ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

The Immune System

A second line of defense is housed
within the body: a finely tuned immune
system that recognizes and destroys
foreign substances and organisms that
enter the body. The immune system can
distinguish between the body's own
tissues and outside substances called
antigens. This allows cells of the
immune army to identify and destroy
only those enemy antigens. The ability
to identify an antigen also permits the
immune system to "remember" antigens
the body has been exposed to in the
past; so that the body can mount a
better and faster immune response the
next time any of these antigens appear.
The immune system also includes other
proteins and chemicals that assist
antibodies and T cells in their work.
Among them are chemicals that alert
phagocytes to the site of the infection.
The complement system, a group of
proteins that normally float freely in the blood, move toward infections, where they
combine to help destroy microorganisms and foreign particles. They do this by
changing the surface of bacteria or other microorganisms, causing them to die.
 Enzyme is a protein that helps speed up a chemical reaction In the body.
 Antigens ) are substances that are recognized as a threat by the body's immune
system, which triggers the formation of specific antibodies against the substance.
 Bone marrow is the soft tissue inside bones where blood cells are made.
 lymphatic system is a system that contains lymph nodes and a network of
channels that carry fluid and cells of the immune system through the body.

Components of the Immune System:

1. Lymphoid Structures
 Spleen
- Composed of red and white pulp, acts somewhat like a filter.
- The red pulp is the site where old and injured red blood cells are
destroyed.
- The white pulp contains concentrations of lymphocytes.
 Lymph Nodes
- Are distributed throughout the body
- Are connected by lymph channels and capillaries, which remove
foreign material from the lymph before it enters the bloodstream.

2. Immune Cells – Lymphocytes

a. B lymphocytes (or B cells) - produce immunoglobulins.
b. T lymphocytes (or T cells) - help control the immune response and destroy
foreign antigens directly.
c. Plasma Cells - are white blood cells that produce large volumes of
antibodies.

3. Tissues – The remaining lymphoid tissues, such as the tonsils and adenoids and
other.
 Mucoid Lymphatic Tissue – contain immune cells that defend the body’s
mucosal surfaces against microorganisms.
 4. Immune Cells – Lymphocytes
d. B lymphocytes (or B cells) - produce immunoglobulins.
e. T lymphocytes (or T cells) - help control the immune response and destroy
foreign antigens directly.
f. Plasma Cells - are white blood cells that produce large volumes of
antibodies.

5. Tissues – The remaining lymphoid tissues, such as the tonsils and adenoids and
other.
 Mucoid Lymphatic Tissue – contain immune cells that defend the body’s
mucosal surfaces against microorganisms.

Hematologic System
Two types of blood vessels carry blood throughout our bodies:
1. Arteries carry oxygenated blood (blood that has received oxygen from the lungs)
from the heart to the rest of the body.
2. Blood then travels through veins back to the heart and lungs, where it receives
more oxygen.

The blood that flows through this network of veins and arteries is whole blood,
which contains three types of blood cells:
1. Red blood cells (RBCs)
- (also called erythrocytes) are shaped like slightly
indented, flattened disks. RBCs contain the iron-rich
protein hemoglobin. Blood gets its bright red color when
hemoglobin picks up oxygen in the lungs. As the blood
travels through the body, the hemoglobin releases
oxygen to the tissues.
- The body contains more RBCs than any other type of cell, and each has a life
span of about 4 months. Each day, the body produces new RBCs to replace
those that die or are lost from the body.

2. White blood cells (WBCs)

- (also called leukocytes) are a key part of the body's
system for defending itself against infection. They can
move in and out of the bloodstream to reach affected
tissues. Blood contains far fewer WBCs than red blood
cells, although the body can increase WBC production
to fight infection. There are several types of WBCs, and their life spans vary from
a few days to months. New cells are constantly being formed in the bone
marrow.
- Certain types of WBCs produce antibodies, special proteins that recognize
foreign materials and help the body destroy or neutralize them. The white cell
count (the number of cells in a given amount of blood) in someone with an
infection often is higher than usual because more WBCs are being produced or
are entering the bloodstream to battle the infection.

3. Platelets
- (also called thrombocytes) are tiny oval-shaped cells
made in the bone marrow. They help in the
clotting process. When a blood vessel breaks,
platelets gather in the area and help seal off the leak.
Platelets survive only about 9 days in the
bloodstream and are constantly being replaced by
new cells.
- Platelets and clotting factors work together to form solid lumps to seal leaks,
wounds, cuts, and scratches and to prevent bleeding inside and on the surfaces
of our bodies. The process of clotting is like a puzzle with interlocking parts.
When the last part is in place, the clot happens — but if even one piece is
missing, the final pieces can't come together.