C++ Notes

C++
OBJECT ORIENTED PROGRAMMING

Conventional Programming using high level languages such as
COBOL, FORTRAN and C is commonly known as procedure oriented
programming. In the procedure oriented approach, the problem is view
as a sequence of things to be done such as reading, calculating and
printing. A number of functions are written to accomplish these tasks the
primary focus is on function.
MAIN PROGRAM
FUNCTION 1 FUNCTION 2
FUNCTION 3
Procedure oriented programming basically consists of writing a

list of instructions for computer to follow and organized those
instructions to groups known as functions. While we concentrate on the
development of functions, very little attention is given to the data that
are being used in various functions.
In a multi function program, many important data items are placed

as global, so that they may be accessed by all the functions. Each
function may have its own local data.
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RELATION BETWEEN FUNCTION AND DATA IN THE
PROCEDURE ORIENTED PROGRAMMING.
The major motivative factor in the invention of object oriented

approach is to solve some of the drawbacks in the procedural approach.
Object oriented Programming treats data as a critical element in the
program development and does not allow to flow freely around the
FUNCTION1 FUNCTION 2
LOCAL DATA LOCAL DATA
system. It ties data more closely to the function that operate on it and
protects it from accidental modification from outside functions.
OOP allows decomposing a problem in to a number of entities

called objects and then builds data and function around these entities.
The data of an object can be accessed only by the functions associated
with that t object. However function of an object can access the
functions of other objects.
ORGANISATION DATA & FUNCTIONS IN OBJECT

ORIENTED PROGRAMMING.
Object A object B
DATA DATA
FUNCTIONS FUNCTIONS
OOP is the most recent concept in the programming. It is

therefore important to have a working definition of OOP. OOP is an
approach that provides a way of modularity programs by creating
partitioned memory area for both data and functions. That is an object is
considered to be a partitioned area of computer memory that stores data
and set of operations that can access that data.
 CONCEPTS OF OBJECT ORIENTED PROGRAMMING
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 OBJECTS: Objects are the basic runtime entities in an object-
oriented system. When a program is executed, the objects interact by
sending messages to one another.
 CLASS: Class is a data type (user defined) to declare an

object. That is objects are variables of type class. Once a class has
been defined, you can create any number of objects belonging to that
class.
 DATA ABSTRACTION AND ENCAPSULATION
Placing of data and functions into a single unit (class) is known as

encapsulation. The data is not accessible to the outside world and
only those functions which are placed in the class can access it, these
functions provide the interface between objects data and the program.
The insulation of data from direct access by the program is called
data hiding.
Abstraction refers to the act of representing essential features

without including the background details and explanations. Classes
use the concept of abstraction and defined as a list of abstraction
attributes. Since the classes use the concept of data abstraction they
are known as abstract data types (ADT).
INHERITANCE :
Inheritance is the process by which objects of one class acquire

the properties of objects of another class. In OOP the concept of
inheritance provides the idea of reusability. This means that we can add
additional features of an existing class without modifying it. This is
possible by deriving a new class from the existing one. The new class
will have the combined features of both the classes.
POLYMORPHISM :
Polymorphism means the ability to take more than one form. It

places an important role on allowing objects having different internal
structures to show the same external interface. This means that a general
class of operations may be accessed in the same manner eventhough
specific actions associated with each operation may differ.
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DYNAMIC BINDING :
Binding refers to the linking of a procedure call to the code to be

executed in response to the call. Dynamic binding means that the code
associated with a given procedure call is not known until the time of the
call at the runtime. It is associated with polymorphism and reference
depends on the dynamic type of that reference.
C++
C++ is an object oriented programming language,
initially named as "C with classes". C++ was developed
by Bjarne Stroustrup at "AT&T" bell laboratories in the
early of 1980's. In C++, the features of C and simula 67
are combined. There fore C++ is an extension of C with
a major addition of the class construct feature of
"Simula 67". Since the class was major addition to the
original major C language, it is called as "C with
classes". However later in 1983, the name was changed
to C++. The idea of C++ comes from the 'C' increment
operator "++", there by suggesting that C++ is an
incremented version of 'C'.
C++ is a superset of C. Therefore almost all C
programs are also C++ programs. The three most
important facilities that C++ adds on to 'C' are classes,
function overloading and operator overloading. These
features enables us to create abstract data types. Inherit
properties from existed data types and support
polymorphism. Thus making C++ a truly object oriented
language.
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STRUCTURE OF A C++ PROGRAM :
The programming structure of C++ is almost same
as "C" except the class concept.
INCLUDE FILES
Class Declarations
Class Functions Definitions
main Function
<iostream.h> :
It is a header files consists of the entities (objects) related
to input and output.
"cout <<" : It is the output object in the C++ program.
Syntax : cout<<[message][variable]<<[message]
[variable]<<…….;
The operator "<<" is called an insertion or put to operator.

It inserts or sends the contents of a variable and / or specified
messages on its right to the object to its left.
"cin>>" : It is the input object in C++ program.
Syntax : cin>>variable>>variable…….
The operator ">>" is known as extraction or getfrom

operator. It takes the value from the keyboard and assigns it to
the variable on it's right.
"COMMENTS" : (//)
C++ introduces a new comments symbol "//". Comments
start with a double slash (//) symbol and terminate at the end of
a line. A comment may start anywhere in the line and what ever
follows till the end of the line is ignored.
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Syntax : // comment
Example For A C++ Program
# include <iostream.h>
# include <conio.h>
void main()
{
clrscr();
cout<<"***WELCOME TO C++ PROGRAMMING***";
cout<<"***THOMAS SUGUNAKAR RAJA***";
cout<<"***M C A***";
}
Read A Number And Write A Program To Find Out The Given

Number Positive, Negative Or Zero.
# include <conio.h>
void main()
{
int n;
clrscr();
cout<<"ENTER A NUMBER :";
cin>>n;
if(n>0)
cout<<"GIVEN NUMBER IS POSITIVE"<<n<<endl;
else if(n<0)
cout<<"GIVEN NUMBER IS NEGATIVE"<<n<<endl;
else
cout<<"GIVEN NUMBER IS ZERO"<<n<<endl;
getch();
}
Read Weekday Number And Print Weekday Name.
# include <conio.h>
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void main()
{
int n;
clrscr();
cout<<"ENTER WEEKDAY NUMBER (0-6) :";
cin>>n;
switch(n)
{
case 0:
cout<<"*SUNDAY*"<<endl;
break;
case 1:
cout<<"*MONDAY*"<<endl;
break;
case 2:
cout<<"*TUESDAY*"<<endl;
break;
case 3:
cout<<"*WEDNESDAY*"<<endl;
break;
case 4:
cout<<"*THURSDAY*"<<endl;
break;
case 5:
cout<<"*FRIDAY*"<<endl;
break;
case 6:
cout<<"*SATURDAY*"<<endl;
break;
default:
cout<<"INVALID WEEK DAY NUMBER"<<endl;
}
getch();
}
Read A Number To Print All The Natural Numbers Upto The Given
Number
(Using 'For Loop').
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# include <conio.h>
void main()
{
int n;
clrscr();
cout<<"ENTER A NUMBER "<<endl;
cin>>n;
for(i=1;i<=n;i++)
cout<<i<<"\t";
getch();
}
Program To Input Two Numbers And Print All Arithmetic Operations.
# include <stdio.h>
# include <conio.h>
void main()
{
int a,b,c,d,e,g;
float f;
clrscr();
cout<<"ENTER FIRST NUMBER :";
cin>>a;
cout<<"ENTER SECOND NUMBER :";
cin>>b;
c=a+b;
d=a-b;
e=a*b;
f=a/b;
g=a%b;
cout<<"ADDITION VALUE IS :"<<c<<endl;
cout<<"SUBTRACTION VALUE IS :"<<d<<endl;
cout<<"MULTIPLICATION VALUE IS :"<<e<<endl;
cout<<"DIVISION VALUE IS :"<<f<<endl;
cout<<"REMINDER VALUE IS :"<<g<<endl;
getch();
}
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REFERENCE VARIABLES :
C++ introduces a new kind of variable known as the

reference variable. A reference variable provides an alias
(Alternative name) for a previously defined variable. A
reference variable is created as follows:
Datatype &ref_var = variable;
A reference variable must be initialized at the time of

declaration. This establishes the correspondence between the
reference and the data object that it names. Here the "&" is not
an address operator. The notation Datatype followed by "&"
means reference to that Datatype.
E.g.: int a=200;

int &b=a;
b=150;
int &c=b;
c=25;
Example For Reference Variable
# include <stdio.h>
# include <conio.h>
void main()
{
int a=200;
int &b=a;
int &c=b;
clrscr();
cout<<"A VALUE IS :"<<a<<endl;
cout<<"B VALUE IS :"<<b<<endl;
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cout<<"C VALUE IS :"<<c<<endl;
getch();
b=55;
getch();
c=3500;
getch();
}
FUNCTIONS WITH DEFAULT ARGUMENTS :
C++ allows to call a function without specifying all its

arguments. In such cases the function assigns a default value to
the parameter which does not have a matching argument in the
function call. Default values are specified when the function is
declared. The compiler looks at the prototype to see how many
arguments the function uses and alerts the program for possible
default values. A default value is specified in a manner similar
to a variable initialization. One important point to note is that
only the training arguments can have default arguments i.e. you
must add default from right to left. It is not possible to provide
a default value to a particular argument in the middle of the
argument list.
Ex: int add (int x, int y=0, int z=0);

int mul (int a=1,int b=20,int c=40)
Ex: add (10,20,30);

add (10,20);
add (10);
add (); does not allow because there is no default
value for argument x.
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Another Example For Default arguments
# include <stdio.h>
# include <conio.h>
int add(int a,int b,int c=0,int d=0,int e=0)
{
return(a+b+c+d+e);
}
void main()
{
int m,n,p,q,r;
clrscr();
cout<<"ENTER ANY FIVE INTEGERS :"<<endl;
cin>>m>>n>>p>>q>>r;
cout<<"ADDITION OF 2 NUMBERS ARE
:"<<add(m,n)<<endl;
cout<<"ADDITION OF 3 NUMBERS
ARE :"<<add(m,n,p)<<endl;
ARE :"<<add(m,n,p,q)<<endl;
ARE :"<<add(m,n,p,q,r)<<endl;
getch();
}
FUNCTION OVERLOADING :
Overloading refers to the use of the same thing for
different purposes. C++ also performs overloading of
functions. This means you can use the same function
name to create functions that performs a variety of
different tasks. This is known as function
polymorphism. OOP using the concept of function
overloading you can design a family of functions with
one function name but with different arguments list. The
function would perform different operations depending
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on the argument list in the function call. The correct
function to be invoked is determined by choosing the
number and type of arguments, but not on the function
type.
Program For Function Overloading Operation
# include <stdio.h>
# include <conio.h>
int add(int a,int b) { return(a+b); }
float add(float a,float b) { return(a+b); }
long add(long a,long b) { return(a+b);}
float add(int a,float b) { return(a+b); }
float add(float a,int b) { return(a+b); }
long add(int a,long b) { return(a+b); }
long add(long a,int b) { return(a+b); }
void main()
{
int x,y;
float f1,f2;
long l1,l2;
clrscr();
cout<<"ENTER TWO INTETEGER VALUES :";
cin>>x>>y;
cout<<"ENTER TWO FLOAT VALUES :";
cin>>f1>>f2;
cout<<"ENTER TWO LONG VALUES :";
cin>>l1>>l2;
cout<<"INTEGER VALUES ARE :"<<x<<"\t"<<y<<endl;
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cout<<"FLOAT VALUES ARE :"<<f1<<"\t"<<f2<<endl;
cout<<"LONG VALUES ARE :"<<l1<<"\t"<<l2<<endl;
cout<<"SUM OF TWO INTEGER VALUES

ARE :"<<add(x,y)<<endl;
cout<<"SUM OF TWO FLOAT VALUES
ARE :"<<add(f1,f2)<<endl;
cout<<"SUM OF TWO LONG VALUES
ARE :"<<add(l1,l2)<<endl;
cout<<"SUM OF TWO INTEGER & FLOAT VALUES
ARE :"<<add(x,f2)<<endl;
cout<<"SUM OF TWO FLOAT & INTEGER VALUES
ARE :"<<add(f1,y)<<endl;
cout<<"SUM OF TWO INTEGER & LONG VALUES
ARE :"<<add(x,l2)<<endl;
cout<<"SUM OF TWO LONG & INTEGER VALUES
ARE :"<<add(l1,y)<<endl;
getch();
}
STRUCTURES
C++ supports all the features of structures as

defined in C. But C++ extended its capabilities further
to suit it's OOP philosophy. In C++ structure can have
both variables and functions as members as private so
that they can not be accessed directly by the external
functions. In C++ the structure names are standalone
and can be used like any other type names. That is the
keyword struct can be omitted in the declaration of
structure variables.
E.g.:
struct employ
{
int eno,bs,da,hra,pf;
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char ena[10];
};
struct employ emp;// C declaration
employ emp //C++ declaration
emp.eno,emp.ena,emp.bs,emp.da,
emp.hra,emp.pf
Example For Structure Program.
# include <stdio.h>
# include <conio.h>
void main()
{
struct stud
{
int sno,tf,fp;
char sna[10],cr[10];
};
clrscr();
stud s;
cout<<"\nENTER STUDENT'S NUMBER :";
cin>>s.sno;
cout<<"\nENTER STUDENT'S NAME :";
cin>>s.sna;
cout<<"\nENTER COURSE NAME :";
cin>>s.cr;
cout<<"\nENTER TOTAL FEES :";
cin>>s.tf;
cout<<"\nENTER PAID FEES :";
cin>>s.fp;
getch();
int due;
due=s.tf-s.fp;
cout<<"STUDENT'S NUMBER IS :"<<s.sno<<endl;
cout<<"STUDENT'S NAME IS :"<<s.sna<<endl;
cout<<"COURSE NAME IS :"<<s.cr<<endl;
cout<<"TOTAL FEES IS :"<<s.tf<<endl;
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cout<<"PAID FEES IS :"<<s.fp<<endl;
cout<<"DUE FEES IS :"<<due<<endl;
getch();
}
CLASSES
A class is a way to bind the data and its associated

functions together. It allows the data (and functions) to
be hidden if necessary from external use. When defining
a class, we are creating a new abstract data type that can
be treated like any other built in data type.
Generally a class specification has two parts.

1.Class declaration.
2.Class function definition.
The class declaration describes the type and scope

of its members. The class function definitions describe
how the class functions are implemented.
The general form of a class declaration is:

class class_name
{
private:
variable declaration;
public:
variable declaration;
function declaration;
};
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The key word class specifies that what follows is
an abstract data type class_name. The body of a class is
enclosed in braces ({ }) and terminated by a semicolon.
The class body contains the declaration of variables and
functions. These variables and functions are collectively
called members. They are usually grouped under two
sections namely private and public. To denote which of
the members are private and ,which of them are the
public, the keywords private and public can be used.
The keywords private and public are known as visibility
labels.
The members that have been declared as private can be
accessed only from with in the class. On the other hand public
members can be accessed from outside the class also. By default
all the members of a class are private. If both the labels are
missing, then the class is completely hidden from the outside the
world and does not serve any purpose. The variables declared
inside the class are known as datatmembers and functions are
known as member functions. Only the public member functions
can have access to private data members and private functions.
However the public members can be accessed outside the class.
OBJECTS
Once the class has been declared, you can create variables
of that type by using the class name. In C++ the class variables
are known as objects.
ACCESSING CLASS MEMBERS
The following format is used for calling the
member functions or data members if they are public.
Object name.data member
Object name.member function (argument list);
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Example For Class Program
# include <stdio.h>
# include <conio.h>
class sample
{
int a; int b;
public:
int c;
void input(int x,float y) //public member
function
{
a=x;
b=y;
}
void display() //public member function
{
}
};
void main()
{
sample s; //object declaration
s.input(352,225.54);
s.c=4444;
clrscr();
s.display();
cout<<"C VALUE IS :"<<s.c<<endl;
getch();
}
Read Employ Number, Employ Name, Grade, Basic Salary And

Calculate DA, HRA, PF, IT, Gross Salary And Net Salary.
# include <stdio.h>
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# include <conio.h>
class employ
{
int eno;
char ename[20],eg;
float bs;
public:
void accept()
{
cout<<"\nENTER EMPLOY NUMBER :";
cin>>eno;
cout<<"\nENTER EMPLOY NAME :";
cin>>ename;
cout<<"\nENTER EMPLOY'S BASIC SALARY :";
cin>>bs;
cout<<"\nENTER EMPLOY'S GRADE A/B/C";
cin>>eg;
}
void display()
{
float da,hra,pf,it,gs,ns;
switch(eg)
{
case 'a':
da=bs*.20;
hra=bs*.25;
pf=bs*.1;
it=bs*.01;
break;
case 'b':
da=bs*.16;
hra=bs*.22;
pf=bs*.01;
it=bs*.06;
break;
default :
da=bs*.13;
hra=bs*.15;
pf=bs*.6;
it=bs*.06;
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}
gs=bs+da+hra;
ns=bs-(pf+it);
cout<<"Employ Number Is :"<<eno<<endl;
cout<<"Employ Name is :"<<ename<<endl;
cout<<"Basic Salary is :"<<bs<<endl;
cout<<"Employ's Grade is :"<<eg<<endl;
cout<<"Daily Allowances are :"<<da<<endl;
cout<<"House Rent Allowances :"<<hra<<endl;
cout<<"Provident Fund :"<<pf<<endl;
cout<<"Income Tax :"<<it<<endl;
cout<<"Gross Salary is :"<<gs<<endl;
cout<<"Net Salary is :"<<ns<<endl;
}
};
void main()
{
employ emp;
clrscr();
emp.accept();
clrscr();
emp.display();
getch();
}
Read Student Number, Student Name, 3 Subjects' Marks. Write A

Program To Calculate Total Marks, Avg. Marks And Result Based On
The Following Conditions.
# include <stdio.h>
# include <conio.h>
# include <string.h>
class student
{
int sno,m1,m2,m3;
char sname[10];
public:
void input()
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{
cout<<"ENTER STUDENT NUMBER :";
cin>>sno;
cout<<"ENTER STUDENT NAME :";
cin>>sname;
cout<<"ENTER THREE SUBJECTS' MARKS :";
cin>>m1>>m2>>m3;
}
int total()
{
return(m1+m2+m3);
}
void output()
{
cout<<"STUDENT NUMBER IS :"<<sno<<endl;
cout<<"STUDENT NAME IS :"<<sname<<endl;
cout<<"MARRKS IN THREE SUBJECTS' ARE
:"<<m1<<m2<<m3<<endl;
}
};
void main()
{
student st;
int tm,am;
char res[20];
clrscr();
st.input();
tm=st.total();
am=tm/3;
if(am>=70)
strcpy(res,"DISTINCTION");
else if(am>=60 && am<70)
strcpy(res,"FIRST CLASS");
strcpy(res,"SECOND CLASS");
strcpy(res,"THIRD CLASS");
else
strcpy(res,"FAILED");
clrscr();
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st.output();
cout<<"TOTAL MARKS ARE :"<<tm<<endl;
cout<<"AVERAGE MARKS ARE :"<<am<<endl;
cout<<"RESULT OBTAINED :"<<res<<endl;
getch();
}
Read Employ Number, Employ Name, Grade, Basic Salary And

Calculate Da, Hra, Pr, It, Gross Salary And Net Salary.
(By Using Classes.)
# include <stdio.h>
# include <conio.h>
class employ
{
int eno;
char ena[20],eg;
float bs;
public:
void accept()
{
cout<<"ENTER EMPLOY NUMBER :";
cin>>eno;
cout<<"ENTER EMPLOY NAME :";
cin>>ena;
cout<<"ENTER BASIC SALARY :";
cin>>bs;
cout<<"ENTER EMPLOY GRADE A/B/C :";
cin>>eg;
}
char getgrade()
{
return(eg);
}
float getbs()
{
return(bs);
}
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void display()
{
cout<<"EMPLOY NUMBER IS :"<<eno<<endl;
cout<<"EMPLOY NAME IS :"<<ena<<endl;
cout<<"EMPLOY BASIC SALARY IS :"<<bs<<endl;
cout<<"EMPLOY GRADE IS :"<<eg<<endl;
}
};
void main()
{
employ emp; //object declaration for employ
class
char egrade;
float da,hra,pf,it,gs,ns,bsal;
emp.accept();
egrade=emp.getgrade();
bsal=emp.getbs();
switch(egrade)
{
case 'A':
da=bsal*.20;
hra=bsal*.25;
pf=bsal*.01;
it=bsal*.03;
break;
case 'B':
da=bsal*.16;
hra=bsal*.20;
pf=bsal*.008;
it=bsal*.006;
break;
case 'C':
da=bsal*.13;
hra=bsal*.15;
pf=bsal*.006;
it=bsal*.005;
break;
}
clrscr();
gs=bsal+da+hra;
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ns=gs-(pf+it);
emp.display();
cout<<"DA IS :"<<da<<endl;
cout<<"HRA IS :"<<hra<<endl;
cout<<"PF IS :"<<pf<<endl;
cout<<"IT IS :"<<it<<endl;
cout<<"GROSS SALARY IS :"<<gs<<endl;
cout<<"NET SALARY IS :"<<ns<<endl;
getch();
}
FUNCTION DEFINITIONS OUTSIDE THE CLASS
Member functions that are declared inside a class have to

be defined separately outside the class. They should have a
function definition outside the class as
returntype class_name :: function_name(arguments list)
{
function body;
}
The membership label class_name :: tells the compiler
that the function belongs to the class class_name.That is the
scope of the function is restricted to the class_name specified in
the headerline.
The symbol "::" is called Scope Resolution operator.
Read Sales Man Number, Name, Product Code And Number Of Units.
Write A Program To Calculate The Sales Amount And Commission
Based On The Following Conditions:
SAMT COMMISSION
>=10000 15%
>=7500 & <10000 12%
>=5000 & <7500 10%
<5000 05% On
Sales Amount.
FUNCTION DEFINITION OUTSIDE THE CLASS.
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# include <conio.h>
class sales
{
int sno,nou,pc;
char sna[20];
public:
void input();
void output();
int getnou();
int getpc();
};
void sales::input()
{
cout<<"ENTER SALESMAN NUMBER :";
cin>>sno;
cout<<"ENTER SALES MAN NAME :";
cin>>sna;
cout<<"ENTER PRODUCT CODE :";
cin>>pc;
cout<<"ENTER NUMBER OF UNITS :";
cin>>nou;
}
void sales::output()
{
cout<<"SALES MAN NUMBER IS :"<<sno<<endl;
cout<<"SALES MAN NAME IS :"<<sna<<endl;
cout<<"PRODUCT CODE IS :"<<pc<<endl;
cout<<"NUMBER OF UNITS ARE :"<<nou<<endl;
}
int sales::getnou()
{
return(nou);
}
int sales::getpc()
{
return(pc);
}
void main()
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{
sales s;
int units,rate,samt,comm,pcode;
clrscr();
s.input();
pcode=s.getpc();
units=s.getnou();
if(pcode==1)
rate=25;
else if(pcode==2)
rate=35;
else
rate=50;
samt=units*rate;
if(samt>=10000)
comm=samt*.15;
else if(samt>=7500)
comm=samt*.12;
else if(samt>=5000)
comm=samt*.1;
else
comm=samt*0.6;
clrscr();
s.output();
cout<<"RATE PER UNIT IS :"<<rate<<endl;
cout<<"SALES AMOUNT IS :"<<samt<<endl;
cout<<"COMMISSION IS :"<<comm<<endl;
getch();
}
OBJECT ARRAYS :
We know that an array can be of any data type including

struct, similarly we can also have arrays of variables that are of
the type class. Such variables are called arrays of objects.
class employ
{
char name[10];
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int age;
public:
void inputdata();
void outputdata();
};
ex:-
employ emp[5];
The array emp contains five objects, namely emp[0],
emp[1], emp[2], emp[3], emp[4] of type employ class.
Since the array of objects behaves like any other array,
we can use the usual array accessing methods to access
individual elements and then the dot member operator to access
the member function.
E.g.: emp[0].age = 25;

strcpy(emp[0].name,“hari”);
emp[0].inputdata();
emp[1].outputdata();
The array of objects is stored inside the memory in the
same way as the multidimensional array.
Create A Class With The Name Bank And Create An Array With 5
Cells And Accept Data And Print Data.
Example For An Object Arrays.
# include <stdio.h>
# include <conio.h>
class bank
{
int acno,cbal;
char cname[20];
public:
void input();
void output();
};
void bank::input()
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{
cout<<"ENTER A/C NUMBER :";
cin>>acno;
cout<<"ENTER CUSTOMER NAME :";
cin>>cname;
cout<<"ENTER CURRENT BALANCE :";
cin>>cbal;
}
void bank::output()
{
cout<<"ACCOUNT NUMBER IS :"<<acno<<endl;
cout<<"CUSTOMER NAME IS :"<<cname<<endl;
cout<<"CURRENT BALANCE IS :"<<cbal<<endl;
}
void main()
{
int i;
bank b[5];
for(i=0;i<5;i++)
{
cout<<"ENTER VALUES FOR CELL :"<<i<<endl;
b[i].input();
}
clrscr();
for(i=0;i<5;i++)
{
cout<<"THE VALUES OF THE CELL :"<<i<<endl;
b[i].output();
getch();
}
}
FRIEND FUNCTIONSSDD
C++ allows a common function to be made friendly with

two or more classes. There by allowing the function to have
access to the private data of these classes, such a function need
not be a member of any of these classes ,declare the function as
the friend to the class.
Declaration:
27
class sample
{
private:
member declaration;
public:
member function declaration;
//friend function declaration
friend return type function(arguments);
};
The function declaration should be preceded by the
keyword "friend". The function definition does not use the key
word friend or the scope resolution operator "::". The functions
that are declared with the key word friend are known as friend
functions. A function can be declared as a friend in any number
of classes.
Special characteristics of a friend functions.
1. It is not in the scope of a class to which it has been

declared as friend.
2. Unlike member functions, it can not access the
member names directly and has to use an object name
and dot (.) member ship operator with each member
name.
3. Usually a friend function has objects as arguments.
4. Friend function can take objects as arguments and can
also return the objects.
Friend Function Example.
# include <conio.h>
class sample;
class myclass
{
int a;
public:
28
void input()
{
cout<<"ENTER VALUE FOR A:";
cin>>a;
}
void output()
{
}
friend int getsum(myclass m,sample a)
};
class sample
{
int x;
public:
void accept()
{
cout<<"ENTER A VALUE :";
cin>>x;
}
//friend function declaration
friend int getsum(myclass m,sample s)
};
int getsum(myclass m,sample s)
{
return(m.a+s.x);
}
void main()
{
myclass c;
sample d;
int t;
clrscr();
c.input();
d.accept();
t=getsum(c,d); //friend function calling
clrscr();
c.output();
d.accept();
cout<<"TOTAL VALUE IS :"<<t<<endl;
29
getch();
}
2nd Example For A Friend Function.
# include <stdio.h>
# include <conio.h>
class allow;
class ded;
class employ
{
int eno,bs;
char ena[10];
public:
void accept()
{
cin>>eno;
cin>>ena;
cin>>bs;
}
friend void calc_sal(employ e,allow a,ded d);
};
class allow
{
int da,hra,cca;
public:
void getallow()
{
cout<<"ENTER DA, HRA, CCA :"<<endl;
cin>>da>>hra>>cca;
}
};
class ded
{
30
int pf,it;
public:
void getded()
{
cout<<"ENTER PF, IT :"<<endl;
cin>>pf>>it;
}
};
void calc_sal(employ e,allow a,ded d)
{
int gs,ns,tall,tded;
tall=d.pf+d.it+a.cca;
tded=d.pf+d.it;
gs=e.bs+tall;
ns=gs-tded;
clrscr();
cout<<"ENTER EMPLOY NUMBER :"<<e.eno<<endl;
cout<<"ENTER EMPLOY NAME :"<<e.ena<<endl;
cout<<"ENTER BASIC SALARY :"<<e.bs<<endl;
cout<<"DA IS :"<<a.da<<endl;
cout<<"HRA IS :"<<a.hra<<endl;
cout<<"CCA IS :"<<a.cca<<endl;
cout<<"PF IS :"<<d.pf<<endl;
cout<<"IT IS :"<<d.it<<endl;
cout<<"GROSS SALARY IS :"<<gs<<endl;
cout<<"NET SALARY IS :"<<ns<<endl;
}
void main()
{
employ emp;
allow all;
ded s;
clrscr();
emp.accept();
all.getallow();
s.getded();
calc_sal(emp,all,s);
getch();
}
31
Friend Functions With Objects As Arguments And Return Type.
# include <conio.h>
class test;
class sample
{
int a;
float b;
public:
void input()
{
cout<<"ENTER ANY INTEGER AND FLOAT VALUES
:"<<endl;
cin>>a>>b;
}
void display()
{
}
friend sample setsum(sample x,test y);
};
class test
{
int m;
float n;
public:
void accept()
{
cout<<"ENTER INTEGER AND FLOAT :"<<endl;
cin>>m>>n;
}
void print()
{
cout<<"M VALUE IS :"<<m<<endl;
cout<<"N VALUE IS :"<<n<<endl;
}
32
friend sample setsum(sample x,test y);
};
sample setsum(sample x,test y)
{
sample r;
r.a=x.a+y.m;
r.b=x.b+y.n;
return r;
}
void main()
{
sample s,p;
test t;
clrscr();
s.input();
t.accept();
clrscr();
p=setsum(s,t);
cout<<"VALUE OF FIRST OBJECT IS :"<<endl;
s.display();
cout<<"VALUE OF SECOND OBJECT IS :"<<endl;
t.print();
cout<<"VALUE OF RESULT OBJECT IS :"<<endl;
p.display();
getch();
}
CONSTRUCTORS
A constructor is a special member function whose task is

to initialize the objects of a class. The constructor is invoked
whenever an object of associated class is created. It is called
constructor, because it constructs the values of data members of
the class.
A constructor is declared as follows.
class class_name
33
{
members;
public:
class_name(arguments) //constructor
{
statements;
}
};
E.g.:
class sample
{
private:
int a,b;
float x,y;
public:
sample() //constructor function
{
a=100;
b=200;
x=35.15;
y=564.25;
}
};
void main()
{
clrscr();
sample s;
getch();
}
Special characteristics of a Constructor function.
1.They are invoked automatically when the objects are created.

2.They do not have return types not even void.
3.Like C++ functions they can have default arguments.
4.The constructor name is same as the class name in the class.
34
Example For Constructors.
# include <stdio.h>
# include <conio.h>
class test
{
int a;
float b;
long c;
public:
test() //constructor function
{
a=230;
b=654.13;
c=54865;
}
void output()
{
cout<<"INTEGER VALUE IS :"<<a<<endl;
cout<<"FLOAT VALUE IS :"<<b<<endl;
cout<<"LONG VALUE IS :"<<c<<endl;
}
};
void main()
{
clrscr();
test t,s,r;
clrscr();
cout<<"VALUES OF T ARE :"<<endl;
t.output();
cout<<"VALUES OF S ARE :"<<endl;
s.output();
cout<<"VALUES OF R ARE :"<<endl;
r.output();
getch();
35
}
Example For Constructor Function.
# include <conio.h>
class stud
{
int sno,tf,fp,due;
char sna[10],cou[10];
public:
stud()
{
cout<<"enter student's number :";
cin>>sno;
cout<<"enter student's name :";
cin>>sna;
cout<<"enter course name :";
cin>>cou;
cout<<"enter total fee is :";
cin>>tf;
cout<<"enter fee paid :";
cin>>fp;
due=tf-fp;
}
void output()
{
cout<<"student's number is :"<<sno<<endl;
cout<<"student's name is :"<<sna<<endl;
cout<<"course name is :"<<cou<<endl;
cout<<"total name is :"<<tf<<endl;
cout<<"fee paid is :"<<fp<<endl;
cout<<"due fee is :"<<due<<endl;
}
};
void main()
{
36
clrscr();
stud s,t,u;
clrscr();
cout<<"values of s"<<endl;
s.output();
cout<<"values of t"<<endl;
t.output();
cout<<"values of u"<<endl;
u.output();
getch();
}
Example For Constructor With Arguments.
# include <conio.h>
class sales
{
int sno,samt;
char sna[10];
public:
sales(int a,char n[],int b)
{
sno=a;
strcpy(sna,n);
samt=b;
}
void output()
{
}
};
void main()
{
clrscr();
sales t(100,"RAVI",2500);
37
sales b=sales(101,"KIRAN",3000);
cout<<"VALUES OF T :"<<endl;
t.output();
cout<<"VALUES OF B :"<<endl;
b.output();
getch();
}
DESTRUCTORS:
A destructor as the name implies, is used to destroy

the objects that have been created by a constructor. Like a
constructor, the destructor is also a member function whose
name is same as the class name and is preceeded by a tilde(~)
symbol. A destructor neither takes any arguments nor return
any value. It will be invoked implicitly by the compiler upon
exit from the program to clean up the storage that is no longer
accessible.
OPERATOR OVERLAODING :
Operator overloading is the one of the many existing

features of C++ language. It is an important technique that has
enhanced the power of extensibility of C++. C++ has the ability
to provide the operator with a special meaning for a data type.
The mechanism of giving such special meanings to an operator
is known as operator overloading.
Operator overloading provides a flexible option for the
creation of new definition for most of the C++ operators. We
can almost create a new language of our own by the creative
use of the function and operator overloading techniques.
To define an additional task to an operator, we must
specify what it means in relation to the class to which the
operator is applied. This is done with help of a special function,
38
called operator function, which describes the task. The general
form of an operator function is:
return type operator op(argument list)
{
function_body();
}
Where return type is the type of value returned by the

specified operation and op is the operator being overloaded.
The keyword "operator" precedes the "op". Operator op is the
function name.
this Pointer:
C++ uses a unique keyword called "this". To present an
object that invokes a member function. "this" is a pointer that
points to the object for which this function was called. The
unique pointer is automatically passed to a member function
when it is called. The pointer "this" acts as an implicit
argument to all the member functions.
Example For Operator Overloading Of Unary Operator:
# include <conio.h>
class exam
{
int a;
float b;
long c;
public:
exam() //constructor function
{
a=10;
b=25.65;
c=42500;
}
39
exam operator ++() //operator overloading
function
{
a+=100;
b+=100;
c+=100;
return *this;
}
void print()
{
}
};
void main()
{
exam e;
int x=15;
clrscr();
cout<<"VALUE BEFORE FUNCTION CALLING :"<<endl;
e.print();
cout<<"x value is :"<<x<<endl;
++e; //operator function calling
x++;
cout<<"value after function calling "<<endl;
e.print();
cout<<"x value is :"<<x<<endl;
getch();
}
Output: Values before function calling

A value is 10, B value is 25.65,C value is 42000 and X
value is 15.
Values after function calling
A value is 110, B value is 125.65,C value is 142000 and X
value is 16.
Example Program For Operator Overloading A Binary Operator "+":
40
# include <stdio.h>
# include <conio.h>
class sample
{
int a,b;
float m,n;
public:
void get_data()
{
cout<<"ENTER ANY TWO INTEGERS AND TWO FLOATS
:";
cin>>a>>b>>m>>n;
}
void print()
{
cout<<"FIRST INTEGER IS :"<<a<<endl;
cout<<"SECOND INTEGER IS :"<<b<<endl;
cout<<"FIRST FLOAT IS :"<<m<<endl;
cout<<"SECOND FLOAT IS :"<<n<<endl;
}
//operator overloading function
sample operator +(sample s)
{
sample t;
t.a=this->a+s.a;
t.b=this->b+s.b;
t.m=this->m+s.m;
t.n=this->n+s.n;
return(t);
}
};
void main()
{
sample p,q,r;
clrscr();
p.get_data();
q.get_data();
clrscr();
41
r=p+q; //function calling
cout<<"values of first object :"<<endl;
p.print();
cout<<"values of second object :"<<endl;
q.print();
cout<<"addition object values are :"<<endl;
r.print();
getch();
}
Example Program For Overloading A Binary Operator "*":
# include <stdio.h>
# include <conio.h>
class sales
{
int sno,nou;
char sna[10];
public:
sales() //constructor
{
cout<<"ENTER SALES MAN NUMBER :"<<endl;
cin>>sno;
cout<<"ENTER SALES MAN NAME :"<<endl;
cin>>sna;
cout<<"ENTER NUMBER OF UNITS :"<<endl;
cin>>nou;
}
void print()
{
cout<<"NUMBER OF UNITS ARE :"<<nou<<endl;
}
int operator *(int n)
{
return(nou * n);
}
42
};
void main()
{
sales s;
int rpu,samt;
clrscr();
cout<<"ENTER RATE PER UNIT :"<<endl;
cin>>rpu;
clrscr();
samt=s*rpu; //operator function calling
s.print();
cout<<"RATE PER UNIT IS :"<<rpu<<endl;
getch();
}
POINTERS IN C++
In C++ a pointer can point to an object created by a class.
For example item x;
Where item is a class and x is an object defined to be of
type item. Similarly we can define a pointer it_ptr of type item
as follows
item *it_ptr;
Object pointers are useful in creating objects at runtime.
We can also use an object pointer to access the public members
of an object.
MEMORY MANAGEMENT OPERATORS.
C uses malloc() and calloc() functions to allocate
memory dynamically at runtime. Similarly it uses the function
free() to free dynamically allocated memory. Although C++
supports these functions, it also defines two unary operators
'new' and 'delete' that perform the task of allocating and
freeing the memory in a better and easier way. Since these
43
operators manipulate memory on the free store, these are also
known as free store operators.
The 'new' operator can be used to create objects of any

type.
Syntax: pointer_variable = new datatype
Here pointer_variable is a pointer of type datatype. The

new operator allocates sufficient memory to hold a data objects
of TYPE datatype and return the address of the object. The
datatype may be any valid datatype. The pointer variable holds
the address of the memory space allocated.
E.g. int *p;

float *q;
p = new int[10];
q = new float [20];
Where p is a pointer of type int and q is a pointer of type
float.
When a data object is no longer needed, it is destroyed to
release the memory space for reuse, in that case we can use
'delete' operator.
Syntax: delete pointer_variable;
The pointer_variable is the pointer that points to a data

object created with new operator.
E.g. delete p;
delete q;
sales s;
sales *q;
q =&s;
qinput() or sales.input();
44
qprint() or sales.print();
Example Program For Dynamic Memory Allocation.
# include <stdio.h>
# include <conio.h>
void main()
{
int n,*a,*p;
clrscr();
cout<<"ENTER NUMBER OF CELLS";
cin>>n;
a=new int[n];
for(p=a;(p-a)<n;p++)
{
cout<<"ENTER ANY VALUE TO ARRAY :";
cin>>*p;
}
clrscr();
for(p=a;(p-a)<n;p++)
{
printf("THE CELL NUMBER IS %d\t:",(p-a));
printf("THE CELL ADDRESS IS \n:",p);
cout<<"VALUE OF ARRAY :"<<*p<<endl;
}
delete a;
getch();
}
Example Program For Object Arrays With Dynamic Memory

Allocation.
# include <stdio.h>
# include <conio.h>
class st
{
int sno, m1, m2, m3;
45
char sna[20];
public:
void accept()
{
cout<<"ENTER STUDENT NUMBER:";
cin>>sno;
cout<<"ENTER STUDENT'S NAME:";
cin>>sna;
cout<<"ENTER THE MARKS OF THREE SUBJECTS:";
cin>>m1>>m2>>m3;
}
int get_tot()
{
return(m1+m2+m3);
}
void print()
{
cout<<"STUDENT NUMBER IS:"<<sno<<endl;
cout<<"STUDENT'S NAME IS:"<<sna<<endl;
cout<<"MARKS IN THREE SUBJECTS
ARE:"<<m1<<"\t"<<m2<<"\t"<<m3<<endl;
}
};
void main()
{
st *p,*p1;
int tot,av,n;
clrscr();
cout<<"ENTER NUMBER OF CELLS :";
cin>>n;
p=new st[n];
for(p1=p;(p1-p)<n;p1++)
p1->accept();
clrscr();
cout<<"THE VALUE OF THE ARRAY IS :";
for(p1=p;(p1-p)<n;p1++)
{
tot=p1->get_tot();
av=tot/3;
printf("THE ADDRESS OF CELL IS \n",p1);
46
cout<<"THE VALUE OF CELL IS :"<<(p1-p)<<endl;
p1->print();
cout<<"TOTAL MARKS ARE :"<<tot<<endl;
cout<<"AVERAGE MARKS ARE :"<<av<<endl;
getch();
}
delete p;
}
TEMPLATES
Templates are the new features added recently to

C++. Templates enable us to define generic classes.
We can define templates for both classes and
functions. A template can be used to create a family of
classes or functions. A template can be contributed as a
kind of macro. When an object of a specific type is
defined for actual use, the template definition for that
class is substituted with the required datatype. Since a
template is defined with a parameter that would be
replaced by the specified datatype at the time of actual
use of the class or function, the templates are some
times called parameterized classes or functions.
The class template definition is very similar to an
ordinary class definition except the prefix 'template
<class T>' and the use of type T. This prefix tells the
compiler that we are going to declare a template and use
T as a type name in the declaration.
Example Program For Template Function.
# include <conio.h>
47
template<class A>
A add(A x,A y)
{
return x+y;
}
void main()
{
int m,n;
float f,p;
long l,r;
clrscr();
cout<<"ENTER TWO INTERGER :"<<endl;
cin>>m>>n;
cout<<"ENTER TWO FLOATS :"<<endl;
cin>>f>>p;
cout<<"ENTER TWO LONGS :"<<endl;
cin>>l>>r;
cout<<"FIRST INTEGER IS :"<<m<<endl;
cout<<"SECOND INTEGER IS :"<<n<<endl;
cout<<"FIRST FLOAT IS :"<<f<<endl;
cout<<"SECOND FLOAT IS :"<<p<<endl;
cout<<"FIRST LONG IS :"<<l<<endl;
cout<<"SECOND LONG IS :"<<r<<endl;
cout<<"SUM OF INTEGERS IS :"<<add(m,n)<<endl;
cout<<"SUM OF FLOATS IS :"<<add(f,p)<<endl;
cout<<"SUM OF LONGS IS :"<<add(l,r)<<endl;
getch();
}
Example Program To Template Functions With Multiple Templates.
# include <stdio.h>
# include <conio.h>
template<class A,class B>
A add (A x,B y)
{
return(x+y);
}
48
void main()
{
int m;
float f;
long l;
clrscr();
cout<<"ENTER AN INTEGER :"<<endl;
cin>>m;
cout<<"ENTER A FLOAT VALUE :"<<endl;
cin>>f;
cout<<"ENTER A LONG VALUE :"<<endl;
cin>>l;
clrscr();
cout<<"INTEGER VALUE IS :"<<m<<endl;
cout<<"FLOAT VALUE IS :"<<f<<endl;
cout<<"LONG VALUE IS :"<<l<<endl;
cout<<"SUM OF INTEGER AND FLOAT VALUE
IS :"<<add(m,f)<<endl;
cout<<"SUM OF FLOAT AND INTEGER VALUE
IS :"<<add(f,m)<<endl;
cout<<"SUM OF LONG AND FLOAT VALUE
IS :"<<add(l,f)<<endl;
cout<<"SUM OF LONG AND INTEGER VALUE
IS :"<<add(l,m)<<endl;
getch();
}
Example Program For Class Templates.
# include <conio.h>
template<class A>
class sample
{
A n,m,f;
public:
void input()
{
cout<<"ENTER FIRST VALUE :";
cin>>n;
cout<<"ENTER SECOND VALUE :";
cin>>m;
49
cout<<"ENTER THIRD VALUE :";
cin>>f;
}
A total()
{
return(n+m+f);
}
void output()
{
cout<<"FIRST VALUE IS :"<<n<<endl;
cout<<"SECOND VALUE IS :"<<m<<endl;
cout<<"THIRD VALUE IS :"<<f<<endl;
}
};
void main()
{
sample <int> T1;//object declared with integer
members
sample <float> T2; //object declared with
float members
sample <long> T3; //object declared with long
members
clrscr();
cout<<"ENTER INTEGER VALUES :"<<endl;
T1.input();
cout<<"ENTER FLOAT VALUES :"<<endl;
T2.input();
cout<<"ENTER LONG VALUES :"<<endl;
T3.input();
clrscr();
cout<<endl<<"INTEGER VALUES ARE :"<<endl;
T1.output();
cout<<"TOTAL VALUE IS :"<<T1.total()<<endl;
cout<<endl<<"FLOAT VALUES ARE :"<<endl;
T2.output();
cout<<endl<<"LONG VALUES ARE :"<<endl;
T3.output();
getch();
50
}
INHERITANCE (REUSABILITY)
1.Single Inheritance: 2.Multiple Inheritance.
A A B
B C
3.Hierarchical Inheritance. 4.Multi Level Inheritance.

A
A
B
B C D
C
5.Hybrid Inheritance.
B C
Reusability is another important feature of OOP. It

is always nice if we could reuse something that already
51
exists rather than trying to create the same all over
again. C++ strongly supports the concept of reusability.
The C++ classes can be reused in several ways. Once a
class has been written and tested, it can be adopted by
other programmers to sent their requirements. Creating
new classes, reusing the properties of the existing ones
basically does this. The mechanism of deriving a new
class from an old one is called "Inheritance" (or
derivation). The old class referred to as the base class
and the new one is called derived class.
The derived class inherits some or all the properties

of the base class. A class can also inherits properties
from more than one class of from more than one level.
A derived class with only one base class is called

single inheritance, and one derived class with several
base classes is called multiple inheritance. On the other
hand, the properties of one class may be inherited by
more than one class. This process is known as
hierarchical inheritance. The mechanism of deriving a
class from another derived class is known as multilevel
inheritance. The combination of any of two
inheritances is called hybrid inheritance.
Defining a Derived Class.
A derived class is defined by specifying it's
relationship with the base class in addition to it's own
details.
Syntax: class derived class_name : visibility_mode
base class name
52
{
- -------
- - - - - - - - //members of derived class
- -------
};
The colon(:) indicates that the derived class name
is derived from the base class name. The visibility mode
is optional and if present, it may be either private or
public. The default visibility mode is private. This mode
specifies whether the features of the base class are
privately derived or publicly derived.
When a base class is privately inherited by a
derived class, ‘public members’ of the base class
become ‘private members’ of the derived class and
therefore the public members of the base class can only
be accessed by the member functions of the derived
class. They are inaccessible to the objects of the derived
class. A public member of a class can be accessed by its
own objects using the dot operator. The result is that no
member of the base class is accessible to the objects of
the derived class.
When a base class is publicly inherited by a derived
class, public members of the base class becomes the
pubic members to the derived class and therefore they
are accessible to the objects of the dedrived class.
In both the cases private members are not inherited
and therefore the private members of a base class will
never become the members of it's derived class.
E.g.:
class B:public A
53
{
- - - - - - //members of class B
- - - - - -
- - - - - -
- - - - - -
};
Example Program For Single Inheritance.
# include <conio.h>
class a
{
int x,y;
void input(int p,int r)
{
x=p;
y=r;
}
void print()
{
cout<<"X VALUE IS :"<<x<<endl;
cout<<"Y VALUE IS :"<<y<<endl;
}
class b:public a//deriving a derived class
{
int m,n;
public:
void accept()
{
cout<<"ENTER TWO INTEGERS :";
cin>>m,n;
}
void display()
{
cout<<"M VALUE IS :"<<m<<endl;
cout<<"N VALUE IS :"<<n<<endl;
54
}
};
void main()
{
b t; //object declared for class b
clrscr();
t.input(253,445);//member function of base
class
t.accept(); //function of the derived class
clrscr();
t.print(); //function of the base class
t.display(); //function of the derived class
getch();
}
Example Program For Multilevel Inheritance Or A Derived Class

From Another Derived Class.
# include <stdio.h>
# include <conio.h>
class student
{
int sno;
char sna[10],sadd[10];
public:
void input()
{
cout<<"ENTER STUDENT NUMBER :";
cin>>sno;
cout<<"ENTER STUDENT'S NAME :";
cin>>sna;
cout<<"ENTER STUDENT'S ADDRESS :";
cin>>sadd;
}
void output()
{
cout<<"STUDENT NUMBER IS "<<sno<<endl;
55
cout<<"STUENT'S NAME IS "<<sna<<endl;
cout<<"STUDENT'S ADDRESS IS "<<sadd<<endl;
}
};
class fees:public student
{
int tf,fp,due;
char cou[10];
public:
void accept()
{
cout<<"ENTER COURSE NAME :";
cin>>cou;
cout<<"ENTER TOTAL FEE :";
cin>>tf;
cout<<"HOW MUCH FEE IS PAID :";
cin>>fp;
due=tf-fp;
}
void display()
{
cout<<"COURSE NAME IS :"<<cou<<endl;
cout<<"TOTAL FEE IS :"<<tf<<endl;
cout<<"FEE PAID IS :"<<fp<<endl;
cout<<"DUE FEE IS :"<<tf-fp<<endl;
}
};
class marks:public fees
{
int tm,mm,mp,mc,am;
char res[15];
public:
void marksin()
{
cout<<"ENTER MARKS IN MATHS :";
cin>>mm;
cout<<"ENTER MARKS IN PHYSICS :";
cin>>mp;
cout<<"ENTER MARKS IN CHEMISTRY :";
cin>>mc;
56
}
void resout()
{
tm=mm+mp+mc;
am=tm/3;
if(am>75)
else if(am>=60)
else if(am>=50)
else if(am>=35)
else
cout<<"MARKS IN MATHS ARE :"<<mm<<endl;
cout<<"MARKS IN PHYSICS ARE :"<<mp<<endl;
cout<<"MARKS IN CHEMISTRY ARE :"<<mc<<endl;
cout<<"TOTAL MARKS ARE :"<<tm<<endl;
cout<<"AVERAGE MARKS ARE :"<<am<<endl;
cout<<"RESULT IS--------------:"<<res<<endl;
}
};
void main()
{
clrscr();
marks obj; //object declaration
obj.input();//member function of class student
obj.accept();//member function of class fees
obj.marksin();//member function of class marks
clrscr();
obj.output(); //member function of class
student
obj.display();//member function of class fees
obj.resout();//member function of class marks
getch();
}
57
MULTIPLE INHERITANCE.
A class can inherit the attributes of two or more classes.

This is known as multiple inheritance. Multiple inheritance
allows combining the features of several existing classes as a
starting point for defining a new class.
Syntax: class derived_class : visibility label base class,

visibility label base class………
{
- -----------
- -----------
- -----------
- -----------
}
Where visibility label is either public or private. Comma
separate the base classes.
PROTECTED MEMBERS.
C++ provides a third visibility modifier protected, which

serve a limited purpose in inheritance. A member declared as
protected is accessible by the member functions with in its
class and any class derived from it as the public member of the
base class. It cannot be accessed by the functions outside these
classes.
When a protected member is inherited in public mode, it

becomes protected in the derived class too and therefore it is
accessible by the member functions of the derived class. It is
also ready for further inheritance.
A protected member is inherited in the private mode

derivation, that becomes private in the derived class. Although
58
it is available to the member functions of the derived class. It is
not available for further inheritance since private members
cannot be inherited.
E.g.:
class A
{
protected:
int a;
- - - - - - -
- - - - - - -
- - - - - - -
};
class B:public A
{
- - - - - - //members of class A are
- - - - - - //protected to class B
- - - - - -
};
class C:private B
{
- - - - - - //members of class A are
- - - - - - //private to class C
- - - - - -
};
class D:public C
{
- - - - - - //members of class A cannot be
- - - - - - //accessed in class D
- - - - - -
};
Example Program For Multiple Inheritance And Protected Members.

(Two Or More Base Classes One Derived Class Is Called Multiple
Inheritance).
# include <conio.h>
class employ
59
{
protected:
int eno,bs;
char ena[10],eadd[15];
public:
void input()
{
cin>>eno;
cin>>ena;
cout<<"ENTER EMPLOY ADDRESS :";
cin>>eadd;
cin>>bs;
}
};
class allow
{
protected:
int da,hra,cca;
public:
void accept()
{
cout<<"ENTER DA:";
cin>>da;
cout<<"ENTER HRA :";
cin>>hra;
cout<<"ENTER CCA :";
cin>>cca;
}
};
class ded
{
protected:
int pf,it;
public:
void dedinput()
{
cout<<"ENTER PROVIDENT FUND :";
60
cin>>pf;
cout<<"ENTER INCOME TAX :";
cin>>it;
}
};
class salary:public employ,public allow,public
ded
{
int tall,tded,gs,ns;
public:
void calc_sal()
{
tall=da+hra+cca;
tded=pf+it;
gs=bs+tall;
ns=gs-tded;
}
void output()
{
cout<<"EMPLOY NUMBER IS :"<<eno<<endl;
cout<<"EMPLOY NAME IS :"<<ena<<endl;
cout<<"EMPLOY ADDRESS IS :"<<eadd<<endl;
cout<<"BASIC SALARY IS :"<<bs<<endl;
cout<<"EMPLOY'S DA IS :"<<da<<endl;
cout<<"EMPLOY'S HRA IS :"<<hra<<endl;
cout<<"EMPLOY'S CCA IS :"<<cca<<endl;
cout<<"EMPLOY'S PF IS :"<<pf<<endl;
cout<<"EMPLOY'S IT IS :"<<it<<endl;
cout<<"TOTAL ALLOWANCES :"<<tall<<endl;
cout<<"TOTAL DEDUCTIONS :"<<tded<<endl;
cout<<"EMPLOY'S GROSS SALARY IS :"<<gs<<endl;
cout<<"EMPLOY'S NET SALARY IS
:"<<ns<<endl;
}
};
void main()
{
salary s;
s.input();
s.accept();
61
s.dedinput();
clrscr();
s.calc_sal();
s.output();
getch();
}
HIERARCHICAL INHERITANCE.
In the hierarchical inheritance different classes are derived from

one base class. A subclass can be constructed by inheriting the
properties of the base class. A subclass can serve as a base class for the
lower classes and so on.
Example Program For Hierarchical Inheritance.
# include <conio.h>
# include<string.h>
class student
{
int sno;
public:
void input()
{
cout<<"ENTER STUDENT'S NUMBER :";
cin>>sno;
cin>>sna;
cout<<"ENTER STUDET'S ADDRESS :";
cin>>sadd;
}
void output()
{
cout<<"STUDENT'S NUMBER IS :"<<sno<<endl;
cout<<"STUDENT'S NAME IS :"<<sna<<endl;
cout<<"STUDENT'S ADDRESS IS :"<<sadd<<endl;
}
62
};
class lang
{
int mt,me;
public:
void accept()
{
cout<<"ENTER MARKS IN TELUGU :";
cin>>mt;
cout<<"ENTER MARKS IN ENGLISH :";
cin>>me;
}
void display()
{
cout<<"TELUGU MARKS ARE :"<<mt<<endl;
cout<<"ENGLISH MARKS ARE :"<<me<<endl;
}
};
class mathes:public lang
{
int mm,mp,mc;
public:
void sentry()
{
cin>>mm;
cin>>mp;
cout<<"ENTER MARKS IN CHEMISTRY:";
cin>>mc;
}
void sprint()
{
cout<<"MARKS IN CHEMISTRY ARE :"<<mc<<endl;
cout<<"TOTAL MARKS ARE
:"<<mt+me+mm+mp+mc<<endl;
}
};
63
class computers:public lang
{
int mmt,mph,mcs;
public:
void sentry()
{
cin>>mmt;
cin>>mph;
cout<<"ENTER MARKS IN COMPUTERS:";
cin>>mcs;
}
void sprint()
{
cout<<"MARKS IN MATHS ARE :"<<mmt<<endl;
cout<<"MARKS IN PHYSICS ARE :"<<mph<<endl;
cout<<"MARKS IN COMPTERS ARE :"<<mcs<<endl;
:"<<mt+me+mmt+mph+mcs<<endl;
}
};
class arts:public lang
{
int mhs,mec,mci;
public:
void sentry()
{
cout<<"ENTER MARKS IN HISTORY :";
cin>>mhs;
cout<<"ENTER MARKS IN ECONOMICS:";
cin>>mec;
cout<<"ENTER MARKS IN CIVICS :";
cin>>mci;
}
void sprint()
{
cout<<"HISTORY MARKS ARE :"<<mhs<<endl;
cout<<"ECONOMICS MARKS ARE :"<<mec<<endl;
cout<<"CIVICS MARKS ARE :"<<mci<<endl;
64
:"<<mt+me+mhs+mec+mci<<endl;
}
};
void main()
{
mathes m;
computers cs;
arts a;
clrscr();
m.accept();
m.sentry();
clrscr();
cs.accept();
cs.sentry();
clrscr();
a.accept();
a.sentry();
clrscr();
m.display();
m.sprint();
getch();
cs.display();
cs.sprint();
getch();
a.display();
a.sprint();
getch();
}
Example For Hybrid Example. (The Combination Of Any Two

Inheritance Is Called Hybrid Inheritance.
# include <stdio.h>
# include <conio.h>
class student
{
65
protected:
int sno;
public:
void input()
{
cout<<"ENTER STUENT NUMBER :";
cin>>sno;
cin>>sna;
cout<<"ENTER STUDENT'S ADDRESS:";
cin>>sadd;
}
};
class test:public student
{
protected:
int mm,mp,mc;
public:
void mentry()
{
cin>>mm;
cin>>mp;
cout<<"ENTER MARKS IN CHEMISTRY:";
cin>>mc;
}
};
class sports
{
protected:
int sm;
public:
void sentry()
{
cout<<"ENTER SPORTS MARKS :";
cin>>sm;
}
};
66
class result:public test, public sports
{
int tot,avg;
char res[20];
public:
void findres()
{
tot=mm+mp+mc;
avg=tot/3;
if(sm>50)
avg=avg+5;
if(avg>=75)
else if(avg>=60)
else if(avg>=50)
else if(avg>=35)
else if(avg<35)
}
void display()
{
cout<<"STUDENT NUMBER IS :"<<sno<<endl;
cout<<"STUDENT'S NAME IS :"<<sna<<endl;
cout<<"STUDENT'S ADDRESS IS :"<<sadd<<endl;
cout<<"MARKS IN CHEMISTRY ARE:"<<mc<<endl;
cout<<"TOTAL MARKS ARE :"<<tot<<endl;
cout<<"AVERAGE MARKS ARE :"<<avg<<endl;
cout<<"RESULT OBTAINED :"<<res<<endl;
}
};
void main()
{
result r;
clrscr();
r.input(); //member function of student class
67
r.mentry(); //member function of test class
r.sentry(); //member function of sports class
r.findres(); //member function of result class
clrscr();
r.display();
getch();
}
Virtual Base class
Consider a situation where all the three kinds of

inheritances, namely multilevel, multiple, and
hierarchical inheritance, are involved. This is illustrated
in the above figure. The child has two direct base
classes parent1 and parent2 which themselves have a
common base class ‘grand parent’. The child inherits
the traits of ‘grandparent’ via two separate paths. It can
also inherit directly as shown by the broken line. The
‘grandparent is sometimes referred to as indirect base
class.
Inheritance by the child as shown in the figure
might pose some problems. All the public and protected
members of ‘grandparent’ are inherited into child twice,
first via ‘parent1’ and again via ‘parent2’. This means,
‘child’ would have duplicate sets of the members
inherited from ‘grand parent’. This introduces
ambiguity and should be avoided.
The duplication of inherited memebrs due to these
multiple paths can be avoided by making the common
base class as virtual base class while declaring the direct
or intermediate base classes which is shown as follows.
68
Class A
{
-----
};
class b1 : virtual public A
{
-------
};
class b2 : public virtual A
{
------
};
class C : public b1, public b2
{
---- //only one copy of A will be inherited
};
VIRTUAL FUNCTIONS
Polymorphism refers to the property by which objects

belonging to different classes are able to respond to the
same message, but in different forms. An essential
requirement of polymorphism is therefore the ability to
refer to objects without any regard to their classes. This
necessitates the use of a single pointer variable to refer
to the objects of different classes. Here, we use the
pointer to base class to refer to all the derived objects.
But, we just discovered that a base pointer, even when it
is made to contain the address of a derived class, always
executes the function in the base class. The compiler
simply ignores the contents of the pointer and chooses
69
the member functions that matches the type of the
pointer. How do we then achieve polymorphism? It is
achieved using what is known as ‘virtual’ functions.
When we use the same function name in both the
base and derived classes, the function in base class is
declared as virtual using the keyword virtual preceding
its normal declaration. When a function is made virtual,
C++ determines which function to use at run time based
on the type of object pointed to by the base pointer,
rather than the type of the pointer. Thus by making the
base pointer to point to different objects, we can execute
different versions of the virtual function.
INLINE FUNCTIONS
One of the objectives of using functions in a

program is to save some memory space, which becomes
appreciable when a function is likely to be called many
times. However, every time a function is called, it takes
a lot of extra time in executing a series of instructions
for tasks such as jumping to the function, saving
registers, pushing arguments into the stack, and
returning to the calling function. When a function is
small, a substantitial percentage of exectution time may
be spent in such over heads.
One solution to this problem is to use macro
definitions, popularly known as macros. Preprocessor
macros are popular in C. The major drawback with
70
macros is that they are not really functions and
therefore, the usual error checking does not occur during
compilation.
C++ has a different solution to this problem. To
eliminate the cost of calls to small functions, C++
proposes a new feature called inline function. An inline
function is a function that is expanded inline when it is
invoked. That is, the compiler replaces the functions
call with the corresponding function code. The inline
functions are defined as follows.
inline function_header
{
function body
}
FILE HANDLING IN C++

File is a collection of related data stored in a
particular area on the disk. Data is stored on floppy
of hard disks using the concept of files. Programs
can be designed to perform the read and write
operations in these files. A program typically
includes either or both of the following kinds
1.Data transfer between the console unit and the program

(reading).
2.Data transfer between the program and a disk file
(write).
The input and output system of C++ handles file

operations which are very much similar to the console input
and output operation. It uses file streams as an interface
71
between the program and files. The system that supplies data to
the program is known as input stream and one that receives
data from the program is known as output stream.
The input and output system of C++ contains a set of

class that define the file handling methods. These include the
following:
1.ofstream:- It provides output operations. It contains open(),

with default output mode (write mode). It inherits put(),
seekp(), tellp(), write() functions.
2.ifstream: - It provides input operations. It contains open(),

with default input mode. It inherits the function get(), getline(),
read(), seekg(), tellg() functions.
3.fstream: - It provides support for simultaneous input and

output operations. It contains open with default input mode.
Opening a File:
To open a file you must first create a file stream and then
link it to the file name. A file stream can be defined using the
above classes contained in the header file <fstream.h>. The
classes to be used depend upon the purpose, whether you want
to read data from the file or write data to it. A file can be
opened in two ways
1. Using the constructor function of the class.
2. Using the member functions open() of the class.
1.To Constructor:
Syntax: file_stream_class stream object("file name")
E.g.: ofstream fp("stud.dat"); //open stud.dat file in output

mode
72
ifstream fp1("sales.dat"); //open sales.dat file in input
mode
2.Using open Function.
Syntax: file_steam_class stream_object;

Stream_object.open("file name");
E.g.: ofstream fp;

fp.open("dealer.dat"); //opens dealer.dat in output mode
ifstream fp2;
fp2.open("student.dat"); //opens student.dat file in input
mode
ifstream fp3;
fp3.open("marks.dat"); //opens marks.dat file in input
mode
Note: Use the first syntax to open a single file in the

stream object. Use the second syntax to open multiple files in
the stream object.
write() and read() functions.
The functions write () and read () are used to store the
values in the disk file in the same format in which they are
stored in the internal memory.
Syntax: stream_object.write ((char *)&v,sizeof(v));
stream_object.read((char *)&v,sizeof(v));
These two functions are used to write and read data.
These functions take two arguments.
The first is the address of the variable V and the second is
the length of that variable must be cast to type char * that is
pointer to character type.
73
close Function.
Closes the currently opened file or files.

Syntax: stream_object.close();
fp.close();
fp1.close();
eof() Function.
This function returns true(1) if end of file is encountered

while reading, otherwise it returns the false (0).
Syntax: stream_object.eof();
fp.eof();
Create A Data File With The Structure Student Number,

Name And Total Marks And Write A Program To Accept
Records In That File.
(Data Creation For Student Record Example).
(Flwristu.cpp)
# include <conio.h>
# include <fstream.h>
class stud
{
int sno,tm;
char sna[20];
public:
void input()
{
cout<<"ENTER STUDENT NUMBER ";
cin>>sno;
cout<<"ENTER STUDENT NAME ";
cin>>sna;
74
cout<<"ENTER TOTAL MARKS ";
cin>>tm;
}
};
void main()
{
ofstream fp("student.dat");
stud s;
char ch='y';
while(ch=='y' || ch=='Y')
{
clrscr();
s.input();
fp.write((char *)&s,sizeof(s));
cout<<"DO YOU WANT TO ENTER ONE MORE RECORD Y/N
";
cin>>ch;
}
fp.close();
}
Data Processing Program For Above Student Record.

flrdstu.cpp
# include <conio.h>
class stud
{
int sno,tm;
char sna[20];
public:
void output()
{
cout<<"STUDENT NUMBER IS "<<sno<<endl;
cout<<"STUDENT NAME IS "<<sna<<endl;
cout<<"STUDENT TOTAL MARKS "<<tm<<endl;
}
};
void main()
75
{
ifstream fp("student.dat");
stud s;
clrscr();
fp.read((char *)&s,sizeof(s));
while(!fp.eof())
{
s.output();
fp.read((char *)&s,sizeof(s));
getch();
}
fp.close();
}
Create A Data File Employ.Dat With The Structure Employ Number,

Name, Employ Grade (A/B/C) And Basic Salary And Write A Program
To Write The Records Into That File.
(Data Creation Into The Employ.Dat File).
# include <conio.h>
class empl
{
int eno,bs;
char eg,ena[20];
public:
void input()
{
cout<<"ENTER EMPLOY NUMBER ";
cin>>eno;
cout<<"ENTER EMPLOY NAME ";
cin>>ena;
cout<<"ENTER EMPLOY GRADE A/B/C ";
cin>>eg;
cout<<"ENTER BASIC SALARY ";
cin>>bs;
}
};
76
void main()
{
char ch='y';
empl e;
ofstream fp("employ.dat");
{
clrscr();
e.input();
fp.write((char *)&e,sizeof(e));
cout<<"DO YOU WANT TO ENTER ONE MORE RECORD
Y/N ";
cin>>ch;
}
fp.close();
}
Process The Data File Employ.Data And Calculate The Da,

Hra, Pf, It, Gross Salary And Net Salary According To The
Following Conditions.
Grade da Hra Pf It
A 20 25 12 10
B 16 21 9 6
C 12 16 6 4
FLEMPRD.CPP
//Data Processing Program For Above Employ.Dat Record).
# include <conio.h>
class empl
{
int eno,bs;
char eg,ena[20];
public:
void output()
77
{
int da,hra,pf,it,gs,ns;
if(eg=='a' || eg=='A')
{
da=bs*0.2;
hra=bs*0.25;
pf=bs*0.12;
it=bs*0.1;
}
else if(eg=='b' || eg=='B')
{
da=bs*0.16;
hra=bs*0.21;
pf=bs*0.09;
it=bs*0.06;
}
else if(eg=='c' || eg=='C')
{
da=bs*0.12;
hra=bs*0.16;
pf=bs*0.06;
it=bs*0.04;
}
gs=bs+da+hra;
ns=gs-(pf+it);
cout<<"EMPLOY NUMBER "<<eno<<endl;
cout<<"EMPLOY NAME "<<ena<<endl;
cout<<"EMPLOY GRADE "<<eg<<endl;
cout<<"BASIC SALARY "<<bs<<endl;
cout<<"DAILY ALLOWANCE "<<da<<endl;
cout<<"HRA IS "<<hra<<endl;
cout<<"PROVIDENT FUND "<<pf<<endl;
cout<<"INCOME TAX "<<it<<endl;
cout<<"GROSS SALARY "<<gs<<endl;
cout<<"NET SALARY "<<ns<<endl;
}
};
void main()
{
empl e;
78
ifstream fp;
fp.open("employ.dat");
fp.read((char *)&e,sizeof(e));
clrscr();
while(!fp.eof())
{
e.output();
cout<<endl;
getch();
}
fp.close();
}
FILE OPENING MODES IN C++.
You can use ifstream and ofstream constructors and the

function open() to create new files as well as to open the
existing files. In both these methods, we used only one
argument that was the filename however these functions can
take two arguments, the second one for specifying the file
mode. The general form of the function open () with two
arguments is
Stream_object.open("filename", mode);
The second argument mode specifies the purpose for

which the file is opened. The prototype of these class member
functions contains default values for the second arguments and
therefore they use the actual values. The default values are as
follows.
ios::in for ifstream functions meaning open for

reading only.
79
ios::out for ofstream functions meaning open for
writing only.
The file mode parameter can take one of such

constants defined in the class "ios".
Parameter Meaning
ios::app Append to end of file.

ios::ate Go to end of file at opening.
ios::binary Binary file.
ios::in Open file for read only.
ios::nocreate Open fails if the file not
exists.
ios::noreplace Open fails if the read
only exists.
ios::out Open file for writing only.
ios::trunc Delete contents of the file if it
exists.
1. Opening a file in ios::out mode also opens it in the

ios::trunc mode by default.
2. Both ios::app and ios::ate take us to the end of file

when it is opened. But the difference between the two
parameters is that the ios::app allows us to add data to
the end of file only. While ios::ate mode permits us to
add data or to modify the existing data any where in the
file. In both the cases a file created by the specified
name, if it does not exist.
80
3. The mode can combine two or more parameters using
the "|" symbol.
E.g.: fstream fp;

fp.open("sales.dat",ios::app); //opens sales.dat in
append mode
fstream fp1;
//if the file exists opens x.dat in append mode else
no creation of file
fp1.open("x.dat",ios::app | ios::nocreate);
//opens file in read and write mode
fp2.open("student.dat",ios::in | ios::out);
fstream fp3;
//opens the file append and read mode
fp3.open("dealer.dat",ios::app | ios::in);
ERROR HANDLING DURING FILE

OPERATIONS.
One of the following things may be happened when
dealing with files.
1. A file, which you are attempting to open for reading,

does not existing.
2. The file name used for a new file may already exist.
3. You may attempt individual operations such a
reading past the end of the file.
4. There may not be any space in the disk for storing
more data.
5. You may use any invalid file name.
81
6. You may attempt to perform an operation when the
file is not opened for that purpose.
In C++, file streams inherits a stream static member

from the class ios. This member records information of
the status of the file that is being currently used. The
stream state member uses bit fields to store the status of
the error conditions stated above.
The class ios supports several member functions
that can be used to read the status recorded in a file
stream.
____
__________
Functions Return Value and
Meaning __
eof( ) Returns true (non-zero value) if
end of file is encountered while
reading, otherwise returns false
(zero).
fail( ) Returns true when an input or

output operation is fail
otherwise false.
bad( ) Returns true if an invalid

operation is attempted of any
unrecoverable error has
occurred. However it is false it
may be possible in recover
82
from any other error reported
and continue operation.
good( ) Returns true if no error has

occurred. This means all the
above functions are false.
When it returns false no
function operation can be
carried out.
Data Creation For Bank.Dat File.

flbnkwri.cpp
//adding new records to the file
# include <conio.h>
# include <process.h>
class bank
{
int acno;
char acname[20];
float cbal;
public:
void input()
{
cout<<"ENTER ACCOUNT NUMBER ";
cin>>acno;
cout<<"ENTER NAME OF THE PERSON ";
cin>>acname;
cout<<"ENTER CURRENT BALANCE ";
cin>>cbal;
}
};
void main()
{
83
fstream fp;
bank a;
fp.open("bank.dat",ios::app);
if(fp.fail())
{
cout<<"UNABLE TO OPEN FILE";
exit(0);
}
char ch='y';
{
a.input();
fp.write((char *)&a,sizeof(a));
if(fp.fail())
{
cout<<"CANNOT WRITE TO THE FILE "<<endl;
exit(0);
}
cout<<"DO YOU WANT TO ENTER MORE REOCORDS
Y/N ";
cin>>ch;
}
fp.close();
}
Data Processing Program For Above Bank.Dat File Program.
//DATA PROCESSING PROGRAM

# include <conio.h>
class bank
{
int acno;
char acname[20];
float cbal;
public:
void output()
84
{
cout<<"ACCOUNT NO IS "<<acno<<endl;
cout<<"ACCOUNT HOLDER NAME "<<acname<<endl;
cout<<"CURRENT BALANCE "<<cbal<<endl;
}
};
void main()
{
bank a;
fstream fp;
fp.open("bank.dat",ios::in);
if(!fp.good())
{
cout<<"FILE NOT FOUND ";
getch();
exit(0);
}
fp.read((char *)&a,sizeof(a));
clrscr();
while(!fp.eof())
{
a.output();
fp.read((char *)&a,sizeof(a));
getch();
}
fp.close();
}
Account Number Searching In Sequential Search In Bank.Dat File.
//ACCOUNT NO SEARCHING IN BANK.DAT FILE

SEQUENTIAL SEARCH
# include <conio.h>
class bank
{
int acno;
char name[20];
85
float cbal;
public:
void output()
{
cout<<"ACCOUNT HOLDER NUMBER "<<acno<<endl;
cout<<"ACCOUNT HOLDER NAME "<<name<<endl;
cout<<"ACCOUNT HOLDER BALANCE "<<cbal<<endl;
}
int getacno()
{
return acno;
}
};
void main()
{
fstream fp;
bank b;
char ch='y';
int tacno;
clrscr();
{
cout<<"ENTER ACCOUNT HOLDER NUMBER TO FIND ";
cin>>tacno;
fp.read((char *)&b,sizeof(b));
while(tacno!=b.getacno() && !fp.eof())
if(!fp.eof())
b.output();
else
cout<<"YOUR ACCOUNT NO NOT FOUND "<<endl;
cout<<"DO YOU WANT TO SEE ONE MORE RECORD Y/N
";
cin>>ch;
}
fp.close();
}
86
RANDOM ACCESSING FILE FUNCTIONS.
By using seekg( ) and seekp( ) functions, you can

access the records randomly.
Syntax: seekg(offset,
ref_position);
seekp(offset,
ref_position);
seekg moves getpointer(input) to a

specified location.
seekp moves put pointer(output) to a

specified location.
The parameter "offset" represents the no. of bytes

the file pointer is to be moved from the location
specified by the parameter "ref_position".
Ref-Position:
Takes one of the following three constructors
defined in the ios classes.
ios::beg beginning of the file.
ios::cur current position of the pointer.
ios::end end of the file.
The seekg() function moves the associated files get

pointer while the seekp() function moves the associated
files put pointer.
87
Seek call Action
seekg(0, ios::beg); Go to the beginning of the file.

seekg(0, ios::cur); Stay at the current position.
seekg(0, ios::end); Go to the end of the file.
seekg(m, ios::beg); moves to (m+1)th byte in the
file.
seekg(m, ios::cur); Go forward by m bytes from
the current position.
seekg(-m, ios::cur); Go backward by m bytes from
the current position.
seekg(-m, ios::end); Go backward by m bytes
from the end.
Note: You can also use seekp() in the same

syntax to move put pointer. You can also use tellg() and
tellp() functions to return the number of bytes from the
beginning of the pointer position.
Syntax: stream_object.tellp();
stream_object.tellg();
Program For Record Number Searching In A Data

File.
//RECORD NUMBER SEARCHING IN BANK
FILE IN RANDOM ORDER
# include <conio.h>
class bank
{
int acno;
88
char acna[20];
float cbal;
public:
void output()
{
cout<<"ACCOUNT HOLDER NUMBER "<<acno<<endl;
cout<<"ACCOUNT HOLDER NAME "<<acna<<endl;
}
};
void main()
{
fstream fp;
bank b;
int rno,nor;
fp.seekg(0,ios::end);
nor=fp.tellg() //sizeof(b);
fp.close();
clrscr();
char ch='y';
{
cout<<"ENTER RECORD NO YOU WANT TO SEE <<nor;
cin>>rno;
if(rno<=nor)
{
fp.seekg((rno-1)*sizeof(b),ios::beg);
b.output();
fp.close();
}
else
cout<<"RECORD NO NOT IN THE RANGE "<<endl;
getch();
cout<<"DO YOU WANT TO SEE ONE MORE RECORD Y/N
";
cin>>ch;
}
89
}
Menu Program For Processing Employ.Dat File.
//MENU PROGRAM FILE FOR PROCESSING EMPLOY.DAT

FILE
# include <conio.h>
# include <stdio.h>
class employ
{
int eno,bsal;
char ena[20];
public:
void puteno(int x)
{
eno=x;
}
void input()
{
cin>>ena;
cout<<"ENTER BASIC SALARY ";
cin>>bsal;
}
void output()
{
cout<<"EMPLOY NUMBER IS "<<eno<<endl;
cout<<"EMPLOY NAME IS "<<ena<<endl;
cout<<"EMPLOY'S BASIC SALARY IS "<<bsal<<endl;
}
void display()
{
cout<<eno<<"\t\t"<<ena<<"\t\t"<<bsal<<endl;
90
}
int geteno()
{
return(eno);
}
};
void main()
{
int op=1,teno;
employ e;
fstream fp,fp1;
while(op<5)
{
clrscr();
cout<<"\t"<<"1.NEW EMPLOY"<<endl;
cout<<"\t"<<"2.DELETION"<<endl;
cout<<"\t"<<"3.UPDATION"<<endl;
cout<<"\t"<<"4.LIST"<<endl;
cout<<"\t"<<"5.EXIT"<<endl;
cout<<"ENTER YOUR CHOICE ";
cin>>op;
switch(op)
{
case 1:
clrscr();
fp.open("employ.dat",ios::in);
if(fp.good())
{
while(!fp.eof())
{
teno=e.geteno();
}
teno++;
}
else
teno=100;
fp.close();
e.puteno(teno);
91
cout<<"EMPLOY NUMBER IS "<<teno<<endl;
e.input();
fp.open("employ.dat",ios::app);
fp.close();
break;
case 2:
clrscr();
if(fp.bad())
{
cout<<"FILE NOT FOUND"<<endl;
getch();
fp.close();
}
else
{
cout<<"ENTER EMPLOY NUMBER TO DELETE ";
cin>>teno;
fp1.open("temp.dat",ios::out);
int s=0;
while(!fp.eof())
{
if(teno != e.geteno())
fp1.write((char *)&e,sizeof(e));
else
s++;
}
fp.close();
fp1.close();
remove("employ.dat");
rename("temp.dat","employ.dat");
if(s>0)
cout<<"RECORD DELETED SUCCESSFULLY
"<<teno<<endl;
else
cout<<"RECORD NOT FOUND "<<teno<<endl;
92
}
getch();
break;
case 3:
clrscr();
fp.open("employ.dat",ios::in | ios::out);
if(fp.bad())
{
cout<<"FILE NOT FOUND "<<endl;
getch();
fp.close();
}
else
{
cout<<"ENTER EMPLOY NO TO MODIFY ";
cin>>teno;
int i=0;
while(teno!=e.geteno() && !fp.eof())
{
i++;
}
if(!fp.eof())
{
clrscr();
cout<<"RECORD BEFORE UPDATION "<<endl;
e.output();
cout<<"ENTER NEW DETAILS "<<endl;
e.input();
fp.seekp((i*sizeof(e)),ios::beg);
cout<<"RECORD AFTER UPDATION "<<endl;
e.output();
}
else
cout<<"EMPLOYEE NO NOT FOUND WITH THE
NUMBER "<<teno<<endl;
fp.close();
}
93
getch();
break;
case 4:
int ch=0;
while(ch<3)
{
clrscr();
cout<<"\t"<<"1.INDIVIDUAL "<<endl;
cout<<"\t"<<"2.LIST OF EMPLOYEE "<<endl;
cout<<"\t"<<"3.RETURN TO MAIN "<<endl;
cout<<"ENTER YOUR OPTION ";
cin>>ch;
switch(ch)
{
case 1:
if(fp.bad())
{
cout<<"FILE NOT FOUND ";
getch();
fp.close();
}
else
{
cin>>teno;
while(teno!=e.geteno() && !fp.eof())
if(!fp.eof())
{
clrscr();
e.output();
}
else
cout<<"EMPLOYEE NO NOT FOUND
"<<teno<<endl;
getch();
fp.close();
94
}
break;
case 2:
clrscr();
if(fp.bad())
{
getch();
fp.close();
}
else
{
cout<<"\t\t"<<"EMPLOY LIST"<<endl;
cout<<"ENO"<<"\t\t"<<"EMAME"<<"\t\t"<<"BASIC"<<e
ndl;
while(!fp.eof())
{
e.display();
}
fp.close();
getch();
}
break;
} //SWITCH END
} //WHILE END
} //SWITCH END
} //WHILE END
} //MAIN END
The Bank Of India Is Giving Pay Slips For Their Employees.

They Are Maintaining Different Files For Their Payroll
System. They Are Employ.Dat, Salary.Dat And Loan.Dat.
These 3 Files Have Data. The Employ.Dat File Contains All
Employees Information Including Designation And The
95
Salary.Dat File Contains Basic Pay And Rates Of Da, Hra, Pf
And It. The Loan.Dat File Contains Employees Loan
Information. The File Structures Are As Follows:
Employ.Dat Salary.Dat Loan.Dat

Emp-No Int Desg Char Eno Int
Emp-Name Char[10] Bs Float Ldesc
Char[20]
Emp-Addr Char[10] Da Float Amt Float
Desg Char[10] Hra Float Noi Int
Jd Char[10] Pf Float Ri Int
It Float
Prepare The Pay Slips For Each And Every Employee In The
Following Format.
BANK OF INDIA
HYDERABAD
PAY SLIP FOR THE MONTH OF:
EMPLOY NUMBER: EMPLOY NAME:

EMPLOY ADDRESS:
EMPLOY DESIGNATION:
BASIC SALARY DA HRA PF IT
LOAN AMOUNT
TOTAL ALLOWANCES:
TOTAL DEDUCTIONS:
GROSS SALARY:
NET SALARY:
96
1. If Loan Is There In Loan.Dat, Calculate The Loan Amount
As Per The Following Formula
Loan Amount = Amt Taken /No Of Installments
2. If There Is No Loan Then Loan Amount =0.

3. After Creating Pay Slip If Any Loan Is There Decrease One
From The Remaining Installments.
FLBNKLNW.CPP
//DATA CREATION FOR EMP.DAT, SALARY.DAT AND
LOAN.DAT
# include <conio.h>
class employ
{
int eno;
char ena[10],eadd[10],desg[10],jd[10];
public:
void input()
{
cout<<"ENTER EMPLOY NO ";
cin>>eno;
cin>>ena;
cout<<"ENTER EMPLOY ADDRESS ";
cin>>eadd;
cout<<"ENTER EMPLOY DESIGNATION";
cin>>desg;
cout<<"ENTER EMPLOYE JOINDATE ";
cin>>jd;
}
};
class salary
{
char desg[10];
97
float bs,hra,da,pf,it;
public:
void accept()
{
cout<<"ENTER DESIGNATION ";
cin>>desg;
cout<<"ENTER BASIC ";
cin>>bs;
cout<<"ENTER HRA ";
cin>>hra;
cout<<"ENTER DA ";
cin>>da;
cout<<"ENTER PF ";
cin>>pf;
cout<<"ENTER IT ";
cin>>it;
}
};
class loan
{
int eno,amt,noi,ri;
char ldesc[10];
public:
void linput()
{
cin>>eno;
cout<<"ENTER LOAN DESCREPTION ";
cin>>ldesc;
cout<<"ENTER AMOUNT ";
cin>>amt;
cout<<"ENTER NO. INSTALMENTS ";
cin>>noi;
cout<<"ENTER REMAINING INSTLM ";
cin>>ri;
}
};
void main()
{
employ emp;
98
salary sal;
loan l;
ofstream fp;
fp.open("emp.dat");
char ch='y';
{
clrscr();
emp.input();
fp.write((char *)&emp,sizeof(emp));
cout<<"DO YOU WANT TO ENTER MORE RECORDS Y/N
";
cin>>ch;
}
fp.close();
fp.open("salary.dat");
ch='y';
{
clrscr();
sal.accept();
fp.write((char *)&sal,sizeof(sal));
";
cin>>ch;
}
fp.close();
fp.open("loan.dat");
ch='y';
{
clrscr();
l.linput();
fp.write((char *)&l,sizeof(l));
";
cin>>ch;
}
fp.close();
}
99
Program For Data Processing For Creating Pay Slips For
Employ.Dat, Salary.Dat And Loan.Dat.
//DATA PROCESSING FOR CREATING PAY SLIPS
# include <conio.h>
# include <dos.h>
# include <stdio.h>
class salary;
class employ
{
int eno;
char ena[10],eadd[10],desg[10],jd[10];
public:
void output()
{
gotoxy(5,8);
cout<<"EMPLOY NUMBER:"<<eno;
gotoxy(35,8);
cout<<"EMPLOY NAME:"<<ena;
gotoxy(5,9);
cout<<"DESIGNATION:"<<desg;
gotoxy(35,9);
cout<<"EMPLOY ADDRESS:"<<eadd;
}
int geteno()
{
return eno;
}
friend int chkdesg(employ e,salary s);
};
class salary
{
char desg[10];
float bs,hra,da,pf,it;
public:
int getbs() { return bs; }
100
int getda() { return da; }
int gethra() { return hra; }
int getpf() { return pf; }
int getit() { return it; }
friend int chkdesg(employ e,salary s);
};
class loan
{
int eno,amt,noi,ri;
char ldesc[10];
public:
int loaneno() { return eno; }
int getloan() { return amt/noi; }
int getri() { return ri; }
void decrem() { ri--; }
};
int chkdesg(employ e,salary s) //FRIEND
DEFINITION
{
if(stricmp(e.desg,s.desg)==0)
return 1;
else
return 0;
}
void line()
{
for(int i=1;i<=80;i++)
cout<<"-";
}
void main()
{
employ emp;
salary sal;
loan l;
float bs,hra,da,pf,it,gs,ns,tall,tded,lamt;
fstream fp("emp.dat",ios::in);
fstream fp1,fp2;
struct date p;
struct time t;
getdate(&p);
101
gettime(&t);
fp.read((char *)&emp,sizeof(emp));
while(!fp.eof())
{
fp1.open("salary.dat",ios::in);
fp1.read((char *)&sal,sizeof(sal));
int m=0;
while(!fp1.eof())
{
if(chkdesg(emp,sal)==1)
{
bs=sal.getbs();
da=(bs*sal.getda()/100);
hra=(bs*sal.gethra()/100);
pf=(bs*sal.getpf()/100);
it=(bs*sal.getit()/100);
m++;
break;
}
fp1.read((char *)&sal,sizeof(sal));
}
fp1.close();
if(m==0)
bs=hra=da=pf=it=0;
fp2.open("loan.dat",ios::in | ios::out);
fp2.read((char *)&l,sizeof(l));
int x=0;
while((emp.geteno()!=l.loaneno()) && !
fp2.eof())
{
x++;
fp2.read((char *)&l,sizeof(l));
}
if((emp.geteno()==l.loaneno()) && l.getri()>0)
{
lamt=l.getloan();
l.decrem();
fp2.seekp(x*sizeof(l),ios::beg);
fp2.write((char *)&l,sizeof(l));
}
102
else
lamt=0;
gs=bs+da+hra;
tall=da+hra;
tded=pf+it+lamt;
ns=gs-tded;
clrscr();
gotoxy(1,2);
line();
gotoxy(31,2);
cout<<"STATE BANK OF INDIA";
gotoxy(36,3);
cout<<"PAY SLIPS";
gotoxy(1,4);
line();
gotoxy(10,5);
cout<<"PAY SLIPS FOR THE MONTH OF ";
gotoxy(40,5);
printf("%d",p.da_mon);
gotoxy(5,6);
cout<<"DATE";
gotoxy(15,6);
printf("%d/%d/
%d",p.da_day,p.da_mon,p.da_year);
gotoxy(50,6);
cout<<"TIME:";
gotoxy(60,6);
printf("%d:%d:
%d",t.ti_hour,t.ti_min,t.ti_sec);
gotoxy(1,7);
line();
gotoxy(1,8);
emp.output();
gotoxy(1,10);
line();
gotoxy(5,11);
cout<<"BASIC \t HRA \t DA \t PF \t IT \t LOAN
AMOUNT";
gotoxy(1,12);
line();
103
gotoxy(5,13);
cout<<bs<<"\t"<<hra<<"\t"<<da<<"\t"<<pf<<"\t"<<i
t<<"\t"<<lamt;
gotoxy(1,14);
line();
gotoxy(15,15);
cout<<"TOTAL ALLOWANCES: "<<tall;
gotoxy(15,16);
cout<<"TOTAL DEDUCTIONS: "<<tded;
gotoxy(15,17);
cout<<"GROSS PAY:"<<gs;
gotoxy(15,18);
cout<<"NET PAY:"<<ns;
gotoxy(1,19);
line();
getch();
fp.read((char *)&emp,sizeof(emp));
fp2.close();
}
fp.close();
}
Cput ( ) is the function is to effect the background and foreground
colors.
Menu Program For Performing The Arithmetic Operations Like

Addition, Subtraction, Multiplication And Division By Creating A
Menu.
//Example program for popup menu operations.

# include <stdio.h>
# include <conio.h>
void box(int sr,int sc,int er,int ec)
{
int i;
gotoxy(sc,sr);
printf("%c",201);
for(i=(sc+1);i<ec;i++)
104
{
gotoxy(i,sr);
printf("%c",205);
}
gotoxy(ec,sr);
printf("%c",187);
for(i=(sr+1);i<er;i++)
{
gotoxy(ec,i);
printf("%c",186);
}
gotoxy(ec,er);
printf("%c",188);
for(i=(ec-1);i>sc;i--)
{
gotoxy(i,er);
printf("%c",205);
}
gotoxy(sc,er);
printf("%c",200);
for(i=(er-1);i>sr;i--)
{
gotoxy(sc,i);
printf("%c",186);
}
}
int menu()
{
int row,ch,i;
clrscr();
char opt[5][20];
_setcursortype(_NOCURSOR);
strcpy(opt[1],"ADDITION");
strcpy(opt[2],"SUBTRACTION");
strcpy(opt[3],"MULTIPLICATION");
strcpy(opt[4],"EXIT");
row=11;
i=1;
int flag=1;
while(flag)
105
{
clrscr();
box(9,20,17,50);
gotoxy(25,11);
printf("%s",opt[1]);
gotoxy(25,12);
gotoxy(25,13);
gotoxy(25,14);
textcolor(BLACK);
textbackground(WHITE);
gotoxy(25,row);
cputs(opt[i]);
normvideo();
ch=getch();
switch(ch)
{
case 72: //UPARROW KEY (ASCII CODE) IS 72
row--;
row=row<11?14:row;
break;
case 80: //DOWN ARROW KEY
row++;
row=row>14?11:row;
break;
case 13: //ENTER KEY
flag=0;
}
i=row-10;
}
return(i);
}
void main()
{
int op=0,a,b,c;
op=menu();
_setcursortype(_NORMALCURSOR);
while(op<4)
106
{
clrscr();
box(8,10,15,70);
gotoxy(15,10);
printf("ENTER FIRST NUMBER :");
scanf("%d",&a);
gotoxy(15,12);
printf("ENTER SECOND NUMBER :");
scanf("%d",&b);
clrscr();
box(8,10,16,70);
gotoxy(15,10);
printf("FIRST NUMBER IS %d",a);
gotoxy(15,12);
printf("SECOND NUMBER IS %d",b);
switch(op)
{
case 1:
c=a+b;
gotoxy(15,14);
printf("ADDITION IS %d",c);
getch();
break;
case 2:
c=a-b;
gotoxy(15,14);
printf("SUBTRACTION IS %d",c);
getch();
break;
case 3:
c=a*b;
gotoxy(15,14);
printf("MULTIPLICATION IS %d",c);
getch();
break;
}
op=menu();
}
}
107
Create A Data File Bank.Dat With The Structure Account Holder
Number, Name, Balance And Design A Popup Menu Program In
Following.
New Account
Transactions
Cancellations
Listing
Individual
Listing
Return to Main
MY.H PROGRAM
//POPUP MENU PROGRAM FOR PROCESSING BANK.DAT

FILE
//USER DEFINED HEADER FILE
# include <conio.h>
# include <stdio.h>
int r; //GLOBAL VARIABLE
void box(int sr=1,int sc=1,int er=24,int ec=75)
{
int a,i;
gotoxy(sc,sr);
printf("%c",201);
for(i=(sc+1);i<ec;i++)
{
gotoxy(i,sr);
printf("%c",205);
}
gotoxy(ec,er);
printf("%c",187);
for(i=(sc+1);i<er;i++)
{
gotoxy(ec,i);
printf("%c",186);
}
gotoxy(ec,er);
108
printf("%c",188);
for(i=(ec-1);i>sc;i--)
{
gotoxy(i,er);
printf("%c",205);
}
gotoxy(sc,er);
printf("%c",200);
for(i=(er-1);i>sr;i--)
{
gotoxy(sc,i);
printf("%c",186);
}
}
int menu()
{
int row,ch,i;
clrscr();
char opt[6][20];
strcpy(opt[1],"NEW ACCOUNT");
strcpy(opt[2],"TRANCTIONS");
strcpy(opt[3],"CANCELLATION");
strcpy(opt[4],"LISTING");
strcpy(opt[5],"EXIT");
row=1;
i=1;
int flag=1;
while(flag)
{
clrscr();
box(9,15,17,40);
gotoxy(15,11);
gotoxy(15,12);
gotoxy(15,13);
gotoxy(15,14);
gotoxy(15,15);
109
textcolor(BLACK);
gotoxy(15,row);
cputs(opt[i]);
normvideo();
ch=getch();
switch(ch)
{
row--;
row=row<11?15:row;
break;
row++;
row=row>15?11:row;
break;
flag=0;
}
i=row-10;
}
return(i);
}
int smenu()
{
int row,ch,i;
clrscr();
char sopt[4][20];
strcpy(sopt[1],"INDIVIDUAL");
strcpy(sopt[2],"LIST");
strcpy(sopt[3],"RETURN TO MAIN");
row=11;
i=1;
int flag=1;
while(flag)
{
clrscr();
box(9,45,15,70);
gotoxy(50,11);
110
printf("%s",sopt[1]);
gotoxy(50,12);
gotoxy(50,13);
textcolor(BLACK);
gotoxy(50,row);
cputs(sopt[i]);
normvideo();
ch=getch();
switch(ch)
{
row--;
row=row<11?13:row;
break;
row++;
row=row>13?11:row;
break;
flag=0;
}
i=row-10;
}
return(i);
}
class bank
{
int acno,cbal;
char acname[10];
public:
void input()
{
clrscr();
box(8,10,16,70);
gotoxy(15,10);
cout<<"ACCOUNT HOLDER NUMBER ";
cin>>acno;
111
gotoxy(15,12);
cout<<"ACCOUNT HOLDER NAME ";
cin>>acname;
gotoxy(15,14);
cout<<"ENTER CURRENT BALANCE ";
cin>>cbal;
}
void display()
{
box(5,10,13,50);
gotoxy(15,7);
cout<<"ACCOUNT HOLDER NUMBER
"<<acno<<endl;
gotoxy(15,9);
cout<<"ACCOUNT HOLDER NAME
"<<acname<<endl;
gotoxy(15,11);
}
void show()
{
gotoxy(5,7);
cout<<acno<<"\t\t"<<acname<<"\t\t"<<cbal;
}
void putbal(int x)
{
cbal=x;
}
int getbal(void)
{
return cbal;
}
int getacno()
{
return acno;
}
int putacno(int y)
{
acno=y;
}
112
};
Popup Menu Program For Processing Bank.Dat File.
# include "my.h"
void main()
{
int op=1,tacno;
bank b;
fstream fp,fp1;
while(op<5)
{
op=menu();
switch(op)
{
case 1:
clrscr();
if(fp.good())
{
while(!fp.eof())
{
tacno=b.getacno();
}
tacno++;
}
else
tacno=100;
b.putacno(tacno);
b.input();
fp.close();
fp.open("bank.dat",ios::app);
fp.write((char *)&b,sizeof(b));
fp.close();
break;
case 2:
clrscr();
box(5,10,9,70);
113
gotoxy(15,7);
cout<<"ENTER ACCOUNT HOLDER NUMBER ";
cin>>tacno;
char tt;
int tamt,bal;
fp.open("bank.dat",ios::in | ios::out);
int i=0;
{
i++;
}
if(!fp.eof())
{
clrscr();
b.display();
box(18,10,23,70);
gotoxy(15,19);
cout<<"ENTER TRANSACTION TYPE D/W ";
cin>>tt;
gotoxy(15,21);
cout<<"ENTER TRANSACTION AMOUNT ";
cin>>tamt;
if(tt=='d' || tt=='D')
bal=b.getbal()+tamt;
else
bal=b.getbal()-tamt;
if(bal>500)
{
b.putbal(bal);
fp.seekp((i*sizeof(b)),ios::beg);
fp.write((char *)&b,sizeof(b));
b.display();
}
else
{
box(20,5,23,70);
gotoxy(10,21);
cout<<"INSUFFICIENT FUNDS "<<tacno;
114
}
}
else
{
box(20,5,22,70);
gotoxy(10,21);
cout<<"ACCOUNT HOLDER NO NOT FOUND "<<tacno;
}
fp.close();
getch();
break;
case 3:
clrscr();
box(10,10,14,60);
gotoxy(15,12);
cout<<"ENTER HOLDER NO TO CANCEL ";
cin>>tacno;
fp1.open("tbank.dat",ios::out);
int s=0;
while(!fp.eof())
{
if(tacno!=b.getacno())
fp1.write((char *)&b,sizeof(b));
else
s++;
}
fp.close();
fp1.close();
remove("bank.dat");
rename("tbank.dat","bank.dat");
clrscr();
box(20,10,22,70);
if(s>0)
{
gotoxy(15,21);
cout<<"ACCOUNT CANCELLED SUCCESSFULLY
"<<tacno<<endl;
115
}
else
{
gotoxy(15,21);
cout<<"ACCOUNT NO NOT FOUND
"<<tacno<<endl;
}
getch();
break;
case 4:
int ch=0;
while(ch<3)
{
ch=smenu();
switch(ch)
{
case 1:
clrscr();
box(10,10,14,60);
gotoxy(20,10);
cout<<"ENTER ACCOUNT HOLDER NUMBER ";
cin>>tacno;
clrscr();
if(!fp.eof())
b.display();
else
{
box(20,10,22,60);
gotoxy(15,21);
cout<<"ACCOUNT HOLDER NUMBER NOT FOUND
"<<tacno<<endl;
}
getch();
fp.close();
break;
case 2:
116
clrscr();
box(1,3,4,75);
r=6;
gotoxy(32,2);
cout<<"ACCOUNT HOLDER LIST ";
gotoxy(5,3);
cout<<"ACNO"<<"\t\t"<<"AC
NAME"<<"\t\t"<<"BALANCE"<<endl;
int k=5;
while(!fp.eof())
{
b.show(k);
r++;
k++;
}
r+=4;
box(4,3,r,75);
fp.close();
getch();
break;
} //switch end (sub menu)
} //while end (sub menu)
} //switch end (main menu)
} //while end (main menu)
} //main end
Sandeep Jewellers, Giddalur Maintains Different Files For This Sales

And Stock Information. They Are
Ornament.Dat Cost.Dat
Ornament-Code Char[10] Type-Of-Ornament

Char[2]
Ornament-Name Char[10] Current-Market-Rate
Int
Weight Int
Type-Of-Ornament Char[10]
117
Customer.Dat
Customer-Number Int
Customer-Name Char[20]
Ornament-Code Char[10]
Number-Of-Items Int
Prepare A Bill For The Customer Using The Above Three Files And
Print The Bill In The Following Format
SANDEEP JEWELERIES AND PEARLS

GIDDALUR
CUSTOMER NUMBER:
CUSTOMER NAME:
ORNAMENT CODE:
ORNAMENT NAME:
WEIGHT:
CURRENT MARKET RATE: (per gram)
NUMBER OF ITEMS:
BILLED AMOUNT:
THANK YOU VISIT AGAIN
Two Types Of Ornaments Are Available Gold And Silver. The

Corresponding Codes Being G & S. The Current Market Rates Per
Gram Is Available In The File Called Cost.Dat Using Which The Bill
To Be Prepared. (Assume That The Above Three Files Are Already
Contains Data In it).
//DATA STORING FOR ORNAMENT.DAT, COST.DAT, AND

CUSTOMER.DAT FILES
118
# include <conio.h>
class ornament
{
char orcode[10],orname[10],ortype;
int wt;
public:
void input()
{
cout<<"ENTER ORNAMENT CODE ";
cin>>orcode;
cout<<"ENTER ORNAMENT NAME ";
cin>>orname;
cout<<"ENTER ORNAMENT TYPE S/G ";
cin>>ortype;
cout<<"ENTER ORNAMENT WEIGHT ";
cin>>wt;
}
};
class cost
{
char ortype;
int cmr;
public:
void accept()
{
cout<<"ENTER ORNAMENT TYPE S/G ";
cin>>ortype;
cout<<"ENTER CURRENT MARKET RATE ";
cin>>cmr;
}
};
class customer
{
int cno,noi;
char cna[10],orcode[10];
public:
void custin()
{
cout<<"ENTER CUSTOMER NUMBER ";
119
cin>>cno;
cout<<"ENTER CUSTOMER NAME ";
cin>>cna;
cout<<"ENTER ORNAMENT CODE G/S ";
cin>>orcode;
cout<<"ENTER NO. OF ITEMS ";
cin>>noi;
}
};
void main()
{
ornament o;
cost c;
customer cust;
fstream fp;
fp.open("ornament.dat",ios::out);
clrscr();
char ch='y';
{
o.input();
fp.write((char *)&o,sizeof(o));
cout<<"DO YOU WANT TO ADD ONE MORE RECORD Y/N
";
cin>>ch;
}
fp.close();
fp.open("cost.dat",ios::out);
clrscr();
ch='y';
{
c.accept();
fp.write((char *)&c,sizeof(c));
";
cin>>ch;
}
fp.close();
fp.open("customer.dat",ios::out);
120
ch='y';
{
cust.custin();
fp.write((char *)&cust,sizeof(cust));
";
cin>>ch;
}
fp.close();
}
Data Processing Program For Ornament.Dat, Cost.Dat And

Customer.Dat Of The Sandeep Jewelers.
//DATA PROCESSING FOR ORNAMENT.DAT, COST.DAT AND

CUSTOMER.DAT
# include <conio.h>
void pline()
{
for(int i=1;i<=80;i++)
cout<<"-";
}
class customer;
class cost;
class ornament
{
char orcode[10],orname[10],ortype;
int wt;
public:
void display()
{
gotoxy(1,10);
pline();
gotoxy(15,11);
cout<<"ORNAMENT CODE: "<<orcode;
121
gotoxy(15,12);
cout<<"ORNAMENT NAME: "<<orname;
gotoxy(1,13);
pline();
gotoxy(30,14);
cout<<"WEIGHT: "<<wt;
}
friend int calcamt(ornament o,customer c,cost
s);
friend int chkcode(ornament o,customer c);
friend int chktype(ornament o,cost s);
};
class cost
{
char ortype;
int cmr;
public:
void out()
{
gotoxy(20,15);
cout<<"CURRENT MARKET RATE (1 gram): "<<cmr;
}
friend int chktype(ornament o,cost s);
s);
};
class customer
{
int cno,noi;
char cna[10],orcode[10];
public:
void output()
{
gotoxy(1,8);
pline();
gotoxy(5,9);
cout<<"CUSTOMER NUMBER: "<<cno;
gotoxy(40,9);
cout<<"CUSTOMER NAME: "<<cna;
gotoxy(20,16);
122
cout<<"NUMBER OF ITEMS: "<<noi;
gotoxy(1,17);
pline();
}
s);
friend int chkcode(ornament o,customer c);
};
int calcamt(ornament o,customer c,cost s)
{
int b;
b=(o.wt*s.cmr*c.noi);
return(b);
}
int chkcode(ornament o,customer c)
{
if(stricmp(o.orcode,c.orcode)==0)
return 1;
else
return 0;
}
int chktype(ornament o,cost s)
{
if(o.ortype==s.ortype)
return 1;
else
return 0;
}
void main()
{
ornament o;
cost c;
customer cust;
int bamt;
fstream fp,fp1,fp2;
fp.open("customer.dat",ios::in);
fp.read((char *)&cust,sizeof(cust));
while(!fp.eof())
{
fp1.open("ornament.dat",ios::in);
123
fp2.open("cost.dat",ios::in);
fp1.read((char *)&o,sizeof(o));
while(chkcode(o,cust)==0 && !fp1.eof())
fp1.read((char *)&o,sizeof(o));
if(fp1.eof())
cout<<"ORNAMENT CODE NOT FOUND ";
else
{
fp2.read((char *)&c,sizeof(c));
while(chktype(o,c)==0 && !fp2.eof())
fp2.read((char *)&c,sizeof(c));
if(fp2.eof())
cout<<"ORNAMENT TYPE NOT FOUND "<<endl;
else
{
clrscr();
bamt=calcamt(o,cust,c);
gotoxy(1,4);
pline();
gotoxy(30,5);
cout<<"LOKKU-IZA JEWELLERS";
gotoxy(35,6);
cout<<"MAIN BAZAR";
gotoxy(37,7);
cout<<"GIDDALUR";
cust.output();
o.display();
c.out();
gotoxy(20,18);
cout<<"BILL AMOUNT: "<<bamt;
gotoxy(1,19);
pline();
}
}
fp1.close();
fp2.close();
getch();
fp.read((char *)&cust,sizeof(cust));
}
fp.close();
124
}
TEXT PROCESSING
C++ provides some functions to process the text files
instead of data files. Text files can open in the same way as you
open the data files. C++ file stream classes provides some
functions to write or read text from files. You can process the
text files by using the following functions.
get() function: This function gets a string from a file stream.

Syntax: streamobject.get();
get() reads character from stream and returns a single

character.
e.g.: fp.get();
put() function: Outputs a character on to a stream.
Syntax: streamobject.put(char ch);
Put() copies a single character ch to the given output

stream.
E.g.: fp.put(ch);
Read A File Name And Print Its Contents In Upper Case.
# include <stdlib.h>
# include <ctype.h>
# include <conio.h>
# include <dos.h>
void main()
{
char fn[40],ch;
fstream fp;
clrscr();
125
cout<<"ENTER A FILE NAME WITH EXTENSION :";
cin>>fn;
fp.open(fn,ios::in);
if(!fp.good())
{
getch();
exit(0);
}
clrscr();
fp.get(ch);
while(!fp.eof())
{
cout<<(char)toupper(ch);
fp.get(ch);
delay(200);
}
fp.close();
getch();
}
Read A File Name And Create A Text File With The Specified Name.
# include <io.h>
# include <conio.h>
void main()
{
char fn[20],ch;
fstream fp;
clrscr();
cout<<"ENTER FILE NAME YOU WANT TO CREATE :";
cin>>fn;
if(access(fn,0) == 0)
{
cout<<"FILE IS ALREADY EXISTS"<<fn<<endl;
126
getch();
exit(0);
}
fp.open(fn,ios::out);
clrscr();
cout<<"ENTER THE CONTENTS '/' TO SHOP :"<<endl;
ch=getche();
while(ch!='/')
{
fp.put(ch);
ch=getche();
if(ch == 13)
{
fp.put('\n');
cout<<endl;
}
}
fp.close();
}
Write A Program To Read Source File Name And Target File Name
And Copy The Contents Of Source File To Target File.
# include <conio.h>
# include <io.h>
void main()
{
char sfn[20],tfn[20],ch;
fstream fp,fp1;
clrscr();
cout<<"ENTER SOURCE FILE NAME YOU WANT TO COPY
:";
cin>>sfn;
if(access(sfn,0) == 0)
{
127
cout<<"ENTER TARGET FILE NAME TO COPY :";
cin>>tfn;
if(access(tfn,0) != 0)
{
fp.open(sfn,ios::in);
fp1.open(tfn,ios::out);
clrscr();
fp.get(ch);
while(!fp.eof())
{
cout<<ch;
fp1.put(ch);
fp.get(ch);
}
fp.close();
fp1.close();
cout<<sfn<<"CPOIED IN
TO :"<<tfn<<"SUCCESSFULLY"<<endl;
}
else
cout<<"TARGET FILE ALREADY
EXISTS:"<<tfn<<endl;
}
else
cout<<"SOURCE FILE DOES NOT
EXISTS :"<<sfn<<endl;
getch();
}
COMMAND LINE ARGUMENTS.
C supports a feature that facilities the supply of

arguments to the main() function. These arguments are
supplied at the time of invoking the program. They are
typically used to pass the names of data files. For
example
C:\>EXAM DATA RESULTS
128
Here exam is the name of the file contains the
program to be executed and data and results are the file
names passed to the program as command line
arguments.
The command line arguments are typed by the user

and are delimited by a space. The first argument is
always the file name and contains the program to be
executed. The main() function which we have been
using up to now without any arguments can take two
arguments as shown below.
void main(int argc, char *argv[ ])
The first argument argc is known as argument

counter represents the number of arguments in the
command line. The second argument argv is known as
argument vector is an array of char type pointer that
point to the command line arguments. The size of this
array will be equal to the value of argc. For example
C:\>EXAM DATA RESULTS
The value of argc would be 3 and argv would be an

array of 3 pointers to strings as shown below
argv[0]--------- exam
argv[1]--------- data
argv[2]--------- results
129
Note that argv[0] always represents the command name
that invokes the program.
Example Program For Command Line Arguments.
# include <stdio.h>
# include <conio.h>
void main(int argc,char *argv[])
{
if(argc == 1)
{
cout<<"REMIND ARGUMENT IS MISSING:";
getch();
exit(0);
}
else
{
clrscr();
cout<<"TOTAL ARGUMENTS :"<<argc<<endl;
for(int i=0;i<argc;i++)
cout<<"THE ARGUMENT "<<"IS"<<argv[i]<<endl;
}
getch();
}
Read A File Name Through Command Line Arguments And Write A

Program To Find Out Where The File Is Existed In The Current
Directory Or No.
# include <conio.h>
# include <io.h>
130
void main(int argc,char *argv[])
{
if(argc == 1)
{
cout<<"REQUIRED ARGUMENT IS MISTIFY :";
exit(0);
}
else if(argc > 2)
{
cout<<"TOO MANY ARGUMENTS :"<<endl;
exit(0);
}
else if(access(argv[1],0) == 0)
cout<<"FILE EXISTS IN THE CURRENT DIRECTORY
"<<argv[1]<<endl;
else
cout<<"FILE NOT FOUND "<<argv[1]<<endl;
}
Read A File Name Through Command Line Arguments And Delete

That File.
STRUCT FTBLK <DIR.H>
DOS file control block structure.
struct ftblk
{
char ft_reserved[21]; //reserved by dos
char ft_altlib; //altlib found
int ft_ftime; //file time
int ft_fdate; //file date
int ft_size; //file size
int ft_name[13];//found file name
};
131
find first() //<dir.h>
find first search a disk directory for files.
Syntax: int findfirst(const char *pathname, struct ftblk *ftblk, int

altlib);
Find first begins a search of a disk directory path name string with
an optional drive specifies path and file name of the file to be found. The
file name portion can contain wild card match characters ( ?, *).
Ftblk: points to ftblk structure that is filled with the file_directory

information it findfirst and find next finds a file that matches path name.
Altlib: dos file_alttribute byte(define in dos.h) used to eligible files for

the search. Dos file attributes are
CONSTANT DESCRIPTION
FA_RDONLY Read only attribute
FA_HIDDEN Hidden file
FA_SYSTEM System file
FA_LABEL Volume label
FA_DIREC Directory
FA_ARCH Archive
On success ( a match was found) this function return 0, on

error( no more files can be found there is some error in the file name)
return -1.
FINDNEXT(): <DIR.H>
Findnext() continue the search for files.
132
Syntax: int findnext(struct ftblk *ftblk);
Findnext() find subsequent files that match the path name
argument of find first()
Ftblk(): points to ftblk structure that is filled with file directory
information findnext() finds a file that matches path name.
For each call to findnext() one file name will be returned until no
more files are found in the directory specified in path name.
Write A Program To Display The Files List From The Current

Directory. Using Command Line Arguments.
Dflcurdi.cpp
City Library Has Computerized Its Work. They Have Maintaining 3

Files For Books, Members And Transactions. They Are
Books Members Transactions

Bcode Number 4 Mno Number10 Mno
Number10
Bname String 30 M-Name String 20 Bcode Number
4
Aname String 30 M-Add String 20 Bname String
30
Status String 1 Book-Taken Number 3 Tdate Date
Rdate Date
Nod Number
2
Change Number
6,2
Write A Program To Satisfy The Following Menu Options.
LIBRARY MENU
1. ADD NEW BOOK.

2. ADD NEW MEMBER.
3. BOOK ISSUED.
133
4. BOOK RETURN.
5. BOOK STATUS.
6. EXIT.
1. If you choose first option new book will be added to the book table.
Book code will be automatically generated.
2. If you choose second option member information will be added to
member table. The will be 0.
3. If you choose third option a member can issue a book. Maximum
number of books issued=3. At the time of issuing we have to enter
book name. If the status is 'y' then he can take the book name.
4. If you choose fourth option the return date will be system date and
the change will be 3 rupees daily.
5. If you choose fifth option accept the book name and display the
status from the data file in your own format.
6. If you choose sixth option exits from the main menu.
Library program.
LINKED LIST.
A list refers to a set of items organized sequentially. An array is
an example of list. In an array, the sequential organization is provided
implicitly by its index. We use the index for accessing and manipulation
of array elements. One major problem with the array is that the size of
an array must be specified at the beginning. This may be a difficult task
in many practical applications.
A completely different way to represent a list is that make each

item in the list part of a structure. That also contains a link to the
structure contains the next item as shown in the following manner.
NEXT NEXT NEXT
X Y
RNO XXX RNO XXX

NEXT NEXT
134
This type of list is called "linked list" because it is a list whose
order is given by from one item to the next. Each structure of the list is
called a node and consists of two fields one containing data and the other
containing the address of the next item ( a pointer to the next item) in
the list. A linked list is therefore a collection of structure ordered not by
their physical placements members but by logical links that are stored as
part of the data in the structure itself. A link is in structure is represented
as follows.
struct test
{
int a;
struct test *p;
};
The first member is integer a and the second a pointer to the next
address in the list as shown below.
Test
A P
Syntax: struct tagname

{
type member1;
type member2;
- -------- -
- - - - - - - -- -
struct tagname *next;
};
Structures which contain a member field that points to the same

structure type is called "self referential structures". The structure may
contain more than one item different data types. How ever one of the
items must be the pointer of the type tagname.
E.g.: struct link
{
int sno;
struct link *next;
};
135
struct link x,y;
xnext=&y;
xnext=sno;
x=xnext;
xsno;
SNO NEXT SNO NEXT
The above statement stores the address of 'y' in to the field x.next
and this establishes a link between x and y. x.next contains the address
of y where the value of the variable y.sno will be stored. We may
continue this process to create a linked list of any number of values.
Every list must have an end, we must there fore indicate the end
of a linked list. This is necessary for processing the list. C has a special
pointer value as "NULL" that can be stored in the next field other last
structure in our structured list. The end of the list is marked as follows
y.next=NULL;
The value of the sno of y can be accessed using the next member
of x as follows
Printf("%d",x.nextsno);
ADVANTAGES OF LINKED LIST.
A linked list is a dynamic data structure there fore the primary

advantages of linked list over arrays is that linked list can glow or shrink
in size during the execution of a program.
Another advantage is linked list does not waste memory space. It

uses the memory that is just needed at any point of time. That is because,
it is not necessary to specify the number of nodes to be used for the list.
The third and more important advantage is that the linked list is
provided flexibility in allowing the items to be reading efficiently. It is
easy to insert or delete items by rearranging the lists.
TYPES OF LINKED LIST.
136
1. Linear linked list or single linked list.
2. Two-way linked list or double linked list.
3. Circular single linked list.
4. Circular double linked list.
Example Program For SINGLE LINKED LIST.
# include <malloc.h>
# include <stdio.h>
# include <conio.h>
struct node
{
int info;
struct node *next;
};
struct node *create()
{
struct node *root,*prev,*new1;
int temp,size;
size=sizeof(struct node);
printf("\n Enter the integers or -999 to stop
");
scanf("%d",&temp);
printf("%d\n",temp);
prev=root=NULL;
while(temp!=-999)
{
new1=(struct node *)malloc(size);
new1->info=temp;
new1->next=NULL;
if(root==NULL)
root=new1;
else
prev->next=new1;
prev=new1;
scanf("%d",&temp);
}
137
return root;
}
void display(start)
struct node *start;
{
printf("\nROOT->");
while(start!=NULL)
{
printf("%d->",start->info);
start=start->next;
}
printf("NULL\n\n");
}
void insert(start,new_info,posn)
struct node **start;
int new_info,posn;
{
struct node *new_node,*temp;
int i;
new_node=(struct node *)malloc(sizeof(struct
node));
new_node->info=new_info;
if((posn==1) || ((*start)==NULL))
{
new_node->next=*start;
*start=new_node;
}
else
{
temp=*start;
i=2;
while((i<posn) && (temp->next!=NULL))
{
temp=temp->next;
++i;
}
new_node->next=temp->next;
temp->next=new_node;
}
}
138
int delete1(start,posn)
struct node **start;
int posn;
{
struct node *temp;
int i,return_value=1;
if(*start!=NULL)
if(posn==1)
*start=(*start)->next;
else
{
temp=*start;
i=2;
while((temp->next!=NULL) && (i<posn))
{
temp=temp->next;
++i;
}
if(temp->next!=NULL)
temp->next=temp->next->next;
else
return_value=0;
}
else
return_value=0;
return return_value;
}
void main()
{
struct node *root;
int new_info,posn,quit;
char c;
root=NULL;
quit=0;
do
{
printf("Create/Insert/Delete/Quit(C/I/D/Q)");
printf("\nEnter your choice ");
do
c=getchar();
139
while(strchr("cCiIdDqQ",c)==NULL);
printf("%c\n",c);
switch(c)
{
case 'c':
case 'C':
root=create();
printf("\n The Created linked list is ");
display(root);
break;
case 'i':
case 'I':
printf("\n Enter element to be inserted ");
scanf("%d",&new_info);
printf("%d\n",new_info);
do
{
printf("Enter the position of insertion ");
scanf("%d",&posn);
printf("%d\n",posn);
}while(posn<1);
insert(&root,new_info,posn);
printf("\nThe linked list after creation
is\n");
display(root);
break;
case 'd':
case 'D':
do
{
printf("Enter the position of deletion ");
scanf("%d",&posn);
}while(posn<1);
if(!delete1(&root,posn))
printf("\n Cannot delete element at position
%d.\n\n",posn);
else
{
140
printf("The linked list after deletion
is \n");
display(root);
}
break;
case 'q':
case 'Q':
quit=1;
}
}while(!quit);
printf("\n");
}
DOUBLE WAY LINKED LIST.
The double way linked list uses double set of pointers one
pointing to the next item and other pointing to the preceding item. This
allows us to travels the list in either direction.
In single linked list, the travelling of nodes is available in only

one direction. That is from one end to another end we can move from a
current node to next node but not to the previous node. So when you
want to refer the node that just crossed is not possible in single linked
list to refer. For that we have to start from the first node to refer that
particular node. To avoid this problem, the double linked lists were
introduced. In general format of the node in double way linked list is as
follow
PREVIOUS N NEXT
The previous pointer points to the previous node and the next
pointer points to the next node. Information is the actual data available
in that node.
Exaple Program For DOUBLE WAY LINKED LIST.
141
# include <stdio.h>
# include <conio.h>
struct node
{
int info;
struct node *back,*next;
};
struct node *create(last)
struct node **last;
{
struct node *root,*prev,*new1;
int new_info,size;
printf("\n Enter the integers or -999 to
stop:");
prev=root=*last=NULL;
while(new_info!=-999)
{
new1->info=new_info;
new1->next=NULL;
if(root==NULL)
{
root=new1;
new1->back=NULL;
}
else
{
prev->next=new1;
new1->back=prev;
}
prev=new1;
}
if(root!=NULL)
*last=new1;
142
return root;
}
void display(start,end)
struct node *start,*end;
{
printf("\nForward Direction.\nROOT<=>");
while(start!=NULL)
{
printf("%d<=>",start->info);
start=start->next;
}
printf("END\n\n");
printf("\nReverse Direction.\nEnd<=>");
while(end!=NULL)
{
printf("%d<=>",end->info);
end=end->back;
}
printf("Root\n\n");
}
void insert(start,last,new_info,posn)
struct node **start,**last;
int new_info,posn;
{
int i;
node));
{
if(*start!=NULL)
(*start)->back=new_node;
*start=new_node;
new_node->back=NULL;
}
else
{
temp=*start;
143
i=2;
{
temp=temp->next;
++i;
}
temp->next->back=new_node;
new_node->back=temp;
}
if(new_node->next==NULL)
*last=new_node;
}
int delete1(start,last,posn)
int posn;
{
struct node *temp;
if(*start!=NULL)
if(posn==1)
{
if(*start!=NULL)
(*start)->back=NULL;
else
*last=NULL;
}
else
{
temp=*start;
i=2;
{
temp=temp->next;
++i;
}
144
{
if(temp->next==NULL)
*last=temp;
else
temp->next->back=temp;
}
else
return_value=0;
}
else
return_value=0;
}
void main()
{
struct node *root,*last;
char c;
root=NULL;
quit=0;
do
{
do
c=getchar();
printf("%c\n",c);
switch(c)
{
case 'c':
case 'C':
root=create(&last);
display(root,last);
break;
case 'i':
case 'I':
145
do
{
scanf("%d",&posn);
}while(posn<1);
insert(&root,&last,new_info,posn);
is\n");
display(root,last);
break;
case 'd':
case 'D':
do
{
scanf("%d",&posn);
}while(posn<1);
if(!delete1(&root,&last,posn))
%d.\n\n",posn);
else
{
is \n");
display(root,last);
}
break;
case 'q':
case 'Q':
quit=1;
}
}while(!quit);
printf("\n");
}
146
CIRCULAR LINKED LIST.
In an ordinary linked lists we can not travels all the elements

when we start from the middle node of the list. To avoid this problem
the circular lists were introduced. In circular lists we can travel all the
elements from when you start from any node in the list. To prepare
circular list maintains the address of the first node in the last node of the
list.
Example Program For CIRCULAR LNKED LIST.

# include <stdio.h>
# include <conio.h>
struct node
{
int info;
struct node *next;
};
struct node *create(last)
struct node **last;
{
struct node *root,*new1;
int temp,size;
printf("\n Enter the integers or -999 to stop
");
scanf("%d",&temp);
*last=root=NULL;
while(temp!=-999)
{
new1->info=temp;
if(root==NULL)
root=new1;
else
(*last)->next=new1;
(*last)=new1;
scanf("%d",&temp);
147
}
if(root!=NULL)
new1->next=root;
return root;
}
void display(start,last)
struct node *start,*last;
{
printf("\nROOT->");
if(start!=NULL)
{
do
{
printf("%d->",start->info);
start=start->next;
}while(last->next!=start);
printf("Root\n\n");
}
else
printf("NULL\n\n");
}
void insert(start,last,new_info,posn)
int new_info,posn;
{
int i;
node));
{
*start=new_node;
if((*last)!=NULL)
(*last)->next=*start;
else
*last=*start;
}
148
else
{
temp=*start;
i=2;
{
temp=temp->next;
++i;
}
if(temp->next==(*start))
*last=new_node;
}
}
int delete1(start,last,posn)
int posn;
{
struct node *temp;
if(*start!=NULL)
if(posn==1)
{
if((*start)->next!=*start)
{
(*last)->next=*start;
}
else
*start=*last=NULL;
}
else
{
temp=*start;
i=2;
{
temp=temp->next;
++i;
149
}
{
if(temp->next==*last)
*last=temp;
}
else
return_value=0;
}
else
return_value=0;
}
void main()
{
struct node *root,*last;
char c;
clrscr();
root=NULL;
quit=0;
do
{
do
c=getchar();
printf("%c\n",c);
switch(c)
{
case 'c':
case 'C':
root=create(&last);
display(root,last);
break;
case 'i':
case 'I':
150
do
{
scanf("%d",&posn);
}while(posn<1);
insert(&root,&last,new_info,posn);
is\n");
display(root,last);
break;
case 'd':
case 'D':
do
{
scanf("%d",&posn);
}while(posn<1);
if(!delete1(&root,&last,posn))
%d.\n\n",posn);
else
{
is \n");
display(root,last);
}
break;
case 'q':
case 'Q':
quit=1;
}
}while(!quit);
printf("\n");
}
151
QUEUES AND STACKS.
These are the programs consist of algorithm and data structures.

The good program is a blend of both choosing and implementing a data
structure are as important as the routines that manipulate the data. How
information is organized and accessed is usually determined by the
nature of the programming problem. There fore as a programmer you
must have in your bag of tricks. The right storage and retrieval methods
for any situation.
The actual representing of data in the computer is built from the

ground up starting with the data types like char, int and float. At the next
level are arrays, which are organized collections of the data types. Next
there are structures, which are different data types accessed under one
name. Transcending these physical aspects of data. The final level
concentrates on the sequence in which the data will be stored and
retrieved. In essence the physical data is linked to data machines, that
controls the way your program accesses the information. These 4 of
these machines
1. A STACK.
2. A QUEUE.
3. A LINKED LIST.
4. A BINARY TREE.
Each method provides a solution to a class of problems, each is
essentially a device that performs a specific storage an retrieval
operation o n the given information and request. The methods share two
operations store an item and retrieve an item in which the item is one
information unit.
STACKS.
A stack is the opposite of a queue, because it uses last in first out
accessing (LIFO). Imagine a stack of plates the bottom plate in the stack
is the last to be used and the top plate (the last plate on the stack) is the
first to be used
QUEUES.
A queue is a linear list of information that is accessed in first in
first out order (FIFO). The first item placed on the queue is the first item
retrieved, the second item placed on the queue is the second item
retrieved and so on.
Example Program For QUEUES.
152
# include <stdio.h>
# include <conio.h>
struct queue
{
int item[100];
int f,r;
}q;
void qinsert(void);
void qdelete(void);
void qdisplay(void);
void main()
{
int resp=0;
clrscr();
q.f=1;
q.r=0;
while(resp<=3)
{
printf("\n\t QUEUE OPERATIONS ");
printf("\n1.Insert an element ");
printf("\n2.Delete an element ");
printf("\n3.Display queue ");
printf("\n4.Exit ");
printf("\n\nYour Choice ");
scanf("%d",&resp);
switch(resp)
{
case 1:
qinsert();
break;
case 2:
qdelete();
break;
case 3:
qdisplay();
break;
case 4:
break;
153
}
}
}
void qinsert()
{
int x;
printf("\nType the element ");
scanf("%d",&x);
q.r++;
q.item[q.r]=x;
}
void qdelete()
{
int x;
x=q.item[q.f];
++q.f;
printf("\nDeleted element %d ",x);
}
void qdisplay()
{
int i;
printf("\nThe Queue elements are \n");
for(i=q.f;i<=q.r;i++)
printf("%d\t",q.item[i]);
}
Example Program For STACKS.

# include <stdio.h>
# include <conio.h>
struct element
{
int item[100];
int top;
};
struct element s;
void push(int x);
void pop();
void main()
{
154
int n,i,x;
s.top=0;
printf("\nEnter how many elements (Below 100)
");
scanf("%d",&n);
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
{
printf("\n Enter an element ");
scanf("%d",&x);
push(x);
}
printf("\n The given elements are \n");
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
pop();
getch();
}
void push(int x)
{
s.top++;
s.item[s.top]=x;
}
void pop()
{
printf("%d ->",s.item[s.top]);
s.top--;
}
Example Program For Perform Operations On BINARY TREES On

Integers.
# include <stdio.h>
# include <conio.h>
struct node
{
int val;
struct node *lptr,*rptr;
};
struct node *str;
int ch,d,td;
155
void dep(str)
struct node *str;
{
if(str->lptr==NULL)
if(d<td)
d=td;
else;
else
{
td++;
dep(str->lptr);
}
if(str->rptr==NULL)
if(d<td)
d=td;
else;
else
{
td++;
dep(str->rptr);
}
td--;
}
void pred(str)
struct node *str;
{
if(str!=NULL)
{
printf("%i",str->val);
pred(str->lptr);
pred(str->rptr);
}
}
void ind(str)
struct node *str;
{
if(str!=NULL)
{
ind(str->lptr);
156
ind(str->rptr);
}
}
void postd(str)
struct node *str;
{
if(str!=NULL)
{
postd(str->lptr);
postd(str->rptr);
}
}
void disp()
{
do
{
printf("1-Pre Order,2-In Order,3-Post
Order.\n");
scanf("%i",&ch);
printf("%i\n",ch);
switch(ch)
{
case 1:
pred(str);
break;
case 2:
ind(str);
break;
case 3:
postd(str);
}
}while(ch<1 || ch>3);
printf("\n");
}
void ins()
{
struct node *temp,*prev;
int n,c,ef;
clrscr();
157
do
{
printf("How Many Elements :");
scanf("%i",&n);
fflush(stdin);
printf("%i\n",n);
}while(n<1);
do
{
printf("Enter The Value For The Node :");
scanf("%i",&c);
fflush(stdin);
printf("%i\n",c);
temp=str;
ef=0;
if(temp==NULL)
{
str=(struct node*)malloc(sizeof(struct
node));
temp=str;
}
else
{
while(temp!=NULL && !ef)
{
prev=temp;
if(c==temp->val)
{
printf("%i is Already Persent In The
Tree!",c);
printf("\n");
ef=1;
}
else
if(c<temp->val)
temp=temp->lptr;
else
temp=temp->rptr;
}
if(!ef)
158
{
temp=(struct node*)malloc(sizeof(struct
node));
if(c<prev->val)
prev->lptr=temp;
else
prev->rptr=temp;
}
}
if(!ef)
{
temp->val=c;
temp->lptr=NULL;
temp->rptr=NULL;
n--;
}
}while(n>0);
}
void sear(c,par,loc)
int c;
struct node **par,**loc;
{
*par=NULL;
*loc=NULL;
while(*loc!=NULL && (*loc)->val!=c)
{
*par=*loc;
if(c<(*loc)->val)
(*loc)=(*loc)->lptr;
else
(*loc)=(*loc)->rptr;
}
}
void del1(loc, par)
struct node *loc,*par;
{
struct node *temp;
if(loc->lptr==NULL)
temp=loc->rptr;
else
159
temp=loc->rptr;
if(par!=NULL)
if(loc==par->lptr)
par->lptr=temp;
else
par->rptr=temp;
else
str=temp;
}
void del2(loc,par)
struct node *par,*loc;
{
struct node *suc,*parsuc;
suc=loc->rptr;
parsuc=loc;
while(suc->lptr!=NULL)
{
parsuc=suc;
suc=suc->lptr;
}
del1(suc,parsuc);
if(par!=NULL)
if(loc==par->lptr)
par->lptr=suc;
else
par->rptr=suc;
else
str=suc;
suc->lptr=loc->lptr;
suc->rptr=loc->rptr;
}
void del()
{
struct node *loc,*par;
int n,c;
do
{
printf("How Many Elements :");
scanf("%i",&n);
fflush(stdin);
160
printf("%i\n",n);
}while(n<1);
do
{
printf("Enter The Element :");
scanf("%i",&c);
fflush(stdin);
printf("%i\n",c);
sear(c,&par,&loc);
if(loc==NULL)
printf("Element Not Found\n");
else
if(loc->lptr!=NULL && loc->rptr!=NULL)
del2(loc,par);
else
del1(loc,par);
n--;
}while(n>0);
}
void main()
{
str=NULL;
printf("Operations On Binary Tree.\n");
do
{
printf("1-Insert,2-Delete,3-Display,4-
Depth,");
printf("5-Quit.\n");
scanf("%i",&ch);
printf("%i\n",ch);
switch(ch)
{
case 1:
ins();
break;
case 2:
del();
break;
case 3:
disp();
161
break;
case 4:
if(str==NULL)
printf("Tree Empty !");
else
{
d=0;
td=0;
dep(str);
printf("Depth Of This Tree :%i\n",d);
}
break;
case 5:
printf("Good Bye !\n");
}
}while(ch!=5);
}
<GRAPHICS.H>
This header file contains all the functions related to graphics
mode.
Initgraph(): Initializes the graphics system.

Syntax: initgraph(int *graphdriver, int *graphmode, char *pathtodriver)
To start the graphics system, you must first call initgraph().

Initgrapg() initializes the graphics system by loading a graphics drive
from disk then putting the system into graphics mode.
*graphdriver(): Integer that specifies the graphics driver to be used.

You can give graph driver a value using a constant of the graphics-
drivers enumeration type.
*graphmode: Integer that specifies the initial graphics mode. If

*graphdriver=DETECT initgraph sets *graphmode to the highest
resolution available for the detected driver.
162
*pathtodriver(): Specifies the directory path where initgraph looks for
graphics drivers. *graphmode and *graphdriver must set to valid
graphics-drivers and graphics-mode values or you will get unpredictable
results. If you tell init graph to autodetect, it calls detect graph to select a
graphics driver and mode.
Graphresult(): Returns an error code for the last unsuccessful graphics
operation.
Syntax: int graphresult();
Graphresult() returns the error code for the last graphics operation
that reported an error then resets the error level to grok. Returns the
current graphics error number, (an integer range -15 to 0).
Grapherrormsg(): Returns a pointer to an error message string.
Syntax: char * grapherrormsg(int error code)
Graph error message returns a pointer to the error message string

associated with error code, the value returned by graph result.
Outtext(): displays a string in a graphics mode. Using current

justification settings, font, direction and size.
Syntax: outtext(char textstring);
Outtextxy(): Displays a string at a specified location.
Syntax: outtextxy(int x,int y,char textstring);
Otutextxy() displays a text string at the given position x, y using

current justification settings current font directions and size.
e.g.: outtext("THOMAS SUGUNAKAR RAJA");
outtextxy(150,200,"SANDEEP KUMAR");
Settextstyle(): Sets the currrent text characteristics for graphics

output.
Syntax: settextstyle(int font, int direction, int size);
163
Sets the text font, the direction in which the text is displayed and
the size of the characters. A call to settextstyle() effects all text output by
outtext() and outtextxy().
Font: It allows the following fonts.
NAME VALUE MEANING
DEFAULT_FONT 0 8X8 bit mapped font.

TRIPLEX_FONT 1 Stroked triplex font.
SMALL_FONT 2 Stroked small font.
SANS_SERIF_FONT 3 Stroked sans serif
font.
GOTHIC_FONT 4 Stroked gothic font.
SCRIPT_FONT 5 Stroked script font.
SIMPLEX_FONT 6 Stroked simplex font.
TRIPLEX_SCR_FONT 7 Stroked triplex scr
font.
COMPLEX_FONT 8 Stroked complex
font.
EUROPEAN_FONT 9 Stroked European
font.
BOLD_FONT 10 Stroked bold font.
HORIZ_DIR 0 Horizontal direction

VERT_DIR 1 Vertical direction.
Direction Specifies the direction of the text.

Size The size of the each character can be magnified using the size
factor.
Setcolor(): Sets the current drawing color.

Syntax: setcolor(int color);
164
Setcolor() sets the current drawing color to color, which can range
from 0 to getmaxcolor. To select a drawing color with setcolor. You can
pass either the color number or the equaling color name. The drawing
color is the value that pixels are set to when the program draws lines etc.
You can use the following colors.
COLOR VALUE
BLACK 0
BLUE 1
GREEN 2
CYAN 3
RED 4
MAGENTA 5
BROWN 6
LIGHT GRAY 7
DARK GRAY 8
LIGHT BLUE 9
LIGHT GREEN 10
LITGHT CYAN 11
LIGHT RED 12
LIGHT MAGENTA 13
YELLOW 14
WHITE 15
Getcolor(): getcolor() returns the current drawing color.

Syntax: Int getcolor();
Getmaxcolor();
Returns maximum color of value.

Syntax: int getmaxcolor()
Getmaxcolor() returns the highest valid color value that can be

passed to setcolor for the current graphics driver and mode.
Setbkcolor(): setbkcolor() sets the current back ground color.

Syntax: setbkcolor(int color);
165
Setbkcolor sets the background to the color specified by color.
Getbkcolor(): returns the current back ground color.

Syntax: int getbkcolor();
Getbkcolor returns the current back ground color.
Circle(): This draws a circle.
Syntax: circle(int x, int y, int radius);

Circle draws a circle in the current drawing color
(x,y) center point of circle.
Radius: radius of circle
Arc() draws a circle arc

Syntax: arc( int x., int y, int stangle, int endangle, int radius);
Arc draws a circular arc in the current drawing color.
(x,y)---------------- center point of arc.
stangle------------- start angle in degrees.
endangle-----------end angle in degrees.
radius---------------radius of arc.
Pieslice(): pieslice() draws and fills a curcular pie slice.

Syntax: pieslice(int x, int y, int stangle, int endangle, radius);
Pieslice() draws a pieslice in the current drawing color, then fills the
current fill pattern and fill color.
(x,y)-------------------center point of a pieslice.

Stangle----------------start angle in degrees.
Endangle--------------end angle in degrees.
Radius-----------------radius of arc, circle and pieslices.
The arc of a slice travels from stangle to endangle. If stangle=0 and
endangle=360, the call to arc draws a complete circle.
Angle for arc, circle and pieslices(counter-clockwise):
166
Getmaxx(): Returns maximum x screen coordinate.
Syntax: int getmaxx();
Getmaxx() returns the maximum value (screen relative) for the

current graphics driven and mode.
Getmaxy(): Returns maximum y value coordinate.
Syntax: int getmaxy();
Getmaxy() returns the maximum y value (screen relative) for the

current graphics driver and mode.
Example Program For Sample Graphics.
# include <stdio.h>
# include <conio.h>
# include <graphics.h>
void main()
{
int gm,gd,ec,grok;
gd=DETECT;
initgraph(&gd,&gm," ");
167
ec=graphresult();
if(ec != grok)
{
printf("GRAPHICS ERROR:
%s\n",grapherrormsg(ec));
printf("ENTER ANY KEY TO HOLD");
getch();
exit(1);
}
printf("X VALUE :%d\n",getmaxx());
printf("Y VALUE :%d\n",getmaxy());
outtextxy(100,100,"WELCOME TO GRAPHICS");
getch();
closegraph();
}
Example Program For Displaying The Text In Graphics Format.
# include <conio.h>
void main()
{
int gd,gm,i;
gd=DETECT;
setcolor(GREEN);
setcolor(RED);
for(i=0;i<=4;i++)
{
cleardevice();
settextstyle(i,0,5);
outtextxy(50,50,"DASARI");
outtextxy(100,100,"SANDEEP KUMAR");
outtextxy(150,50,"SENIOR INTER");
getch();
}
closegraph();
}
168
Example Program For Displaying A Text In Corresponding Place
Using Commands In Program.
# include <conio.h>
void main()
{
int gd,gm,i,x,y,c,center_text;
gd=DETECT;
x=getmaxx()/2;
y=getmaxy()/2;
for(x=25,i=0;i<250,i<5;i++)
{
if(c == getmaxcolor())
c=0;
setcolor(c);
arc(x,y,0,180,i);
}
setcolor(YELLOW);
settextstyle(4,0,5);
settextjustify(center_text,center_text);
outtextxy(x,y,"SANDEEP KUMAR");
getch();
closegraph();
}
set color(c);
setfillstyle(0,c);
pieslice(x,y,0,180,I);
delay(1000);
setfillstyle(1,RED);
pieslice(x,y,0,180,I);
Line(): Draws a line between two specified points.
169
Syntax: line(int x1, int y1, int x2, int y2);
Line draws a line from (x1,y1) to (x2,y2) using the current color,
line, style and thickness.
Setlinestyle(): Sets the current line style and width or pattern.
Syntax: Setlinestyle(int linestyle, unsigned pattern, int thickness);

Sets the style for all drives drawn by line, lineto, rectangle,
drawpoly etc. You can use the following line styles.
NAME VALUE MEANING
SOLID_LINE 0 Displays solid line.
DOTTED_LINE 1 Displays dotted line.
CENTER_LINE 2 Displays centered

line.
DASHED_LINE 3 Displays dashed line.
USERBIT_LINE 4 Displays use defined

line
Style.
Bar(): This function draws a bar.

Syntax: bar(int left, int top, int right, int bottom);
Bar() draws a filled in rectangular two dimensional bar. The bar is

filled using the current filled part and fill color bar() does not outline the
bar. To draw an outlined two dimensional bar else bar3d() with depth=0.
(left-top):- the rectangle upper left corner.
170
(right-bottom):- the rectangles lower right.
Setfillstyle(): sets the fill pattern and color.

Syntax: setfillstyle(int pattern, int color);
Setfillstyle() sets the current fill pattern and fill color.
FILL PATTERN-NAMES VALUE MEANS FILL

WITH
EMPTY-FILL 0 Back ground color.

SOLID-FILL 1 Solid fill.
LINE-FILL 2
LTSLASH-FILL 3 //// this type of thin
lines.
SLASH-FILL 4 thick lines.
BKSLASH-FILL 5 \\\\\\ thick lines.
LTBKSLASH-FILL 6 \\\\\\\\\\
HATCH-FILL 7 Light hatch.
XHATCH-FILL 8 Heavy cross hatch.
INTERLEAVE-FILL 9 Interleaving lines.
WIDE-DOT-FILL 10 Widely spaced dots.
CLOSE-DOT-FILL 11 Closely spaced dots.
USER-FILL 12 User defined fill
pattern.
All EMPTY-FILL fill with the current fill color. EMPTY-FILL

uses the current back ground color.
Bar3d(): This functions draws a 3-d bar.

Syntax: bar3d(int left, int top, int right, int bottom, int depth, int
topflag);
Bar3d() draws a three dimensional rectangular bar, then fills it

using the current fill pattern. And fill color. The three dimensional
outline of the bar is drawn in the current line style and color.
Depth: Bars depth in pixels.
171
Topflag: Whether a three dimensional top is put on the bar or hot.
Left top: Rectangle upper left corner.
Right bottom: Rectangle lower right corner
If topflag is non zero a top is put on the bar. If top flag is 0, no top
is put on the bar. This makes it possible to stack serial bars on top of one
another.
Rectangle(): This function draws a rectangle.

Syntax: rectangle(int left, int top, int right, int bottom);
Rectangle() draws a rectangle in the current line style, thickness
and drawing color. Left top is the upper left corner of the rectangle and
right bottom is it is lower right corner.
Example Program For Drawing Bar Graph.
# include <stdio.h>
# include <conio.h>
# include <dos.h>
void main()
{
int gd,gm,i=0,x,y;
gd=DETECT;
x=getmaxx()/2;
y=getmaxy()/2;
for(i=0;i<13;i++)
{
setcolor(RED);
setfillstyle(i,WHITE);
bar3d(x-100,y-100,x+100,y+100,30,1);
delay(1000);
}
closegraph();
}
Rand(): Random numbers generator.
Syntax: int rand();
172
Rand uses a multiplicative congenital random number generator
with period 232 to return to return successive pseudo random number in
the range 0 to RAND-MAX.
Random(): Macro that returns an integer.

Syntax: int random(int num);
Random returns a random numbers between 0 and (num-1).
Imagesize(): Returns the number of bytes to require to store a bit
image.
Syntax: int imagesize(int left, int top, int right, int bottom);
Imagesize() determines the size of the memory area required to

store a BIT image. Image size returns the size of required memory area
in bytes use malloc() function to allocate memory for the specified
object.
Getimage(): Saves a bit image of the specified region into

memory.
Syntax: Getimage(int left, int top, int right, int bottom, int y,
bitmap);
Getimage() copies an image from the screen to memory left, top,

right, bottom, defines the screen area to which the rectangle is copied.
Putimage(): outputs a bit image to screen.

Syntax: Putimage(int left, int top, int *bitmap, int op);
Putimage() puts the bit image previous saved with setimage()

back on the screen with the upper left corner of the image placed at left,
top. Bit map points to the area in memory where the source image is
stored. The op parameter to put image specifies a combination operator
that controls how the color function each destination pixel on screen is
computed based on the pixel on screen and the corresponding source
pixel in memory. You can use the following for op
VALUE DESCRIPTION
0 Copy
1 Exclusive OR
173
2 Inclusive OR
3 AND
4 Copy the inverse of the
source.
Sound(): Sound turns the PC speakers on at the specified frequency.

Syntax: sound(unsigned frequency);
Frequency specifies the frequency of the sound in hertz(cycles per
seconds).
Nosound(): No sound turns the PC speakers off.

Syntax: Nosound()
No sound turns the speaker off after it has been turned on by a call
to sound().
Restore crtmode(): Restores the character mode screen to its pre

init graph settings.
Syntax: restorecrtmode();
Getgraphmode(): Returns the current graphics mode.

Syntax: Getgraphmode();
Your program must make a successful call to initgraph before
calling Getgraphmode().
Sector(): Sector draws and fills an elliptical pieslice.

Syntax: sector(int x, int y, int stangle, int endangle, int radius, int
yradius);
Sector draws and fills and elliptical pieslice in the current drawing
color then fills if using the patterns and color defined by set fill style and
set fill pattern.
Example Program For Drawing Lines, Circles And Lines Randomly

On The Screen.
# include <stdio.h>
# include <conio.h>
# include <dos.h>
174
void main()
{
int gd,gm;
gd=DETECT;
clear device();
while(!kbhit())
{
setcolor(random(15));
line(random(640),random(50),random(640),random
(50));
circle(random(640),random(480),random(50));
line(random(640),random(50),random(640),random
(480));
delay(2);
}
closegraph();
}
Example Program For Drawing Our Indian Flag.
# include <conio.h>
void main()
{
int gd,gm;
gd=DETECT;
bar(0,0,getmaxx(),100);
setfillstyle(1,WHITE);
setfillstyle(1,GREEN);
setcolor(BLACK);
circle(280,150,50);
line(230,150,330,150);
line(280,100,280,200);
175
line(245,113,316,187);
getch();
closegraph();
}
Example Program For Drawing Circles And Lines.
# include <conio.h>
# include <dos.h>
void drawman()
{
circle(300,100,30);
circle(202,100,5);
circle(318,100,5);
line(300,130,300,200);
line(300,137,350,145);
line(300,137,250,145);
line(300,200,200,240);
line(300,200,320,240);
}
void main()
{
int gd,gm,col=1;
gd=DETECT;
while(!kbhit())
{
setcolor(col);
drawman();
arc(290,110,180,0,4);
line(350,145,355,137);
line(250,145,255,137);
line(200,240,272,244);
line(320,240,320,244);
settextstyle(4,0,5);
outtextxy(50,300,"art by D.S.SANDEEP KUMAR");
sleep(3);
cleardevice();
176
drawman();
arc(250,110,0,180,4);
line(250,145,355,150);
line(250,145,255,150);
line(280,240,272,235);
line(320,240,320,235);
outtextxy(80,200,"DONT WORRY, BE HAPPY");
outtextxy(80,300,"art by SIMON PAL");
sleep(3);
cleardevice();
col++;
if(col>15)
col=1;
sound(random(600));
}
nosound();
closegraph();
}
Example Program For Drawing Indian Flag With Stand.

# include <conio.h>
void main()
{
int gd,gm;
gd=DETECT;
setfillstyle(1,BLUE);
bar(100,100,105,300);
bar(106,100,180,120);
setfillstyle(1,LIGHTGRAY);
bar(106,121,180,141);
circle(144,131,10);
setfillstyle(1,GREEN);
bar(106,142,180,162);
setfillstyle(1,LIGHTBLUE);
bar(90,300,115,320);
177
setfillstyle(1,CYAN);
bar(80,321,125,341);
setfillstyle(1,BROWN);
bar(70,341,135,361);
outtextxy(150,50,"I LOVE INDIA");
getch();
closegraph();
}
Example Program For Drawing An Putpixel() And RANDOM

FUNCTION.
# include <conio.h>
void main()
{
int gd,gm;
clrscr();
gd=DETECT;
while(!kbhit())
putpixel(random(640),random(400),random(15));
closegraph();
}
Example Program From Drawing Charts.
# include <stdio.h>
# include <conio.h>
void main()
{
int gd,gm,x1,y1,x2,y2,x3,y3,ch,n1,n2,n3;
float temp;
char tit[30];
gd=DETECT;
178
printf("\nENTER FIRST VALUE FOR X-AXIS :");
scanf("%d",&x1);
printf("\nENTER SECOND VALUE FOR X-AXIS :");
scanf("%d",&x2);
printf("\nENTER THIRD VALUE FOR X-AXIS :");
scanf("%d",&x3);
printf("\nENTER FIRST VALUE FOR Y-AXIS :");
scanf("%d",&y1);
printf("\nENTER SECOND VALUE FOR Y-AXIS :");
scanf("%d",&y2);
printf("\nENTER THIRD VALUE FOR Y-AXIS :");
scanf("%d",&y3);
printf("\nENTER TITLE");
scanf("%s",tit);
ch=0;
while(ch<5)
{
cleardevice();
gotoxy(20,4);
printf("\n1.LINE GRAPH");
gotoxy(20,5);
printf("\n2.BAR GRAPH");
gotoxy(20,6);
printf("\n3.3D BAR GRAPH");
gotoxy(20,7);
printf("\n4.PIE GRAPH");
gotoxy(20,8);
printf("\n5.EXIT GRAPH");
gotoxy(20,10);
printf("\nENTER YOUR CHOICE\t");
scanf("%d",&ch);
cleardevice();
switch(ch)
{
case 1:
if(y1>=10000)
n1=y1/1000;
else
n1=y1/100;
179
if(y2>=10000)
n2=y2/1000;
else
n2=y2/100;
if(y3>=10000)
n3=y3/1000;
else
n3=y3/100;
outtextxy(300,50,tit);
line(200,400,200,(300-x1));
setcolor(3);
circle(200,(300-x1),5);
setcolor(4);
line(200,(300-x1),220,(300-x2));
circle(220,(300-x2),5);
setcolor(2);
circle(240,(300-x3),5);
line(220,(300-x2),240,(300-x2));
getch();
break;
case 2:
if(y1>=10000)
n1=y1/1000;
else
n1=y1/100;
if(y2>=10000)
n2=y2/1000;
else
n2=y2/100;
if(y3>=10000)
n3=y3/1000;
else
n3=y3/100;
setfillstyle(1,4);
bar(200,400,220,(300-x1));
setfillstyle(1,7);
bar(221,400,241,(300-x2));
setfillstyle(1,2);
bar(242,400,262,(300-x3));
180
getch();
break;
case 3:
if(y1>=10000)
n1=y1/1000;
else
n1=y1/100;
if(y2>=10000)
n2=y2/1000;
else
n2=y2/100;
if(y3>=10000)
n3=y3/1000;
else
n3=y3/100;
setfillstyle(1,4);
bar3d(200,400,220,(300-x1),60,1);
setfillstyle(1,7);
bar3d(221,400,241,(300-x2),60,1);
setfillstyle(1,2);
bar3d(242,400,262,(300-x3),60,1);
getch();
break;
case 4:
if(y1>=10000)
n1=y1/1000;
else
n1=y1/100;
if(y2>=10000)
n2=y2/1000;
else
n2=y2/100;
if(y3>=10000)
n3=y3/1000;
else
n3=y3/100;
temp=360.0/(x1+x2+x3);
n1=x1*temp;
181
n2=x2*temp;
n3=x3*temp;
setfillstyle(1,4);
pieslice(200,200,0,n1,200);
setfillstyle(1,7);
pieslice(200,200,n1,(n1+n2),200);
setfillstyle(1,2);
pieslice(200,200,(n1+n2),(n1+n2+n3),200);
getch();
break;
}
}
closegraph();
}
182

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C++

OBJECT ORIENTED PROGRAMMING

Procedure oriented programming basically consists of writing a

In a multi function program, many important data items are placed

The major motivative factor in the invention of object oriented

LOCAL DATA LOCAL DATA

OOP allows decomposing a problem in to a number of entities

ORGANISATION DATA & FUNCTIONS IN OBJECT

OOP is the most recent concept in the programming. It is

 CONCEPTS OF OBJECT ORIENTED PROGRAMMING

 CLASS: Class is a data type (user defined) to declare an

 DATA ABSTRACTION AND ENCAPSULATION

Placing of data and functions into a single unit (class) is known as

Abstraction refers to the act of representing essential features

Inheritance is the process by which objects of one class acquire

Polymorphism means the ability to take more than one form. It

Binding refers to the linking of a procedure call to the code to be

"cout <<" : It is the output object in the C++ program.

The operator "<<" is called an insertion or put to operator.

"cin>>" : It is the input object in C++ program.

The operator ">>" is known as extraction or getfrom

Example For A C++ Program

Read A Number And Write A Program To Find Out The Given

Read Weekday Number And Print Weekday Name.

Program To Input Two Numbers And Print All Arithmetic Operations.

C++ introduces a new kind of variable known as the

Datatype &ref_var = variable;

A reference variable must be initialized at the time of

E.g.: int a=200;

Example For Reference Variable

FUNCTIONS WITH DEFAULT ARGUMENTS :

C++ allows to call a function without specifying all its

Ex: int add (int x, int y=0, int z=0);

Ex: add (10,20,30);

float add(float a,float b) { return(a+b); }

long add(long a,long b) { return(a+b);}

float add(int a,float b) { return(a+b); }

float add(float a,int b) { return(a+b); }

long add(int a,long b) { return(a+b); }

long add(long a,int b) { return(a+b); }

cout<<"INTEGER VALUES ARE :"<<x<<"\t"<<y<<endl;

cout<<"SUM OF TWO INTEGER VALUES

C++ supports all the features of structures as

Example For Structure Program.

A class is a way to bind the data and its associated

Generally a class specification has two parts.

The class declaration describes the type and scope

The general form of a class declaration is:

Read Employ Number, Employ Name, Grade, Basic Salary And

Read Student Number, Student Name, 3 Subjects' Marks. Write A

Read Employ Number, Employ Name, Grade, Basic Salary And

FUNCTION DEFINITIONS OUTSIDE THE CLASS

Member functions that are declared inside a class have to

FUNCTION DEFINITION OUTSIDE THE CLASS.

We know that an array can be of any data type including

E.g.: emp[0].age = 25;

C++ allows a common function to be made friendly with

Special characteristics of a friend functions.

1. It is not in the scope of a class to which it has been

Friend Function Example.

2nd Example For A Friend Function.

A constructor is a special member function whose task is