80, 736.75, 736.70, 736.85, & 736.65 -----> more accurate

The second party reports the following measurements:

736.42, 736.40, 736.40, 736.42, & 736.41 -----> more precise

The true length of the line is 736.72 m

Accuracy & Precision

• Example:
– If you are playing soccer and you always hit the left goal post instead
of scoring, then you are NOT accurate, but you ARE precise.
– Better precision does not necessarily mean better accuracy.

The objective of geomatics measurement

is to make measurements that are both
precise and accurate.

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Accuracy & Precision

• Example;

Low Accuracy High Accuracy High Accuracy

High Precision Low Precision High Precision
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Accuracy & Precision

• Example;

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Accuracy & Precision

Bias (don’t let precision fool you!)
• If you measure something several times and all values are
close, they may still all be wrong if there is a “BIAS”.
• BIAS is a systematic (built in) error which makes all
measurements wrong by a certain amount.
• Example of Bias: You always measure your height wearing
shoes with thick soles.

Accuracy & Precision

Degree of Accuracy
• Accuracy depends on the instrument you are measuring with.
But as a general rule:
“The degree of accuracy is half a unit each side of the unit of measure”

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Accuracy & Precision

• Degree of Accuracy

If your instrument measures in

"1"s then any value between 6½
and 7½ is measured as "7"

If your instrument measures in

"2"s then any value between 7
and 9 is measured as "8"

Exercise 2.1
• What are the consideration that need to be taken during a
taping procedure?

• Describe how you would carry out a taping process to

determine the length of 2 pegs on a hilly slope approximately
60 m apart.

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Exercise 2.2
• Briefly describe the type of errors in linear measurement and
explain their sources of error. What type of errors are classified
as blunders and mistake in linear measurement?

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