WELDING TECHNOLOGY

Introduction - Welding is a process for joining different materials. The large bulk of materials that are
welded are metals and their alloys, although the term welding is also applied to the joining of other
materials such as thermoplastics.
Welding joins different metals/alloys with the help of a number of processes in which heat is supplied
either electrically or by means of a gas torch. In order to join two or more pieces of metal together by one
of the welding processes, the most essential requirement is Heat. Pressure may also be employed, but this
is not, in many processes essential.
The use of welding in today's technology is extensive. It had a phenomenal rise since about 1930; this
growth has been faster than the general industrial growth. Many common everyday use items, e.g.,
automobile cars, aircrafts, ships, electronic equipment, machinery, household appliances, etc., depend
upon welding for their economical construction.

History of Gas Welding - The oxyacetylene process was an outgrowth of to discovery of

Henry Louis Le Chatelier, a French chemist, who in 1895 showed that the combustion of
acetylene with oxygen produced a flame having a temperature far higher than that of any
gas flame previously known.

The commercial success of the oxyacetylene process, however, depended upon the
availability of oxygen and acetylene in sufficient quantities to make the process practical. In
the early 1900's torches of a practical type were introduced and by 1903 the oxyacetylene
process began to be used industrially.

History of Arc Welding - Electric arc was first described by Davy in England in the year 1809, but the
beginning of arc welding could become possible only with the improvements in electric dynamos or
generators between 1877 and 1880. Auguste de Meritens established arc welding process in 1881 which
was applied to join certain components of electrical storage batteries.

The joining of metals, using a carbon arc was suggested by Moissan (a Frenchman) in 1881, but it was
only between 1885 and 1887 when, in Russia, Bernardos and Olszewski got patented and used single
carbon arc welding for joining metals. In 1889 Zerener processed an idea, which aided later on to develop
Twin Carbon arc welding.

In 1892, in Germany, N.G. Slavianoff proposed the use of bare wire metallic electrodes for joining metals.
The arc being unshielded in this case, satisfactory welds could not be produced. In 1907, in Sweden, Oscar
Kjellberg got a patent for covered electrodes. The coating which he employed contained only arc
stabilizing materials, and thus a good welded joint was not obtained.

In 1912, in USA Strohmenger obtained another patent on covered electrodes and the first good welded
joint was produced. Strohmenger used a coating of blue asbestos with sodium silicate as a binder. Since
then a lot of changes and developments have occurred as regards the constituents of flux coating and core
wire compositions. Covered electrodes were commercialized in the year 1929.

History of Resistance Welding -Elihu Thomson, a Professor at Franklin Institute in

Philadelphia, was the first to demonstrate the possibility of joining metals by resistance
welding. His experiments which were completed in 1886, led to the very extensive, complex
methods which are useful in the assembly of many of our modern structures.

Today multiple electrode machines are employed in high production units for completing
hundreds of welds in fast moving production lines.At the present time, welding practice is
divided into about 70% Arc welding with the balance divided between Resistance welding
and Oxyacetylene welding.

Classification of Welding Processes - There are about 35 different welding and brazing processes and
several soldering methods in use by industry today.There are various ways of classifying the welding and
allied processes. For example, they may be classified on the basis of :
(i) Source of heat, i.e., flame, arc, etc.
(ii) Type of interaction i.e. liquid/liquid (fusion welding) or solid/solid (solid state welding).
In general, various welding and allied processes are classified as follows:
1. Gas Welding
Airacetylene Welding
Oxyacetylene Welding
Oxyhydrogen Welding
Pressure gas Welding

2. Arc Welding
Carbon Arc Welding
Flux Cored Arc Welding
TIG (or GTAW) Welding
Plasma Arc Welding
Electroslag Welding and Electro gas Welding
Stud Arc Welding.
Shielded Metal Arc Welding
Submerged Arc Welding
MIG (or GMAW) Welding

3. Resistance Welding
Spot Welding
Seam Welding
Projection Welding
Resistance Butt Welding
Flash Butt Welding
Percussion Welding
High Frequency Resistance Welding.

4. Solid State Welding

Cold Welding
Diffusion Welding
Explosive Welding
Forge Welding
Friction Welding
Hot Pressure Welding
Roll Welding
Ultrasonic Welding.
5. Thermo Chemical Welding Processes
Thermit Welding
Atomic Hydrogen Welding.

6. Radiant Energy Welding Processes

Electron Beam Welding
Laser Beam Welding.

Commonly Welded Base Metals - Metals can be classified as

1. Ferrous
2. Nonferrous. Ferrous materials contain iron and the one element people use more than all others is Iron.
Ferrous materials are the most important metals/alloys in the metal lurgical and mechanical industries
because of their very extensive use.
Ferrous materials finding day to day welding applications are:
1. Wrought Iron.
2. Cast Iron.

3. Carbon Steel (Low. Medium and High Carbon Steels).

4. Cast Steels.
5. Alloy Steels.
6. Stainless Steels, etc.
Nonferrous materials are those that are not iron based.
Like ferrous materials, nonferrous materials also find extensive industrial applications.
Nonferrous materials finding day to day welding applications are :
7. Aluminium and its alloys.
8. Copper and its alloys.
9. Magnesium and its alloys.
10. Nickel and its alloys.
11. Zinc and its alloys, etc.

Advantages of Welding -
(i) A good weld is as strong as the base metal.
(ii) General welding equipment is not very costly.
(iii) Portable welding equipments are available.
(iv) Welding permits considerable freedom in design.
(v) A large number of metals/alloys both similar and dissimilar can be joined by welding.
(vi) Welding can join workpieces through spots, as continuous pressure tight seams, end to
end and in a number of other configurations.
(viii) Welding can be mechanized.

Disadvantages of Welding -
(i) Welding gives out harmful radiations (light) fumes arid spatter.
(ii) Welding results in residual stresses and distortion of the work pieces.
(iii) Jigs and fixtures are generally required to hold and position the parts to be welded.
(iv) Edge preparation of the workpieces is generally required before welding them.
(v) A skilled welder is a must to produce a good welding job.
(vi) Welding heat produces metallurgical changes. The structure of the welded joint is not
same as that of the parent metal.
(vii) A welded joint for many reasons, needs stress relief heat treatment.

Welding Compared to Rivetting and Casting - Bridges, ships and boilers which were previously riveted
are now welded. Machine tool beds which were earlier cast are now fabricated using welding. In many
fields welding has replaced riveting and casting processes. Some of the reasons, for the same, are as
follows:
1. Welding is more economical and is a much faster process as compared to both casting and riveting.
2. Fabricated mild steel structures are lighter as compared to (cast) cast iron ones.
3. Fabricated mild steel structures have more tensile strength and rigidity as compared to (cast) cast iron
ones.

4. Welding can join dissimilar metals and thus in a complicated structure (depending upon strength or
other criteria) different parts of the structure can be fabricated with different materials.
5. For the same complexity of a component the design of a welded structure is simpler as compared to that
of a cast part. Standard rolled sections help considerably in fabricating different structures by welding.
6. Being noiseless as compared to riveting, welding finds extensive use, when making modifications,
additions or extensions in hospital buildings.
7. Cost of pattern making and storing is eliminated.
8. As compared to casting and riveting fewer persons are involved in a welding fabrications.
9. Welding fabrication involves inventory, much less as compared to casting and since no patterns are
involved, the chances of obsolescence are negligible.
10. Against riveted construction welding fabrication involves less cost of handling.

11. Structural shapes not easily obtainable with riveting or casting can be produced by welding without
much difficulty.
12. Welding design involves lower costs and it is very flexible also.
13. Fabrication by welding saves machining costs involved in cast parts.
14. Welded pressure vessels are more (fluid and) pressure tight as compared to riveted ones. Moreover, for
pressure tightness, the rivets must be calked.
15. Ratio between weight of weld metal and the entire weight of structure is much lesser than the ratio
between the weight of rivets and the entire weight of the structure.
Welded structures are comparatively lighter than corresponding riveted ones.
16. Cover plates, connecting angles, gusset plates, etc., needed in riveted construction are not required
when welding the structures.
17. Members of such shapes that present difficulty for riveting can be easily welded.
18. Welding can be carried out at any point on a structure, but, riveting always requires enough clearance
to be done.

19. A welded structure possesses a better finish and appearance than the corresponding riveted structure.
20. Layout for punching or drilling of holes is not required in welding.
21. Drilling holes in the plates in order to accommodate rivets, breaks material continuity and weakens a
riveted structure.
22. Cost of standard rolled sections is much less as compared to that of a casting with the result that
welded structures involve less material costs.
23. Making changes in an already cast or riveted structure is extremely difficult, if not impossible. On the
other hand a welded structure can be modified or repaired without much difficulty.
24. Welding can produce a 100% efficient joint which is difficult to make by riveting.

25. Riveting high strength steels presents the problem of acquiring high strength steel rivets.
26. Old structures can easily be reinforced by welding.
Whereas welding claims its supremacy, casting, however has got its own good points. For example,
(i) a product is obtained as one piece, ,
(ii) thermal effects as in welding are not there,
(iii) very heavy and bulky parts like those of power plants and mill housings which are otherwise difficult
to fabricate can be cast.

Practical Applications of Welding - Welding has been employed in Industry as a tool for:
(a) Regular fabrication of automobile cars, aircrafts, refrigerators, etc.
(b) Repair and maintenance work, e.g., joining broken parts, rebuilding Worn out components, etc.
A few important applications of welding are listed below:
1. Aircraft Construction:
(a) Welded engine mounts.
(b) Turbine frame for jet engine.
(c) Rocket motor fuel and oxidizer thanks.
(d) Ducts, fittings, cowling components, etc.

2. Automobile Construction:
(a) Arc welded car wheels.
(b) Steel rear axle housing.
(c) Frame side rails.
(d) Automobile frame, brackets, etc.
3. Bridges:
(a) Pier construction.
(b) Section lengths.
(c) Shop and field assembly of lengths, etc.
4. Buildings:
(a) Column base plates.
(b) Trusses.
(c) Erection of structure, etc.

5. Pressure Vessels and Tanks:

(a) Clad and lined steel plates.
(b) Shell construction.
(c) Joining of nozzle to the shell, etc.
6. Storage Tanks:
(a) Oil, gas and water storage tanks.
7. Rail Road Equipment:
Locomotive
(a) Under frame.
(b) Air receiver.
(c) Engine.
(d) Front and rear hoods, etc.
8. Pipings and Pipelines:
(a) Rolled plate piping.
(b) Open pipe joints.
(c) Oil, gas and gasoline pipe lines, etc.

9. Ships:
(a) Shell frames.
(b) Deck beams and bulkhead stiffeners.
(c) Girders to shells.
(d) Bulkhead webs to plating, etc.
10. Trucks and trailers.
11. Machine tool frames, cutting tools and dies.
12. Household and office furniture.
13. Earth moving machinery and cranes.
In addition, arc welding finds following applications in repair and maintenance work:
14. Repair of broken and damaged components and machinery such as tools, punches, dies, gears, shears,
press and machine tools frames.
15. Hard facing and rebuilding of worn out or undersized (costly) parts rejected during inspection.
16. Fabrication of jigs, fixtures, clamps and other work holding devices.
Welding Quality - Quality is the degree of conformity to a certain predetermined standard. Standards
result ultimately from the establishment of objectives. If the company has an objective of gaining a
reputation for manufacturing a high quality product, standards will have to be high.
In order to meet these high standards, there would have to be a very rigid quality control program.
Increased quality generally results in higher prices. Quality is a relative term and is generally explained
with reference to the end use of the product.

For example, a gear used in a sugarcane juice extracting machine though not of the same material and
without possessing good finish, tolerance and accuracy as that of a gear used in the headstock of a
sophisticated lathe may be considered of good quality if it works satisfactorily in the juice extracting
machine. Thus a component is said to be of good quality if it works well in the equipment for which it is
meant.

Compared to other common fabrication techniques, welding is a relatively new technology. Ever since its
initial introduction there has been a keen interest in the resulting quality of welds produced. For this
reason much of our present inspection technology exists because of the need to provide assurance that
welds are suitable for their intended service.

Quality Assurance V/S Quality Control - In welding fabrication work, quality assurance is concerned with
defining and planning all the operations necessary to manufacture a product which will perform satisfactorily in
service but which has been completed in the most economical manner. It covers design, evaluation of the
manufacturing procedures and definition of inspection criteria for each stage, including testing the final product.
One can differentiate between quality assurance and quality control because the latter relates to the system
established to monitor each stage of manufacture with a view to achieving the requirement specified by quality
assurance and be of proper size. They may be painted/coated to prevent corrosion etc.

Factors to be Considered for Weld Quality - Weld quality relates directly to the integrity of a weld. It
underlies all of the design fabrication and inspection steps necessary to ensure that a welded product will
be capable of serving the intended function for the desired life.
Factors to be considered for weld quality are related to :
(i) Design,
(ii) Fabrication,
(iii) Inspection,
(iv) Operation and maintenance,
(v) Economy.

(i) Design
Weld quality includes weld design considerations, which means that each weldment should be :
(a) adequately designed to meet the intended service for the required life,
(b) fabricated with specified materials and in accordance with the design concepts,
(c) handled and maintained properly. The design of a weldment should be consistent with sound
engineering practices.
Components of adequate size should be specified to ensure that stresses from anticipated service loads are
not excessive. The intended service should be carefully analyzed to determine whether cyclic loading
might result in fatigue failure in highly stressed members. Environmental conditions leading to brittle
fracture, creep, and corrosion of welds should be considered in the design. Brittle fracture is a possibility
in low temperature service and creep is a consideration in high temperature service.

Corrosion and wear can reduce the section size and increase service stresses, as well as create sites for
fatigue cracks to initiate and further reduce quality of the weldment.Materials selected for fabricating the
weldment should have proper hardness, chemical composition and mechanical properties

Fabrication The fabrication procedures and practices selected should be such that they ensure that the
weldment meets the design specifications.; The procedures should be rigorously followed and the
weldment should be properly inspected to verify that the base metal and the weld joint are free from
unacceptable defects.Majority of welded fabrication standards define quality requirements to insure
reasonably safe operation in service.

Inspection Weld quality is verified by non-destructive examination (NDT). The acceptance standards for
the welds are generally related to the method of non-destructive examination. All deviations are evaluated
and the acceptance or rejection of a weld is usually based on well defined conditions.
Repair of unacceptable or defective conditions is normally permitted so that the quality of the weld may
be brought up to acceptance standards.However, they will not tell us if the weld is good enough for our
purposes; equally important, they will not guarantee that welds will be made which are free of defects. In
other words, we cannot control quality simply by specifying that the welds will be subjected to NDT on
completion. Admittedly the knowledge that the welds will be tested may act as an incentive to do better
work, but it is far more relevant to establish a system which encourages the production of defect free
welds at all times.

Operation and maintenance Operating a welded product safely, requires periodic inspection. If failure at
a facility would result in a public hazard or the destruction of property, then inspections should be more
frequent and more rigorous. Power plants, chemical plants and refineries, dams, and bridges are examples
of fixed facilities that may endanger facility employees, the public, and the surrounding neighborhoods.
Automobiles, trucks, trains, and ships are mobile facilities that may also damage individuals and
properties. Maintenance of these facilities is a requirement for continued safe operation. Some facilities
can partially continue operations during inspection and maintenance, and others may require a complete
shutdown. Often the loss of production is far more expensive than the direct cost of the repair. In such
cases, premium materials and. costly fabrication practices can easily be justified, provided these
precautions permit extended operating periods between inspections.

Discontinuities in Welds, their Causes and Remedies - Discontinuities in welds break the continuity of
the weld metal and with the parent metal. Discontinuities are classified as follows:
(a) Related to welding process or procedure:
(i) Geometric
Misalignment
Concavity
Overlap
Undercut
Convexity
Burn through
Incomplete penetration
Lack of fusion
Surface irregularity
Improper Reinforcement
Shrinkage
(ii) Others
Slag inclusion
Spatter
Oxide Films
Arc Craters

(b) Metallurgical:
(i) Cracks or fissures
Hot
Strainage
Cold
Lamellar Tearing

(iii) Porosity
Spherical
Worm hole
Elongated

Heat affected zone (HAZ), microstructure alteration

Weld metal and HAZ segregation
Base plate laminations

(c) Design related

(i) Changes in section and other stress concentrations
(ii) Weld joint type

Characteristics of discontinuities to be considered:

(i) Their size,

(ii) Acuity or sharpness.
(iii) Orientation with respect to the principal working stress and residual stress.
(iv) Location with respect to the weld, the exterior surfaces of the joint, and the critical sections of the
structure.

Quality Conflicts - Ever since the introduction of welding as a fabrication technique, there has been a
keen interest in the resulting quality of welds produced. For that reason, much of our present inspection
technology exists because of the need to provide assurance that welds are suitable for their intended
service and do not contain major discontinuities.
However, as long as welds have been evaluated, there have been conflicts among those responsible for the
design, production, and examination of those welds. Unfortunately, many of those differences still exist
today.

The main reason for these conflicts has to do with the human element. As such, it is unlikely that they will
ever be completely eliminated. While human factors represent the greatest contribution, there are also
other factors that must be explored. The first step toward elimination of these differences is to identify
their causes. This discussion will attempt to offer suggestions for reducing the occurrence of conflicts by
providing an understanding of the reasons for quality disputes.

Reason for Quality Conflicts - The reasons for quality conflicts can be separated into four
different categories:
1. Human factors.
2. Poor understanding of quality requirements.
3. Inexperience of inspection personnel.
4. Lack of knowledge of inspection methods.

The discussion that follows describes how these various factors affect welded fabrication by
contributing to the cause of many conflicts that occur in the quality arena.

Human factors
(a) An initial reason why the human element affects weld quality assessment is that welding
is not an exact fabrication process.
This is not to say that welding cannot be used to produce accurate parts, because mechanized applications
can provide a high degree of accuracy. However, compared to machining processes, welding is usually not
considered to be as precise. While technological advances in welding result in more and more mechanized
and robotic welding being done, most of the welding done today is still applied manually or semi
automatically. Consequently, the quality of the resulting weld is heavily dependent upon the skill of the
individual welder.
(b) Another human factor contribution relates to the inspection process itself, because that operation
involves judgment by the individual performing the examination. Most codes that provide acceptance
criteria for visual weld examination present that information in text form.
Consequently, requirements that may appear perfectly clear on paper may become quite
vague when an individual attempts to apply those criteria to a physical part. There are two
possible solutions to this dilemma. First, whenever possible, the standards describing visual
weld quality requirements should be expressed graphically instead of just trying to specify
the necessary details through the use of text. The most direct way to describe a condition that
is to be evaluated visually is to show a picture or graphic illustration of that condition.
When a text description is provided, the individual first has to mentally envision the
condition and then compare that mental picture with the physical appearance of the weld.
Interpretation errors could result if the wording is confusing. However, the use of pictures or
illustrations would minimize interpretation errors.

Another possible remedy to this predicament is to utilize three dimensional "workmanship samples."
These are actual welded samples, or plastic replicas of welded samples that depict actual weld conditions.
There are currently several military welding standards that dictate the use of workmanship samples. A
company is required, by these standards, to produce actual workmanship samples that illustrate minimum
acceptable weld quality requirements. Then, if there is a question as to the acceptability of some
production welds, the interested parties can compare the production welds with the workmanship sample.
It then becomes easier to determine whether the production weld truly meets the applicable quality
requirement.

Poor understanding of quality requirements

The second influencing factor to be discussed here is described as poor understanding of
quality requirements. While our discussion is aimed primarily at the individual performing
the inspection operation, the concepts presented here could also apply to others who are
involved as well. That is to say, everyone: the welder, designer, foreman, inspector, etc.,
must be aware of the quality requirements that exist. Not only should these individuals be
aware of the requirements; they also must understand the requirements.
Inexperience of inspection personnel
The next factor to be discussed relates to the experience and qualifications of weld
inspection personnel. Welding inspection is not a simple task. Anyone who thinks that it is
obviously has never tried to do it or has done it improperly.
Consequently, we desperately need individuals who are properly trained and experienced so that the best
possible inspection can be performed. To present the effects of this aspect, the following should be
considered
(a) Improvement in the qualifications and competency of today's inspection personnel;
(b) The need for more technically competent personnel to perform more sophisticated inspection methods;
and
(c) The cost associated with using inexperienced inspectors. An inexperienced inspector may reject
acceptable welds or approve the unacceptable ones. In either case, the possible impact on the cost can be
significant. An unacceptable weld if approved may fail in service and result in loss of human life. On the
other hand, if acceptable weld is rejected, there will be an increased cost associated with the performance
of an unnecessary repair.

Lack of knowledge of inspection methods

While it is important to use only those individuals who are properly qualified to perform inspection, it is
also critical for other involved individuals to be aware of the advantages and limitations of the various
inspection techniques. The real solution to the elimination of quality conflicts boils down to the use of
common sense and the application of technical understanding. This burden must be borne by all involved
parties, not just the quality control personnel.
The statement, "quality cannot be inspected into the part," is extremely appropriate. Everyone is
responsible for being 'aware of the quality requirements that exist, having an understanding of how those
requirements are to be applied, and communicating with one another to accomplish the desired goal an
acceptable product.

Stages of Weld Inspection and Testing - For fabricating a welded structure, inspection may be carried
out in three stages:
1. Before starting welding.
2. during fabrication by welding.
3. After the welding is over.

1 Inspection before Welding

(a) Check the drawings in respect of weld details, dimensional tolerances, process specifications, etc.
(b) Examine the specifications given by the customer applicable to the class of work, quality required, end
use of the product, etc.
(c) Select a suitable welding process to obtain welds of the desired quality.
(d) Only the tested and defect free materials and as per the approved specifications or drawing should be
used for the structure to be welded.

(e) Consumables such as welding electrodes, flux, gases, etc., to be used shall be as per standards.
Deteriorated or spoilt consumables should not be used.
(f) Welding Procedure should be laid down. Preferably, it should conform to some standard, (e.g. ISI).
The procedure should give preparations and tolerances to be achieved during production work.
The procedure should ensure required quality of welds.
(g) Welding equipment should be in satisfactory working condition and be able to produce right quality
welds.
(h) Welders and operators employed for the work shall be trained, tested and certified to the appropriate
standards.
(i) Weld Testing Equipment should be in good operating condition and be handled by the well trained
staff.
(j) Equipment for cutting, straightening, heat treatment, material handling, etc., should be in good working
condition.
Jigs, fixtures, manipulators etc., should be available depending upon the type of work. Adequate storage
facilities should exist for storage of consumable and materials.
2. Inspection during Welding
(a) The weld groove should be free from dirt, rust, oil, slag or any other foreign matter which may affect
the quality of the weld.
(b) Job edge preparation should be as per approved welding procedure.
(c) The fitup, gap, orientation, welding position, method and sequence of assembly all should be as per
approved welding procedure.
(d) Tack welds should be of adequate size, length and pitch.
(e) Fittings, clamps, fixtures, etc., should not interfere with welding.
(f) Methods should be adopted to minimize distortion.
(g) If during welding certain, consumables are found defective, they should be replaced by another brand
of identical type.
(h) Welding procedure may be modified if it is found during welding that welds of acceptable quality are
not being produced.

(i) Slag should be thoroughly removed from each pass in multipass arc welds and spot welding electrodes
should be dressed periodically.
(j) Welds which would become inaccessible or more difficult to inspect at a later stage shall be inspected
at this stage.
(k) Inspection if carried out during welding will help identify potential sources of defects and thus
eliminate them at the early stage.
(l) Inspection during welding will help finding any deviation from approved procedures, consumables, etc.
which if goes unnoticed may deteriorate weld quality.
(m) Visual inspection during welding will reduce the chances of rejecting the weldment at the final stage.

Inspection after Welding

Testing and Inspection is carried out after the jobs have been welded, with a view to:
1. Assess the properties and quality of the welded joints.
2. Asses the suitability of the weldment* for the intended purpose.
All forms of testing and inspection of welds after fabrication can be grouped into two basic categories,
namely:
1. Destructive Testing.
2. Non destructive Testing.

Destructive Testing of Welds - Destructive tests are applied to samples representative of the welded
joint under review, often made especially for test purposes. In a destructive test, the test piece or specimen
is destroyed, in most cases by fracturing. After destructive testing the specimen remains no longer useful
for further use.

Destructive tests as applied to welds are:

(a), the Tensile Test,
(b) The Bend Test,
(c) The Impact Test,
(d) The Nick-break Test,
(e) The Hardness Test, and
(f) The Etch Test.

Non destructive tests are applied to welded components to determine their suitability for the service
conditions to which they will be subjected. These tests neither break nor alter the structure or appearance
of the welded component. Non destructive tests have the ability to detect invisible sub surface defects.
Non-destructive tests make components more reliable and safe. Although non-destructive tests do not
provide direct measurement of mechanical properties, yet they are extremely useful in revealing defects in
components that could impair their performance when put in service.

Welded components if found satisfactory after being tested so, can be used for the purpose for which they
were made. A welded component found defective after non-destructive testing can be rectified and
subsequently used.
Non-destructive tests as applied to welds are:
Visual Inspection
Stethoscopic Test
X-Ray and y-Ray Radiography
Magnetic Particle Inspection

Tensile Test - It is one of the most widely used mechanical tests.

A tensile test helps determining
(a) Tensile properties such as tensile strength, yield point or yield strength and modulus of elasticity.
(b) Ductility of a weld. Two standard measurements of ductility are the percent elongation and the percent
reduction of area.

Preparation of Test Specimen

1. Transverse Tensile Test
Using Radius Reduced Specimen
Using Reduced Specimen

2. All weld Metal Tensile Test

A transverse Tensile Test specimen is cut from a welded butt joint (at right angle to the weld direction and
is used to determine its transverse tensile strength. Reduced transverse test specimens are not intended to
give the tensile strength of the weld metal, but Radius reduced specimens do occasionally.

Gauge Minimum Parallel Minimum Radius at Total

Width
Length* Length Shoulder Length
b Lo Lp r L
50 60 25 200
Plate thickness but not less
100 110 25 300
than 25 mm
200 225 25 375

In an all weld metal tensile test, the specimen is prepared from all weld metal. This type of specimen is
prepared by machining a groove in a plate of steel and then completely filling the groove with deposited
weld metal. The surrounding steel is then machined away leaving a specimen of weld metal.
The purpose of such a test is to test
(i) Electrodes for their suitability for the job concerned,
(ii) The quality of deposited metal in welded joint.

Cross-sectional Diameter Gauge Length, Minimum Parallel Minimum

Area,Ao,mm2 do Lo Length, Lc Radius, R
400 22.56 113 124 23.5
200 15.96 80 88 15.0
100 11.28 56 62 10.0
25 5.64 28 31 5.0
Test Procedure
Tensile test is carried out by gripping the end E, E of the specimen in a tensile testing machine and
applying and increasing pull on to the specimen till it fractures.

During, the test, the tensile load as well as the elongation of a previously marked gauge length in the
specimen is measured with the help of load dial of the machine and extensometer respectively. These
readings help plotting stress strain curve.

After fracture, the two pieces of the broken specimen are placed as if fixed together and the distance Lf
between two gauge marks and the area Af at the place of fracture are noted.

Bend Test - A Bend Test may be carried out on a tensile testing machine with the help of certain
attachments as described later in this section.A bend test is an easy and inexpensive test to apply. The
method is fast and shows most weld faults quite accurately.
Bend tests may be used to find a number of weld properties such as
(i) Ductility of the welded zone
(ii) Weld penetration
(iii) Fusion
(iv) Crystalline structure (of the fractured surface)
(v) Strength.

The bend test assists in determining the soundness of the weld metal, the weld junction and the heat
affected zone. The test shows the quality of the welded joint. Any cracking of the metal will indicate false
fusion or defective penetration.
The stretching of the metal determines to some extent its ductility. Fractured surface shows the crystalline
structure. Large crystals usually indicate wrong welding procedure or poor heat treatment after welding. A
good weld has small crystals.
To conclude, the bend test is an easy and useful method of comparing one welded joint with another of the
same type and of revealing abnormalities and defects at or near the surface in tension.

Types of Bend Tests

Bend tests may be categorized as

(a) Free Bend Test
(b) Guided Bend Test

Bend tests may be further classified as

(i) Transverse bend test
Root bend test
Face bend test
(ii) Longitudinal bend test
(iii) Side bend test.

Free Bend Test - Free bend test determines the ductility of weld metal. Free bend test may be conducted
on a tensile testing machine or a vise capable of exerting a sufficiently large compressive force. For bend
test, the test pieces are cut from the plate so as to include the weld.

Dimensions of test Specimen (mm)

T 10 20 25 40 50
W 15 30 38 60 75
L,Min 200 275 300 375 450
B,Min 30 50 50 50 50

The top of the weld is ground or machined so that it becomes flush with the base metal surface. The
specimen (after the gauge length has been scribed on the face of the weld) may be bent initially by using a
device.
After giving an initial bend on to the specimen, it is placed in another fixture. The bending is continued
until a crack or open defect exceeding 1.5 mm in any direction appears on the convex surface of the
specimen. If no crack appears, the specimen shall be bent double.

Guided Bend Test - A guided bend test shows surface imperfections near and in the weld
bead. A guided bend test is performed on the specially designed jig. The specimen to be
tested is first ground smooth so that all weld reinforcement is removed. The specimen is
then placed across the die supports and bent by depressing the plunger until it forms the
shape of a U.

The specimen is bent by the movement of a plunger or former. Suitable gauge marks if scribed at the outside
surface of the specimen help estimating % elongation. In a Face bend test the specimen is placed with its face
down . The former is depressed until the piece becomes D shaped in the die (a guided bend test). If upon
examination, cracks greater than 3 mm appear in any direction, the weld is considered to have failed. Face
bend tests are used to inspect the degree of fusion, the absence or presence of inclusions and the weld
porosity, if any.
In a Root bend test the specimen is placed in the jig with the root down or in just the reverse position of the
face bend test. The results must show no cracks to be acceptable. Root bend tests are used primarily to
determine the degree of weld penetration.

Transverse Bend Test - A transverse bend test is useful in qualifying welders because it quite often
reveals the presence of defects that are not detected in tension test. However, in this test, non-uniform
properties along the length of the specimen can cause non-uniform bending.
An over matching weld metal strength may prevent the weld zone from conforming exactly to the bend
die radius and may force the deformation out into the base metal, causing less than the desired elongation
of the weld. With under matching weld strength, the specimen may tend to kink in the weld and there
occurs more severe elongation in the weld. The specimen for transverse bend test is of the full thickness of
the material at the welded joint and the upper and lower surfaces of the weld are dressed flush with the
base metal surface.

Longitudinal Bend Test - The problems of weld mismatch (as described in transverse bend test) can be avoided by
using longitudinal bend specimens in which the weld runs the full length of the bend specimen; the bend axis being
perpendicular to the weld axis.
In longitudinal bend test, all zones of the welded joint (i.e., weld, heataffected zone and the base metal) are strained
equally and simultaneously. This test is generally used for evaluations of joints in dissimilar metals. Specimens for
longitudinal bend test are prepared in the same manner as for transverse bend tests.

Side Bend Test - Side bend specimens strain the entire weld cross section and are thus especially useful for
exposing defects near mid thickness that might not contribute to failure in face or root bend tests. A side bend test
determines the soundness of the welded joint in crosssection. This test is used for relatively thick sections (over 19
mm), since in this test the entire weld thickness may be included in the test.
The width of the test specimen shall be the full thickness of the material at the welded joint and the upper and lower
surfaces of the weld shall normally be dressed flush with the surface of the base metal. The specimen is placed over
the supports and it is bent by the downward movement of the former. The specimen is examined after the test and
type and location of flaws, present, if any, are noted.

Impact Test - Impact testing becomes essential in order to study the behavior of welded objects under dynamic
loading. An impact test determines the behavior of welds when subjected to high rates of loading, usually in
bending.
An impact test gives an indication of the relative toughness of the material. Toughness is defined as the resistance of
a metal to fracture after plastic deformation has begun. The purpose of impact testing is to determine the amount of
impact a specimen will absorb before fracturing.
In an impact test, a specimen machined or surface ground and notched is struck and broken by a single blow in a
specially designed testing machine. The quantity measured is the energy absorbed in breaking the specimen by a
single blow. The ideal impact test would be one in which all the energy of a blow is transmitted to the test
specimen.

Types of Impact Test - The two basic types of Impact Tests are

(i) The Charpy (Beam) Test.

(ii) The Izod (Cantilever) Test.
The Charpy specimen is placed in the vise so that it is just a simple beam supported at the ends whereas
Izod specimen is placed in the vise such that it is in the form of a cantilever. The dimensions of Charpy
test specimen.

Test Procedure
1. The swinging pendulum weight is raised to standard height depending upon the type of specimen to be
tested.
2. With reference to the vise holding the specimen, the higher the pendulum, the more potential energy it
has got.
3. As the pendulum is released, its potential energy is converted into kinetic energy until it strikes the
specimen.
4. The Charpy specimen is hit behind the V notch while the Izod specimen, placed with the V notch facing
the pendulum, will be hit above the V notch.
5. A portion of the energy possessed by the pendulum is used to rupture the specimen and the pendulum
rises on the other side of the machine to a height lower than its initial height on the opposite side of the
impact testing machine.
6. The energy consumed in breaking the specimen is the weight of the pendulum times the difference in
two heights of pendulum on either side of the machine.
7. This energy in foot pounds or metre kg is the notched impact strength and can be read from the dial of
the impact testing machine.

Reporting of Results: The following results shall be reported after the test:

1. Nature of specimen, i.e. Charpy or Izod.

2. Testing Temperature.
3. The energy absorbed.
4. Appearance of fractured surface and defects, if any, present hereover.

Nick Break Test - A nick break test involves breaking the weld joint to examine the fractured surfaces for
internal defects such as:
(i) Gas pockets
(ii) Slag inclusions
(iii) Porosity.
The test also determines weld ductility and the degree of fusion.

Procedure
The test specimen shall be cut transversely to the welded joint and shall have the full thickness of the plate
at the joint. The excess weld metal and penetration bead shall be left intact. Slots are sawed at each end of
the specimen to be tested.

The specimen is then placed upright on two supports and the force on the weld is applied either by a press
or by the sharp blows of a hammer until a fracture occurs between the two slots.
A visual inspection of the fractured surfaces is carried out in order to find defects (as mentioned earlier), if
any. If any defect exceeds 1.5 mm in size or the number of gas pockets exceeds one per square cm, the
piece has failed the test.

Hardness Test - The hardness test gives an idea of the resistance to wear of the weld metal. This is
important with respect to the components which have been built up and have to withstand abrasive wear.
Hardness values can give in formation about the metallurgical changes caused by welding.

In the case of premium and high carbon steels and cast iron, the heat affected zone or weld junction may
become hard and brittle because of the formation of marten site. Hardness values in a welded joint are
usually sensitive to such conditions of welding, as
(i) The process used.
(ii) Heat input.
(iii) Preheat or interpass temperature.
(iv) Electrode composition
(v) Plate thickness.

Hardness values indicate whether the correct welding technique and pre and post heat treatments have
been carried out. The hardness of welds is particularly important if the welds must be machined.

Methods of

Various commonly used test methods for finding hardness are:

(a) The Brinell Test
(b) The Rockwell Test.
Vickers pyramid and Shore Scleroscope* methods may also be used to find hardness. The welded
specimen in whose case hardness is to be tested is ground, polished or polished and etched to show clearly
the weld metal area. Hardness is determined on specific areas of interest, including the weld center line,
face or root regions of the weld deposit, the heat affected zone and the base metal.

Brinell Hardness Test - It consists of pressing a hardened steel ball into a test specimen. According to
ASTM specifications, a 10 mm diameter ball is used for the purpose. Lower loads are applied for
measuring hardness of soft materials and vice versa.

Procedure of Hardness Testing

Specimen is placed on the anvil; the hand wheel is rotated so that the specimen along with the anvil moves
up and contacts with the ball. The desired load is applied mechanically (by a gear driven screw) or
hydraulically (by oil pressure) and the ball presses into the specimen.

The diameter of the indentation made in the specimen by the pressed ball is measured by the use of a
micrometer microscope, having a transparent engraved scale in the field of view.
The indentation diameter is measured at two places at right angles to each other, and the average of the
two readings is taken. The Brinell hardness number (BHN) which is the pressure per unit surface area of
the indentation in kg per square metre, is calculated as follows:
BHN = W / (π D / 2) (D – root of D 2 – d 2)
W is load on indenter, kg
D is diameter of steel ball, mm
D is average measured diameter of indentation, mm

Rockwell Hardness Testing - Rockwell hardness testing differs from Brinell testing in that the indenters
and the loads are smaller and therefore the resulting indentation on the specimen is smaller and shallower.
Rockwell testing is suitable for materials having hardness beyond the scope of Brinell testing.
Rockwell testing is faster as compared to Brinell testing because diameter of indentation need not be
measured; the rockwell machine gives arbitrary direct reading. Unlike Brinell testing, rockwell testing
needs no surface preparation (polishing, etc.) of the specimen whose hardness is to be measured.

Vickers Hardness Test In Vickers hardness test, a known load (P) (from 1 to 120 kg) is applied for a
specified time to the surface of the material through a square base pyramid diamond having 136° between
opposite faces. The two diagonals of the resulting square indentation on the test piece are measured with a
micrometer microscope and averaged, (D, mm). The Vickers hardness number is calculated as follows
VHN = 1.854 P / D2 Before conducting Vickers hardness test, the surface of the specimen should be flat
and of sufficient polish so that any remaining scratches do not cause difficulty in locating the corners of
the indentation when diagonals are measured. The impression of Vickers indenter on the specimen being
very small, peak (and not average) values of hardness can be determined on the weld from root to face. In
the same length of the specimen, more hardness readings can be taken with Vickers hardness test than
with Brinell or Rockwell hardness tests.

Etch Test - An etch test involves inspecting the welded test specimen after
polishing and etching the same with a chemical reagent e.g., a dilute acid.

Types of
There are two types of etch tests, namely
(i) Macro etch examination,
(ii) Micro etch examination.

Concept and Purpose

(i) Macro etch examination:
After preparing the specimen by polishing and etching, it is examined either by the
naked eye or by low power magnification up to X15. Macro examination gives a
broad picture of the specimen by studying relatively large sectioned areas.
Macro examination reveals in welded specimen
(i) Cracks,
(ii) Slag inclusion,
(iii) Blowholes,
(iv) Shrinkage porosity,
(v) Penetration of the weld,
(vi)The boundary between the weld metal and the base metal, etc

(ii) Micro etch examination: After preparing the specimen by polishing and etching, it is examined under a
microscope at magnifications from X20 to X2000.
Micro etch examination involves areas much smaller than those considered in macro etch examination and
brings out information that can never be revealed by macro examination.

Micro examination determines in a welded specimen

(i) Cracks and inclusions of microscopic size.
(ii) Grain boundaries and solidification structures of weld metal, heat affected zone and the base metal.
(iii) Distribution of micro constituents in the weld metal.
(iv) The quality of heat treatment, etc.

Preparation of Test Specimen

(i) The specimen shall be the full thickness of the material at the welded joint and the weld reinforcement
and penetration bead shall be left intact. The specimen shall contain a length of the joint of at least 10 mm
and shall extend on each side of the weld for a distance that includes the heat affected zone and some base
metal portion.
Given below are a few etching reagents:
1. Hydrochloric Acid. The reagent contains equal parts by volume of concentrated
HCI and water. Specimen is immersed in this reagent at or near the boiling point.
This will usually enlarge gas pockets and dissolve slag inclusions, enlarging the
resulting cavities.
2. Nitric Acid. One part of concentrated nitric acid is added to three parts of water
by volume. The reagent may be applied to the surface of the weld either with a glass
stirring rod at room temperature or the weld be immersed in boiling reagent
provided the room is well ventilated. This reagent is used on polished surfaces only
to show the weld metal zone as well as the refined zone. Nital contains 2CC HNO3
Conc. + 98CC absolute methyl alcohol.

3. Ammonium persulphate. Mix one part of ammonium persulphate (solid) to nine parts of water by
weight. The reagent thus prepared is rubbed vigorously on the surface of the weld with cotton saturated
with this reagent.
4. Iodine and potassium iodide. One part of powdered iodine (solid) is mixed with twelve parts of a
solution of potassium iodide by weight. The latter solution should consist of one part of potassium iodide
to five parts of water by weight. The reagent is brushed at room temperature on the surface of the weld.

Non Destructive Visual Inspection Testing of Welds -Visual inspection is the simplest, fastest,
economical and most commonly used test for detecting defects on the surfaces of the welded objects. The
weld surface and joint is examined visually, preferably with the help of a magnifying lens.

Careful examination of what can be seen on the surface of a welded joint can assist in determining the
ultimate acceptability of the weldments. Visual examination can help detecting the following flaws on the
surface of the welded structure:

(i) Porosity, blowholes, pipes, exposed inclusions, unfused welds, unfilled craters etc.
(ii) Surface cracks in the weld metal, heat affected zone or the parent metal.
(iii) Undercutting, burning or overheating of the base metal adjoining weld metal.
(iv) Improper profile and dimensional inaccuracy of welds.
There may exist excessive convexity or concavity, overlap, excessive reinforcement, unequal leg length,
excessive penetration bead, shrinkage grooves, incompletely filled grooves etc.Door weld appearance, i.e.,
irregular ripple marks, weaving faults, chipping and peening marks, spatter, surface roughness etc.
Leak OR Tightness Test on Welds - Leak refers to an actual discontinuity or passage through which a
fluid flows or permeates. Leak testing is the determination of the rate at which a liquid or gas will
penetrate from inside a tight component or assembly to the outside as a result of pressure differential
between the two regions.

Purpose
To test welded pressure vessels, tanks and pipelines to determine if leaks are present. Absolute tightness
of all the welded joints can be tested this way.

Procedure
The welded vessel, after closing all its outlets, is subjected to internal pressure using water, oil, air or gas
(e.g. CO2). Hydraulic pressure, using water as the fluid, is the usual medium employed in this test.
Oil if it is thin/hot will penetrate leaks that do not show up with water under an equal pressure. Air will
leak out more readily than water and gas (e.g. Hydrogen) will escape where air will not.
Where feasible, it is better to use water or oil because there will be very less tendency for the parts to be
violently thrown out in case of a sudden release of pressure. When using air/gas, failure of vessel can
cause injuries to persons around.

The internal pressure may be raised to two times the working pressure.When under pressure, the weld may
be tested as follows for detecting the leak:

(i) Pressure on the gauge may be noted immediately after applying the internal pressure and after, say, 12
to 24 hours. Any drop in pressure reading indicates a leak.
(ii) After generating air pressure in the vessel, soap solution may be painted on the weld seam and
carefully inspected for bubbles which would indicate leak.
(iii) The welded surface is coated with a lime solution. After the lime has dried, pressure is built up in the
vessel. Where the lime flakes from the metal, a flaw is indicated as being present.
(iv)In another method an aluminium foil is laid over a wider strip of water soluble paper and both are
stuck with a tape over the welded seam of a water filled pressure vessel. If a leak exists, the water soluble
strip will dissolve, indicating the leak location and the aluminium foil strip will be in electrical contact
with the vessel. A corresponding change in resistance indicates the pressure of leak.

Stethoscope Sound Test - The principle of this test is that, defect free weld metal gives a good ringing
note when struck with a hammer whereas weld metal containing defects (such a cracks, lack of fusion,
slag inclusion, etc.) gives a flat note. An ordinary physician's stethoscope may be used to magnify and
identify the sound. Structural welds and welds in pressure vessels have been successfully tested using this
method.

Radiography Using X-Ray and Gamma γ Ray on Welds - Radiography is one of the most useful of the
non-destructive tests which can be applied for assessing the quality of the welded joints. Radiograph has
been used for the inspection of welds of all types and thicknesses ranging from minute welds in electronic
components to welds upto half metre thick employed in heavy fabrications.

Radiography can detect flaws or discontinuities in welds

such as:
(i) Cracks.
(ii) Porosity and blow holes.
(iii) Slag, flux or oxide inclusions.
(iv)Lack of fusion between the weld metal and the parent
metal
(v) Incomplete penetration.
Principle
Radiography technique is based upon exposing the components to short wavelength radiations in the form
of X-rays (wavelength less than 0.001 x 10-8 cm to about 40 x 10-8 cm) or gamma (y) rays (wave length
about 0.005 X 10-8 to 3 X 10-8 cm) from a suitable source such as an X-ray tube or cobalt-60.
The characteristic feature of X-ray and y-ray which makes them to work is their power to penetrate
matters opaque to light. X-rays operating at 400,000 volts can inspect steel objects having thickness up to
62 mm.
γ -rays given off by radium and radioactive isotopes such as cobalt-60, lridium-192 and caesium-167 can
penetrate and thus inspect joints of bigger thickness than examined by X-rays.

X-Ray Radiography Procedure - X-rays are produced in an X-ray tube where a (cathode) filament
provides electrons which proceed towards the target (anode); strike and are suddenly stopped; a part of
their kinetic energy is converted to energy of radiation or X-rays.
The portion of the weldment where defects are suspected is exposed to X-rays emitted from the X-ray
tube. A cassette containing X-ray film is placed behind and in contact with the weldment, perpendicular to
the rays.
During exposure, X-rays penetrate the welded object and thus affect the X-ray mm.

Since most defects (such as blow holes, porosity, cracks, etc.) possess lesser density than the sound parent
metal, they transmit X-rays better than the sound metal does; therefore the film appears to be more dark
where defects are in line of the X-ray beam. The exposed and developed X-ray film showing light and
dark areas is termed as RADIOGRAPH (or precisely known as an EXOGRAPH). The radiographs of
sound metal and metals containing blow holes and porosity respectively.

Gamma γ-Ray Radiography Procedure -

(a) Gamma-ray radiography differs from X-ray radiography in following respects:
1. Gamma-rays are used for detecting defects in welded plates thicker than those inspected by X-rays.
2. Owing to less scatter, gamma rays are more satisfactory than X-rays for examining objects of varying
thickness, where as X-rays provide better results for welded plates of uniform thickness.
3. X-rays are better than gamma-rays for detecting small defects in weldment sections less than about 50
mm.
4. X-ray method is much more rapid than gamma-ray method, because unlike gamma-ray method, it
requires seconds or minutes instead of hours.

5. Unlike X-ray method, gamma-ray technique can inspect a number of welded objects at one time.
6. Gamma-ray equipment being small possesses better portability and convenience of use for certain field
inspections.
(b) Gamma radiations, a product of radioactive decay, are extensively used in the testing of welded
objects.
Radium and its salts decompose at a constant rate, giving out gamma rays which are of much shorter
wavelength and more penetrating (than ordinary X-rays).
Radium and Radon were originally employed as gamma-ray sources but more convenient sources are
available at present in the form of isotopes, for example cobalt 60. It is an isotope produced by neutron
irradiation and can be used in place of radium; it is much cheaper as well.

The apparatus necessary for gamma-ray radiography is very simple. Most cobalt-60 sources are
cylindrical, with dimensions of 3 by 3 to 6 mm and sealed in an appropriate container or capsule.
Unlike X-rays, gamma-rays from its source are emitted in all directions; therefore a number of separate
welded objects having cassette containing film, fastened to the back of each object, are disposed in a circle
around the source placed in a central position.
This way many welded objects can be radiographed simultaneously and overnight exposures may be taken
without continuous supervision.

Advantages, Disadvantages and Applications of X-Ray Radiography -

Advantages
1. A permanent record of defects in a welded object is obtained.
2. Reference standards for defects are available.

Disadvantages
1. The equipment is costly.
2. Trained operator is required.
3. The method involves radiation hazards.

Applications
1. Pressure vessels and boilers.
2. Penstocks.
3. Aircraft and ship structures.

Advantages, Disadvantages and Applications of Gamma γ-Ray Radiography -

Advantages
1. A permanent record of defects, in a welded object is obtained.
2. Reference standards for defects are available.
3. Low initial cost.
4. This is a very good method for testing at the site.

Disadvantages
1. Trained operator is required.
2. The method involves radiation hazards.
3. γ-ray source loses strength continuously.
4. γ-ray radiography possesses lower sensitivity and definition than X-ray radiography.

Applications
1. Pressure vessels and boilers.
2. Penstocks and pipe-work.
3. Ship building.
4. Structural steel work.

Magnetic Particle Inspection - Introduction

For example, radiography ordinarily cannot detect small
cracks, especially when they are too small to be seen with
human eye.

This method of inspection is used on magnetic ferrous

weldments for detecting invisible surface or slightly
subsurface defects*. Deeper subsurface defects are not
satisfactorily detected because the influence of the
distorted lines of magnetic flux (owing to a discontinuity)
on the magnetic particles spread over the job surface
becomes weaker with the distance, so that sensitivity falls
away rapidly with the depth.
The defects commonly revealed by magnetic particle
inspection are quenching cracks, thermal cracks, seams,
laps, grinding cracks, overlaps, non-metallic inclusions,
fatigue cracks, hot tears, etc.
Magnetic particle inspection is a relatively simple and easy technique. It is almost free from any restriction
as to size, shape, composition and heat-treatment of a ferromagnetic specimen. This method of non-
destructive testing tends to supplement rather than displace radiography.

Principle of the method

When a piece of metal is Placed in magnetic field and the lines of magnetic flux get intersected by a
discontinuity such as a crack or slag inclusions in a job, magnetic poles are induced on either side of the
discontinuity.
The discontinuity causes an abrupt change in the path of magnetic flux flowing through the job normal to
the discontinuity, resulting a local flux leakage field and interference with the magnetic lines of force.
This local flux disturbance can be detected by its effect upon magnetic particles which are attracted to the
region of discontinuity and pile up and bridge over the discontinuity.

A surface crack is indicated (under favourable conditions) by a line of fine particles following the crack
outline and a subsurface defect by a fuzzy collection of the magnetic particles on the surface near the
discontinuity.
Maximum sensitivity of indication is obtained when the discontinuity lies in a direction normal to the
applied magnetic field and when the strength of magnetic field is just enough to saturate the section being
inspected.

Technique or Procedure:
Procedural steps involved are,
(a) Magnetising the component part,*(e.g., a welded
plate).
(b) Applying magnetic particles on the Component part.
(c) Locating the defects.

(a) Magnetising the Welded Plate Different methods employed for magnetisation may be classed as
follows: 1. Continuous method. 2. Residual method. 1. Circular magnetisation. 2. Longitudinal
magnetisation. 1. A.C. magnetisation. 2. D.C. magnetisation. In continuous method, the current inducing
the magnetic flux in the workpiece to be inspected is allowed to flow while the powder is applied. The job
is placed between two contacts (in the form) of solid copper clamps. The induced magnetic field runs in
the transverse direction; producing conditions favourable to the detection of longitudinally disposed
cracks.

Residual method relies upon the residual magnetism in the welded job. The job may be magnetised by any
method but the magnetising source is removed first and then the magnetic particles are applied over the
job.
Continuous method is much mare sensitive than the residual method and especially far steels having law
magnetic retentivity, only continuous method is used.
Circular magnetisation is produced by circular fields. A can duct or carrying an electric current is
surrounded by a magnetic field which farms closed circles in plane at right angles to the direction .of
current flaw Circular magnetisation may be produced:
(i) By passing current through the part itself.
(ii) By passing current through a conductor placed axially inside the hollow abject.
(iii) with the help of prods or cant acts.

Prods are used to inspect small areas .of large weldments. By changing the position of prods
systematically, the entire surface .of the large weldment can be surveyed.
Longitudinal magnetisation is produced by passing current through a solenoid coil .or several turns of
conductor surrounding the jab, the jab serving as the core of the solenoid. Cable wrappings are commonly
used an large objects such as tanks, bailers, large crankshafts, etc.
The cracks running in the transverse direction are best revealed in longitudinal fields.
A.C. magnetization is preferred far maximum surface sensitivity and offers special operating advantages,
including straight forward demagnetisation after testing, whereas D.C. appears to permit the detection of
defects lying mare deeply in the objects.

(b) Applying Magnetic (particles or) Powder

Magnetic particles may be applied during the passage of magnetising current or following the same when
the residual magnetism is made use of in detecting cracks in welded objects; this method avoids the
danger of oversaturatian.
The magnetic powder of iron or black magnetic iron oxide base and having elongated individual particles
is used far the purpose Metallic iron particles are coated to prevent oxidation and sticking. The powder is
available in two colours red and black; a colour which shows up to best advantage an the part to be
inspected is selected.
Magnetic particles prepared with a fluorescent coating and inspected under ultraviolet light are also used.
In this case the cracks are marked by glowing indication. Ordinary magnetic powder is applied the job in
Dry or Wet farm.
Dry powder is applied in form of a cloud or spray. The dry powder is better far locating near surface
defects; moreover all the powder can be recovered after the test. Dry powder is not so messy to work with
as is the powder wet in oil.
In wet method, the powder is suspended in law viscosity non-corrosive fluid such as kerosene and is
sprayed aver the job; alternatively jab may be immersed in the liquid far the purpose. Wet method is better
far locating minute surface defects; moreover wetted powder can be applied bath an vertical and underside
of horizontal surfaces far detecting cracks.

(c) Locating the Defects

In the magnetized bar if a crack or avoid interrupts a magnetic field, the magnetic field gets distorted. The
magnetic permeability of air being too law in comparison with iron, the magnetic flux spreads out to get
around the avid. Same of the magnetic flux lines extend outside of the metal in the air over the
discontinuity and the discontinuity is noticed or located distinctly because the magnetic particles collect
and pile at any discontinuity or crack.

Liquid Dye Penetrant Test - A liquid penetrant test is non-destructive type. It detects flaws that are open
to the surface e.g., cracks, seams, laps, lack of bond, porosity, cold shuts, etc. It can be effectively used not
only in the inspection of ferrous metals but is especially useful for non-ferrous metal products and on non-
porous, non-metallic materials such as ceramics, plastics and glass.
The principle of liquid penetrant test is that the liquids used enter small openings such as cracks or
porosities by capillary action. The rate and extent of this action are dependent upon such properties as
surface tension, cohesion, adhesion and viscosity.

They are also influenced by factors such as the condition of the surface of material and the interior of the
discontinuity. For the liquid to penetrate effectively, the surface of the material must be thoroughly
cleaned of all foreign matter that would obstruct the entrance of the liquid into the defect.
After cleaning, the liquid penetrant is applied evenly over the surface and allowed to remain long enough
to permit penetration into possible discontinuities. The liquid is then completely removed from the surface
of the component and either a wet or a dry developer is applied. The liquid that has penetrated the defects
will then bleed out onto the surface, and the developer will help delineate them.
This will show the location and general nature and magnitude of any defect present. To hasten this action,
the part may be struck sharply to produce vibrations to force the liquid out of the defect. The oil-whiting
test is one of the older and cruder penetrant tests used for the detection of cracks too small to be noticed in
a visual inspection. In this method, the piece is covered with penetrating oil, such as kerosene, then rubbed
dry and coated with dry whiting.

In a short time the oil that has seeped into any cracks will be partially absorbed by the whiting, producing
plainly visible discolored streaks delineating the cracks.
The Dye penetrant test (DPT) based on liquid penetrant is a sensitive extremely versalite and a very
reliable method of test. It is quite inexpensive, does not require any special apparatus and is quite simple
in application. Only a moderate skill is required. In this test, the strongly coloured red penetrant fluid (or
dye) has a property of seeping into surface flaws when applied on an impervious surface.
The steps involved in dye penetrant test are
(1) Clean the surface of the component free of dust and dirt with a piece of cloth.
(2) Brush the surface of the component to remove scale, rust, paint etc., by a soft wire brush.

(3) Spray the cleaner to remove oil, grease, etc. (4) Apply the dye penetrant (by spraying) adequately to
cover the area to be tested. Allow 3 to 5 minutes or more for dye to penetrate into the cracks. (5) Wipe off
the excess penetrant on the surface with a rag. (6) Again spray the surface with the cleaner to remove the
remnants of the red dye. (7) Spray the developer evenly on the surface to give a thin even layer. This layer
absorbs the penetrant from the cracks and red spots or lines appear on t e stir ace to give a visible
indication of the flaws. (8) The crack if any will be indicated with the red dye absorbed by the white
absorbent.

Fluorescent Penetrant Inspection -(Zyglo Process)

Like magnetic particle inspection, fluorescent penetrant inspection is also carried out to detect small
surface cracks, * but it has the advantage that it (i.e., penetrant inspection technique) can be used for
testing both ferrous and nonferrous welded jobs.
Zyglo is the registered trade mark of the Magnaflux Corporation applied to its equipment and material for
fluorescent penetrant inspection.
This method is sensitive to small surface discontinuities such as cracks, shrinkage and porosity open to the
surface which tend to retain penetrant in spite of the rinse. Smooth or machined job surfaces provide more
satisfactory conditions for the test.

Operational Steps
(i) Clean the surfaces of the object to be inspected for cracks etc.
(ii) Apply the fluorescent penetrant on the surface by either dipping, spraying or brushing. Allow a
penetration time up to one hour. The fluorescent penetrant is drawn into crack by capillary action.
(iii) Wash (the surface) with water spray to remove penetrant from surface but not from crack.
(iv)Apply the developer. The developer acts like a blotter to draw penetrant out of crack and enlarges the
size of the area of penetrant indication.
(v) The surface is viewed under black light [having a wavelength of 3650 Angstrom (A) units, which is
between the visible and ultraviolet in the spectrum. Black light causes penetrant to glow in dark.

Applications
(i) Besides locating cracks and shrinkage in ferrous and especially non-ferrous castings, fluorescent
penetrant inspection is used to determine cracks in the fabrication and regrinding of carbide tools, cracks
and pits in welded structures, cracks in steam and gas turbine blading and cracks in ceramic insulators for
spark plugs and electronic applications.
(ii) Besides metals, penetrant inspection can also be carried out on parts made up of other materials such
as plastics, ceramics, glass, etc.

Ultrasonic Inspection -
Introduction
(i) Ultrasonic inspection is employed to detect and locate internal defects such as cracks, porosity,
inclusions, lack of fusion and incomplete penetration. Wall thickness can be measured in close vessels or
in cases where such measurement cannot otherwise be made.
(ii) Ultrasonic vibrations can be used to locate defects in ferrous and non-ferrous metallic objects as well
as in plastics and ceramics.
(iii) Ultrasonic inspection for flaw detection makes use of acoustic waves with frequencies in the range
between 20 kHz and 20 MHz, which can be transmitted through solids (even liquid and air as well) and
get reflected by the subsurface defects. Ultrasonic waves form a basis for detection, location and size
estimation of defects.

Principle of Operation
Ultrasonic waves are usually generated by the Piezoelectric effect which converts electrical energy to
mechanical energy. A quartz crystal is used for the purpose. When a high frequency alternating electric
current (of about 1 million cycles per second) is impressed across the faces of the quartz crystal, the
crystal will expand during the first half of the cycle and contract when the electric field is reversed. In this
manner the mechanical vibrations (sound waves) arc produced in the crystal. The surface of job to be
inspected by ultrasonic is made fairly smooth either by machining or otherwise so that ultrasonic waves
can be efficiently transmitted from the probe into the job and even small defects can be detected properly.
Ultrasonic inspection employs separate probes (or search units), one for transmitting the waves and other
to receive them after passage through the welded jobs.

Alternatively, since the ultrasonic waves are transmitted as a series of intermittent pulses, the same
crystals may be employed both as the transmitter and receiver.
Before transmitting ultrasonic waves, an oil film is provided between the probe and the job surface; this
ensures proper contact between them and better transmission of waves from the probe into the surface of
the object to be tested. For operation, ultrasonic wave is introduced into the metal and the time interval
between transmission of the outgoing and reception of the incoming signals is measured with a cathode
ray oscilloscope (CRO). The time base of CRO is so adjusted that the full width of the trace represents the
section being examined. To start with, as the wave is sent from the transmitter probe, it strikes the upper
surface of the job and makes a sharp (peak) or pips (echo) at the left hand side of the CRO screen.

If the job is sound, this wave will strike the bottom surface of the same, get reflected and indicated by a
pip towards the right-hand end of CRO screen. In case a defect exists in between the top and bottom
surfaces, most of the beam striking this defect will get reflected from the defect, reach the receiver probe
and indicate a pip (echo) on the CRO screen before the pip given by the waves striking the far end of the
job and returning. The distance of the defect from the surface where transmitter probe is applied, can be
determined with the help of a time distance scale in the form of a square wave constantly shown on the
oscilloscope. The distance scale may be changed as per convenience and one cycle of square wave may
indicate 1 cm or 25 cms, etc.
Quantitative assessment of defects can be made on the basis of the use of comparison standards containing
real or artificial defects such as drilled holes in metal blocks. The interpretation of defect (echo) signal
may be assisted by post-mortem sectioning of the job containing serious flaws; correlation with
radiography is also useful.

Advantages, Disadvantages and Applications of Ultrasonic Inspection -

Advantages
1. It is a fast and reliable method of non-destructive inspection.
2. This method of locating flaws with metal objects is more sensitive than radiography.
3. The minimum flaw size which can be detected is equal to about 0.1 % of the distance from the probe to
the defect.
4. Big weldments can be systematically scanned for initial detection of major defects.
5. Ultrasonic inspection involves low cost and high speed of operation.
6. The sensitivity of ultrasonic flaw detection is extremely high, being at a maximum when using waves of
highest frequency.

Limitations
1. Surface to be tested must be ground smooth and clean.
2. Skilled and trained operator is required.
3. It is not suited to the examination of weldments of complex shape or configurations.

Applications
1. Inspection of large weldments, castings and forging, for internal soundness, before carrying out
expensive machining operations.
2. Inspection of moving strip or plate (for laminations) as regards its thickness.
3. Routine inspection of locomotive axles and wheel pins for fatigue cracks.
4. Inspection of rails for bolt-hole breaks without dismantling rail-end assemblies.

Eddy Current Testing - Principle of Operation

An AC. coil is brought up close to the weldment to be tested. The AC. coil induces eddy currents in the
welded object. These eddy currents produce their own magnetic field which opposes the field of the AC.
coil. The result is an increase in the impedance (resistance) of the AC. coil. Coil impedance can be
measured.
If there is a flaw in the weldment, as soon as the coil passes over the flow, there is a change in the coil
impedance which can be wired to give a warning light or sound and thus the flaw and its location can be
determined.

Flaws Indicated

Flaws at or close to the surface such as cracks, weld porosity, poor fusion or any linear discontinuity can
be detected.

Procedure
For generating eddy currents, the test piece is brought into the field of a coil carrying alternating current.
The coil may encircle the part, may be in the form on probe, or in the case of tubular shapes, may be
wound to fit inside a tube or pipe. The eddy current in the metal test piece also sets up a magnetic field,
which opposes the original magnetic field. The impedance of the exciting coil or of a second coil coupled
to the first and in close proximity to the test piece is affected by the presence of the induced eddy currents.

A second coil is often used is a convenience, and is called a sensing or pickup coil. In the case of a crack
or an unwelded seam, the discontinuity must be oriented nearly normal to the eddy current flow to disturb
it. The change in coil impedance caused by the presence of a discontinuity can be measured, and is used to
give an indication of the extent of defects. Subsurface discontinuities may also be detected, but eddy
currents decrease with depth.
Advantages, Disadvantages and Applications of Eddy Current Testing -

Advantages
1. The coil or probe does not require contact with the surface to be tested.
2. The method can be used to test both ferrous and non-ferrous weldments.

Disadvantages
1. The method is limited to materials with good electrical conductivity.
2. The method is difficult to set and interpret.

Applications

EDDY CURRENT TESTING is primarily used for continuous inspection of seamless and welded piping
and tubing during production. Testing of ferromagnetic steel, austenitic stainless steel, copper alloy, and
nickel alloy tubular products are covered, by ASTM specifications.

Method Defects detected Advantages Limitations

Visual Inaccuracies in size and
shape. Surface cracks and
porosity, under-cut, overlap,
crater faults.
Dye- Surface cracks which may be
penetrate missed by naked eye.
Easy to apply at any stage of Does not provide a permanent
fabrication and welding. Low record. Provides positive
cost both in capital and information only for surface
labour. defects.
Easy to use. No equipment Only surface cracks detected
required. Low cost both in with certainty. No permanent
materials and labour. record.

Method Defects detected Advantages Limitations

Magnetic- Surface cracks Which Relatively low cost. Only surface cracks detected with
particle may be missed by naked Portable. Gives clear certainty. Can be used only on
eye. May give indication indication. ferromagnetic metals. Can give
of sub-surface flaws. spurious indications. No
permanent record.
Radiography Porosity, slag inclusions, Can be controlled to give Expensive equipment. Strict safety
cavities, and lack of reproducible results. precautions required. Better suited
penetration. Cracks and Gives permanent record. to butt joints -not very satisfactory
lack of fusion if correctly with fillet-welded joints. Requires
orientated with respect to high level of skill in choosing
beam. conditions and interpreting results.
Ultrasonic All sub-surface defects. Very sensitive can detect Permanent record is difficult to
Laminations. defects too small to be obtain. Requires high level of skill
discovered by other in interpreting cathode-ray-tube
methods. Equipment is indications.
portable. Access required
to only one side.