This dissertation has been

microfilmed exactly as received 70-958

RICHARDSON HI, James Bushnell, 1936-

THE PRECERAMIC SEQUENCE AND PLEISTOCENE
AND POST-PLEISTOCENE CLIMATIC CHANGE
EN NORTHWESTERN PERU.
University of Illinois, Ph.D„ 1969
Anthropology

University Microfilms, Inc., Ann Arbor, Michigan

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THE PRECERAMIC SEQUENCE AND PLEISTOCENE
AND POST-PLEISTOCENE CLIMATIC CHANGE
IN NORTHWESTERN PERU

BY

JAMES BUSHNELL RICHARDSON HI

A.B., St. Lawrence University, i960
M.A., Syracuse University, 1963

THESIS

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements

for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Anthropology
in the Graduate College of the
University of Illinois, 1969

Urbana, Illinois
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This study is the product of the guidance of the

members of my doctoral committee: Donald W. Lathrap,
Charles Alexander, Thomas Zuidema, John C. McGregor and
Charles Keller. I am indebted to these scholars for
their idvice and encouragement. I further wish to thank
Dr. Jorge C. Muelle, Director, Julio Espejo N., Dr. Duccio
Bonavia and Rogger Ravines of the Museo Nacional de
Antropologia y Arqueloogia for providing facilities for
storage and analysis of collections and for their en-
couragement and advice as my project proceeded. I am
very grateful to the personnel of the International
Petroleum Company for their aid in the field and to the
International Petroleum Company for providing quarters
and storage facilities in Talara. I am especially in-
debted to John D. Tuohy, assistant manager of the Talara
operations for his aid in obtaining quarters and vehicles,
and to Fernando Zuniga y Rivera, William Denton, Thomas
Short, James Lammon, Lawrence Weiss, Manuel Paredes,
Jose Cruzado, George Tappan, Hugh Hay-Roe and Alejandro
Euribe D. of the Geology and Paleontology Departments,
for sharing with me their knowledge >jf the geology of
northwest Peru. I wish also to express my deep appreci-
ation for the hospitality that Guy and Joan Alexander and

iii
 iv

their family extended to my wife and me during out stay

in Talara. A. Lyndon and Elsie Bell, formerly with the
International Petroleum Company, aided in innumerable
ways both in Peru and in the States.
I am further indebted to Junius B. Bird of the
American Museum of Natural History, Gary S. Vercelius of
Queens College, Edward P. Lanning of Columbia University
and Thomas Patterson of Harvard University, for informa-
tion concerning the preceramic occupations of Peru and
to C. S. Churcher and R. H. H. Lemon of the Royal Ontario
Museum for information on the Talara Tar Pit fauna and
Pleistocene climate of the Talara region.

Geoffery H. S. Bushnell of the Cambridge University

Museum kindly provided me with photographs of Charles
Barrington Brown's collection from the El Estero site and
contributed valuable comments concerning the collection.
Charles Barrington Brown of Dorset, England contributed
immeasureably to my discussion of the El Estero assem-
blage in numerous letters and in sending me his unpub-
lished analysis of the El Estero artifacts that he had
collected in 1924. Axel A. Olsson, Research Associate
with the Smithsonian Institution and Paleontological
Research Institution analysed the mollusks from various
sites and commented at length on the problems of inter-
preting climatic change in northwest Peru.
I am deeply indebted to my advisor, Dr. Donald W.
Lathrap, for his encouragement and guidance throughout
 V

my graduate studies at the University of Illinois and for

his initial suggestion that the Talara region would prove
a fruitful area of research.
I also wish to express my deep gratitude to
Miriam D. Richardson for her arduous task of drawing the
plates for this study and to my wife, Judy, for having
encouraged and sustained me in this task.
 TABLE OP CONTENTS

Page
INTRODUCTION 1
CHAPTER
I. METHOD OF ANALYSIS 6
II. SICHES ASSEMBLAGE 15
III. ESTERO ASSEMBLAGE 37
IV. HONDA ASSEMBLAGE 60
V. PLEISTOCENE AND POST-PLEISTOCENE ECOLOGY
OF NORTHWEST PERU 86
VI. THE CHRONOLOGICAL AND STYLISTIC RELATIONSHIPS
OF THE SICHES, ESTERO AND HONDA ASSEMBLAGES .. 113
VII. CONCLUSIONS 137
APPENDIX
A. LIST OF ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITES LOCATED IN 1965
AND 1967 BETWEEN THE CHIRA RIVER AND PUNTA
PICOS, NORTHERN PERU 146
B. STATISTICS ON MODES AND DIMENSIONS 153
C. MOLLUSK ANALYSIS 159
LIST OF REFERENCES 164
MAPS 177
ILLUSTRATIONS 181
VITA 321

vi
 INTRODUCTION

With the purpose of establishing the preceramic

chronology of northwestern Peru, surface collections
were made from sixteen preceramic sites between the north
bank of the Chira River and Punta Picos. The research on
which this study was carried out from June through August
1965 and November through February 1967 was sponsored by
grants from the University of Illinois Research Board and
the National Science Foundation administered by Dr. Donald
W. Lathrap.

On the basis of artifact, midden and radiocarbon

analysis, three preceramic assemblages have been identi-
fied: Siches, Estero and Honda. Although limited col-
lections were made from ceramic period sites (see appendix
A for site locations) no attempt will be made in this
study to discuss the cermaic period assemblages except
in the discussion of settlement pattern change and the
initial ceramics (see Edward P. Lanning 1963 for the
ceramic sequence of the region).

History of Research
Two factors have been instrumental in drawing
scientists and scholars to northwestern Peru: oil
resources and the climatic phenomena known as El Nino.

1
 2

During the past seventy-five years many aspects of the

geology, paleontology, geography, climate, botany and
zoology of the region north of the Sechura Desert have
become well known. Until recently, however, the region
north of Lambayeque has been one of the least known
archaeological areas of the Central Andes. Within the
last five years there have been two reports which in part
make up for this void. Edward P. Lanning^ (1963)
analysis of surface collections from forty-one sites from
the Illescus Peninsula to the mouth of Quebrada Parinas
has provided the guidelines for the ceramic chronology of
northwestern Peru, while the recent report (Izumi and
Terada 196b) of the University of Tokyo Scientific Expedi-
tion to the Andes on excavations in the Tumbes Valley is
an indication of the importance of this region to our
knowledge of the influences Peru received from Ecuador.

The research into the ceramic period remains prior

to Lanning*s work has been discussed in detail in his
report so that I will herein confine myself to the pre-
vious research into the preceramic period. The first
preceramic sites known in Peru were discovered by Charles
Barrington Brown, then geologist with Compania Lobitos
Petrolera, in 1911 at Punta Picos, twenty-six miles
southwest of Tumbes (Brown 1926:1). C. Barrington
Brown's most important discovery was in 1924 when he
located the now famous El Estero site, which produced an
assemblage of T-shaped stone axes, mortars and pestles.
 3

In addition to the important discoveries by Brown, Dr.

Georg Peterson, Peru's leading geologist and former
director of research for Empresa Petrolera Fiscal re-
covered a few chalcedony artifacts from a marine terrace
at Punta Sol which he sent to Dr. Otto Wetzel (1939) for
petrographic analysis.
Recently Leon Kostritsky (1955) reported looted
preceramic graves at Punta Aguja and Punta Nunura on the
Illescus Peninsula that yielded carved stone bowls and
textiles. It is important to note that these graves were
located in caves, the first use of caves known for the
Peruvian coast.
Aside from the work by Junius B. Bird (1948) in
the Chicama and Viru Valleys and the evidence of chipped
stone assemblages at Pampa de los Fosiles (Larco 1948:11)
and at Pampa de Paijan (Lanning and Hammel 1961:141-142)
little is known in detail about the preceramic period
north of the Viru Valley.

The Problem
The coastal region north of the Chira River in
Peru to Cape Pasado in Ecuador is well known as a climat-
ically unstable transition zone between the heavy tropical
rainfall of northern Ecuador and Colombia and the region
of intense aridity which characterizes the coasts of Peru
and northern Chile. This semi-arid transition zone is
periodically (every 7-10 years) subjected to heavy rains
 1 4

as the result of the southward displacement of the

Peruvian Current by the northern countercurrent known
as El Nino. These rare occurrences of rainfall may have
been more regular or even seasonal in the past as is indi-
cated by the archeological, geological and paleontological
record. Thus, northwestern Peru provides an unique oppor-
tunity to examine man's cultural adaptation to fluctuating
climatic conditions and progressive dessication over a
period of 8,000 years.
It is the thesis of this study that the exploita-
tive technology of the Siches, Estero and Honda assem-
blages was based upon perishable materials. Due to poor
preservation only the secondary artifact forms from which
these perishable primary artifacts were manufactured
remain for study and thus it is difficult to ascertain
what kind of primary tools these early Peruvians had.
Since the exploitative technology is in part a reflection
of the surrounding envrionment, the Pleistocene and post-
Pleistocene environment will be reconstructed within the
bounds of the present knowledge. If, during the pre-
ceramic occupation of Talara region, the environment was
more conducive for habi-feafeion by man, it would in part
account for the fact that the three assemblages are
characterized by woodworking tools which were oriented ,
to the utilization of a now extinct habitat.
There are four parts to this study. The first
is a presentation of the method of analysis. The second
 5

is a description of the three preceramic assemblages

emphasizing the modes that occur in each assemblage, the
context in which these modes are found and how they change
from assemblage to assemblage. The third part deals with
the reconstruction of the Pleistocene and post-Pleistocene
environment of northwestern Peru and the fourth part will
interpret and compare the Siches, Estero and Honda assem-
blages with other preceramic assemblages in South America.
 CHAPTER I

METHOD OF ANALYSIS

The modal analysis of material culture has been

discussed in detail by Lathrap (1962), Deetz (1962 and
1967), Spaulding (1960) and Rouse (1939 and 1960) so that
only a brief statement as to the objectives of modal
analysis will be given herein.
It has been argued by the proponents of modal
analysis that archaeologists should attempt to develop a
classification of material culture that would conform to
the system of classification of the artisans who origi-
nally made and used the artifact. It is impossible, in
an archaeological context, to observe the mental and be-
havioral interaction of the artisan with artifact he is
producing. The artifact, is, however, a concrete
expression and end result of a series of culturally
patterned decisions. Each mode in the artifact is
present for a reason and the majority of modes are based
on the culturally conditioned choice of the artisan.
Lathrap (1962:218) uses the term mode to designate
the minimal unit of meaningful behavior with regard to
material culture (see Rouse 1960:313, Spaulding 1960:422
and Deetz 1962:2 and 1967:108 for similar definitions).

6
 7

A dimension is any axis or range within which artifactual

material may show formal variability (i.e., width,
length and thickness). To the artisan, the mode repre-
sents degrees of freedom or culturally approved alterna-
tives. Curves for artifacts within a particular dimension
which are unimodal indicate that the complex had just one
mode in that dimension. Bimodal or trimodal curves indi-
cate that there was more than one cultural mode controlling
the variability in that dimension (ibid:223-227).
The procedure is as follows: the artifact is
described as minutely as possible and each mode and dimen-
sion is recorded and considered as it combines with all
others (Lathrap 1962:234, Deetz 1962:2-3 and Spaulding
1960:442). The combination of specific modes are then
classified into what Lathrap (1962:236) refers to as
form categories, Spaulding (1960:442) types and by Deetz
(1967:108) artifacts. For the purpose of this study the
term artifact form will be utilized since it does not
present the ambiguous interpretation as does the term
type.

Artifact Function
Steward and Setzler (1938:6) feel that the
description of material culture should be discussed under
functional headings (e.g., hunting, fishing, food prepa-
ration, etc.) rather than under such headings as bone,
horn and stone in order to present more meaningful cultural
 8

categories. In most cases, an ethnographer has no

problem in determining the function of particular arti-
facts within a specific cultural context. The archaeol-
ogist is, however, hampered by the fact that unlike the
ethnographer, he is dealing only with the artifact and
not with the artifact and the native interpreter. In an
archaeological context, the function of specific artifacts
is in many cases difficult or impossible to determine and
the functions ascribed to specific artifacts by comparison
with the material culture of extant cultures can also be
misleading.

Archaeologists are becoming increasingly aware of

the fact that even such labels as hand axe, scraper,
blade, graver and so on are used differently by different
investigators and are often misleading in terms of the
original function of the artifact. There has recently
been a revival in imitative experiments with lithic
artifacts on the microscopic level to identify unique
characteristics of wear which would permit a more precise
interpretation of the function of an artifact (e.g.,
Semenov 1964, Sonnenfeld 1962, Keller 1966 and Crabtree
and Davis 1968). The archaeologist is forced also to
turn to historical or ethnographic sources upon which to
base his interpretation of function. However, many such
studies do not provide the archaeologist with the detailed
technological information necessary for valid comparison.
Currently there is a growing concern among archaeologists
 9

that studies of the function of lithic, ceramic and other

aspects of the material culture of extant cultures must
be undertaken to provide the necessary information on how
the artifact is classified, manufactured and utilized by
the artisan. The recent studies by Thomson (1964) and
Gould (1968) among the Australian aborigines; DeVore and
Lee among the Bushmen of the Kalahari Desert; Chappell
(1966) and Heider (1967) in New Guinea and Lathrap's
current study of Shipibo ceramic manufacture will enable
the archaeologist to deal more precisely with the inter-
pretation of the functions of prehistoric artifacts.

Since the chipped stone industry of the Siches,

Estero and Honda assemblages are based upon secondary
artifacts, it is impossible to ascertain into which
functional category they might be placed due to the fact
that they may have been utilized to manufacture a wide
variety of primary artifacts (e.g., spears, arrows, bows,
basketry, etc.). As will become clear in later sections
of this study, the lithic industry was in fact utilized
for the manufacture of implements which functioned in
subsistence activities and other cultural activities.
In describing the chipped stone industry of the
Siches, Estero and Honda assemblages the inferred func-
tion (e.g., scraper, graver, and spokeshave) will not be
utilized as the category of classification and no attempt
will be made to place them into functional categories as
suggested by Steward and Seltzer (1938).
 10

After the description of each artifact form, based

uoon modal clusters, an interpretation will be made as to
the probable function of the artifact. However, in deal-
ing with primary artifacts such as mortars, pestles, axes
and hammerstones where there is little hesitation in
ascribing a function, these will be described under their
functional headings.

Sample
A nonrandom collection of artifacts was made from
the surface of all sites. Items which were considered to
have been utilized by man were recovered as well as the
detritus from artifact manufacture. The purpose of this
nonrandom collection of artifacts was to gain as far as
possible a representative sample for a description of each
assemblage.

Technology
The raw material used for the manufacture of the
chipped stone artifacts of all three preceramic assem-
blages was either quartzite or chalcedony pebbles or
cobbles from redeposited beach and stream deposits. The
form and size as well as the ease of procurement and.
abundance of these raw materials are important factors in
understanding the techniques and motor habits character-
istic of the manufacturing procedure.
The method of artifact manufacture for the Siches,
Estero and Honda assemblages was restricted primarily to
 11

the direct percussion technique. The raw material was

struck by direct percussion either upon the natural sur-
face of the pebble or upon an unfaceted platform to pro-
duce flakes or shatter which were then fashioned into
artifacts. Relatively large flakes exhibiting cortical
surfaces were produced by this method. Few cores were
recovered due to thcs size of the pebbles used as raw
material which must have broken up from the initial
percussion blows so that further processing was impossible.
It was from this initial processing that flakes were se-
lected to fashion into artifacts. The major technique in
shaping the artifact to its desired form was again by
direct percussion applied to one face. Except for three
cases the chipped stone artifacts were only shaped on the
edge of the tool.

The chipped stone artifacts of the Siches, Estero

and Honda assemblages are predominately a unifacial
industry produced by the flake being held horizontally,
bulb face upward, to which direct percussion blows are
directed downward along the edge of the flake, thus
producing the desired form.
The axes, mortars and grooved pebbles were pro-
duced by the techniques of pecking and grinding.

Modes and Dimensions

1. Raw material: preference of raw material used to
manufacture artifacts.
 12

2. Color: both the color of the cortex and interior

were noted. The interior color seems to have little
importance in the selection of the pebbles as raw
material. However, it is my impression that the
cortex color and form enabled the artisan to select
raw material with some degree of accuracy.

3. Length: measurement of the longitudinal axis of the

specimen from the proximal end (point of percussion)
to the distal end (end of flake directly opposite
the striking platform). The working edge of the
artifact will always be described in terms of its
relation to the longitudinal axis.
4. Width: the axis of maximum width measured from the
widest points between the lateral sides on a line
perpendicular to the axis of percussion.
5. Proximal width: maximum width of the proximal end
or point of percussion.
6. Thickness: maximum thickness of the artifact.
7. Proximal thickness: maximum thickness of the natural
unfaceted platform of percussion.
8. Exterior origin: the natural or cortical surface
which covers the outer face of the artifact.
9. Interior origin: the cortex covers only a portion
of the outer face. The majority of chipped stone
artifacts exhibit this mode.
 13

10. Natural platform: the unaltered cortical surface

of the pebble was utilized for the striking
platform.
11. Unfaceted platform: an intentionally made plane
produced by the detachment of a single flake.
12. Point of percussion: the point of percussion on
the lateral edge of the platform at the apex of
the bulb.
13. Bulb of percussion: a bulb like protuberence or
swelling below the point of percussion.
14. Bulb flake: a small negative flake sometimes
detached from the bulb or near it.
15. Hinge fracture: a hinge like curled edge found on
the distal end of artifacts.
16. Ventral face: inside face of artifact on which the
bulb of percussion is situated.
17. Dorsal face: the outside face usually with some
degree of cortex.
18. Flakes: the length is less than twice the maximum
width.
19. Core: the block from which flakes are detached.
20. Mode of initial manufacture: direct or indirect
percussion, pressure flaking and so on.
21. Mode of secondary retouching: direct or indirect
percussion, pressure flaking and so on.
 14

22. Use retouch: flakes detached from the working

edge of the artifact as a result of use.
 CHAPTER II

SICHES ASSEMBLAGE

The four Siches sites (map 1) are situated on the

tablazo surfaces either overlooking or near the Recent
Salinas deposits. PV7-13 and PV8-13 were apparently
temporary mollusk collecting stations and are character-
ized by a thin scattering of the mangrove mollusk,
Anadara tuberculosa (Sowerby) and quartzite artifacts and
chipping debris. PV8-12 is a more extensive site with an
area of small midden accumulation and PV7-19 is a midden
covering a large area and is the only site that may be
considered to have been occupied for any length of time.

PV7-13 is a small scattering of Anadara tuberculosa

(Sowerby) and quartzite implements located on the Talara
Tablazo near the southern border of Quebrada Parinas and
just northeast of Punta Malaccas between International
Petroleum Co. wells 894 and 4220.
PV7-19 ig the largest of the Siches sites and is
the type site for this assemblage. The site is situated
near the head of the west branch of Quebrada Siches
(illus. 1) on the surface of the Mancora Tablazo and
covers a distance of about a mile east and west by one-
fourth of a mile north and south. It is just north of

15
 16

International Petroleum Company Concrete marker AR19.

Quebrada Siches is not to be confused with Quebrada Pozo
Siches further to the north near El Alto which on some
maps is labeled Quebrada Siches. At the base of a now
dry waterfall there is a permanent pool of freshwater
(known to the International Petroleum Company personnel
as the waterhole) continually replenished from seepage
from Tertiary beds near the base of the quebrada. This
is one of the few sources of standing freshwater at the
present time between the Chira and Tumbez Rivers. The
site consists of a midden of between two and four feet in
thickness composed mainly of mangrove mollusks, fire
cracked pebbles, charcoal, sand, artifacts and chippage
detritus (illus. 2 ) . With the aid of various Internation-
al Petroleum Company personnel surface collections of
artifacts was made over the maximum extent of the site.
Test pitting was limited to only three widely separated
areas of this extensive midden and mainly for the purpose
of obtaining charcoal samples for radio-carbon analysis.

PV8-12 was first discovered by John D. Tuohy

and it is located on the edge of the Talara Tablazo which
forms the northern rim of the town of Talara. The midden
concentration covers an area of about 50 by 100 feet but
the scattering of mangrove shells continues along the
border of the tablazo from the edge of Quebrada Yale to
the Belco Oil Company storage tanks. The midden is
 17

between 1 and 1-1/2 feet in depth and it has the same

composition as PV7-19 (illus. 3).
PV8-13 is a limited scattering of Anadara
tuberculosa (Sowerby) northeast of the International
Petroleum Company concrete marker 268 situated on the
Talara Tablazo overlooking the Recent Salinas deposits.
A few quartzite implements were recovered, but due to
their wind eroded condition, could not be utilized in
this analysis.

Raw Material
The chipped stone industry of the Siches assem-
blage is predominantly based upon the use of quartzite
pebbles and to a lesser degree chalcedony pebbles.
Pebbles are the chief ingredients of the tablazo deposits.
The Mancora Tablazo deposits reach a maximum thickness of
250 feet and some of the best exposures of sands,
coquinas and pebble beds occur in the walls of the
quebradas cutting the Mancora Tablazo north of Quebrada
Parinas (Lemon and Churcher 1961:412). The coguina bands
occur on the surface and are between 10 to 12 feet in
thickness. Throughout the coquina beds there are
quartzite pebbles averaging 1/2 to 2 inches in diameter.
These beds would have provided small quartzite pebbles
which could be obtained on the surface of the tablazo.
However, the predominant source of suitable raw material
probably came from the extensive patches of rounded
 18

quartzite pebbles occurring on the surface of the Mancora

and Talara Tablazos; the remnants of a veneer of prograded
beach deposits (ibid:415).
The small percentage of chalcedony pebbles used
for artifact manufacture must have either been secured
from the pebble beds of the Mirador and Chira formations
or picked up in the stream beds of the nearby quebradas.
All the chalcedony artifacts were manufactured from small
pebbles of under 4 cm. in diameter, whereas the chalcedony
pebbles of the Mirador and Chira formations which outcrop
at the base of only the deepest quebradas range from
approximately 8 to 12 cm. in diameter. If these exten-
sive beds of chalcedony pebbles had been utilized, one
would expect to find a higher percentage of chalcedony
used for artifacts since it is a more suitable material
for artifact manufacture. These beds were heavily
mined by the knappers of the later Honda assemblage.

Secondary Artifacts PV7-19

These specimens are defined as secondary arti-
facts due to their inferred function in the manufacture
of primary tools which were utilized in the economic
activities and other pursuit's. As outlined in chapter I
these tools will be described under morphological headings
and their function will be discussed after each artifact
form description.
 19

- - Single Pointed Artifact Forms

Thirty-two artifact forms (illus. 4, a-d; illus. 5,
a-d and illus. 6, a-c) exhibiting a single steep nosed
point were recovered from the site. All were produced on
flakes or shatter. Thirty were manufactured from gray
quartzite, twenty of which still had remnants of their
original pebble cortex attached. Two of these implements
were manufactured from chalcedony (illus. 4, b and c ) .
All are interior flakes or shatter, four of which were
struck from unfaceted platforms (illus. 5, c and illus.
6, c) and twenty-two of which were struck on their
original pebble surface (illus. 4, a, b, d; illus. 5, a,
b and d ) . The remainder were manufactured from pieces
of shatter (illus. 4, c and illus. 6, a and b ) .

Eighteen of these implements can be considered

as naturally backed due to either a flat or rounding
cortical surface opposite the working point (illus. 4,
a, b and illus. 5 a, d ) . Six others had a flat flake
removed from the edge opposite the working point. This
would have been a decided advantage in preventing in-
jury to the heel of the hand while the tool was in use.
All these tools were manufactured by direct
percussion both to produce the flake or shatter and to
produce the finished artifact. After detachment from
the pebble, the flake was placed bulb face up and a
number of direct percussion blows were directed toward
one edge to create the desired point.
 20

,..*- All these specimens have irregular flakes either

from use or from intentional retouch on the edges of both
sides of the point and six specimens have one or more
deep notches between 0.6 to 1.2 cm. in depth (illus. 6,
a, b, c ) . Twenty-six single pointed artifacts have a
distinct bulb of percussion and two exhibit a bulb
flake.
Function: this artifact form has repeatedly
been interpreted as a graving tool (Wormington 1957:276,
Spaulding 1962:22 and Longacre 1967:84) utilized for
engraving or incising of bone, wood or antler or as a
perforator (Bell 1965:110-111 and 303) for the piercing
of hides. The fairly steep retouch on the edges of each
of the specimens indicates possible use of the tool as a
scraper in addition to a probable graving tool. Deep
notches on tools are commonly interpreted as spokeshaves
for the scraping of wooden shafts. These artifact forms
are inferred to have functioned as graving and scraping
implements for the working of bone or wood.

Double Pointed Artifact Forms

Three specimens of artifact forms with two steep
nosed projections manufactured from chalcedony were
found (illus. 7, a, b ) . They were produced on interior
flakes from small pebbles of approximately 4.5 cm. in
width. All three were struck on a natural platform and
they range in length from 3.3 to 4.5 cm.; 3.1 toJ4;0-cm.
 21

in width and 0.8 to 1.0 cm. in maximum thickness. The

projections are between 0.2 and 0.5 cm. in length and
0.3 to 0.6 cm. in width at their base. There is no
retouch on the lateral edges as in the single pointed
artifact forms.
Function: their function was primarily that
of a graving tool for incising wood or bone (see dis-
cussion of the function of the single pointed imple-
ments).

Denticulate Forms
Denticulate artifact forms (illus. 7, c-h) are
characterized by closely spaced shallow notches and
short, usually rounded projections. Of the fifty-six
specimens, fifty-two are manufactured from gray quartzite
and four from chalcedony. Eight of the implements have
unfaceted platforms and forty-one, natural platforms.
All were manufactured on interior flakes and fifty-one
exhibit the bulb of percussion. Thirty-eight are natu-
rally backed and eleven have a flat surface from the
detachment of a flake opposite the denticulate face.
The number of notches and projections range between
3 and 6.
Function: there have been various interpretations
as to the utilization of this artifact form. Binford and
Binford (1966) provide contrasting functions for
Mousterian denticulates. In their table I (ibid:244)
 22

they infer that they were used for sawing while on table 7
(ibid:259) they interpret the denticulates as shredding
and cutting tools. The interpretation of denticulates as
saws has little basis since the normal interpretation of
a lithic saw is a piece which has one or more edges
indented by evenly spaced chipping forming a saw toothed
margin. The notches and projections are irregular on
the Siches specimens and also on the Mousterian denticu-
lates (Borde:1961, fig. 1, 7 and fig. 2, 8-17). Lanning
(1967c:14) interprets denticulates as woodworking tools
but does not venture an interpretation as to their exact
function.

Pointed and Notched Artifact Forms

A total of eleven specimens of quartzite were
recovered and placed in this category (illus. 8, a, b,
c and illus. 9, a ) . These specimens exhibit deep and
wide notches between 1.5 and 4.1 cm. in width and 0.2
and 0.4 cm. in depth. All are interior flakes and they
range in length from 2.2 to 5.8 cm.; 4.6 to 7.7 cm. in
width and 1.4 to 1.9 cm. in maximum thickness. Six
specimens were struck on natural platforms while on the
remaining five, it is impossible to discern due to a
flat flake which has been detached opposite the semi-
circular working edge. All are backed, six with the
original cortex (illus* 8, b, c) and five by an inten-
tional flat flake removed from the edge opposite the
 23

working edge (illus. 8, a and illus. 9, a ) .

Function: the edge of the artifact has been
steeply retouched either by direct percussion or by use
or a combination of both. The inferred function of this
implement is as a scraping tool. The notches may well
have served as a spokeshave.

Single Pointed Artifact Forms with a Right

Triangular Cross-section
Three specimens with a single steep nosed projec-
tion and right triangular cross-section were recovered
(illus. 10, a, b, c ) . All are interior flakes, two of
wich were struck from natural platforms and one from an
unfaceted platform. Two edges of each specimen exhibit
use retouch. They range between 5.2 and 6.9 cm. in
length; 3.7 and 4.9 cm. in width and 1.7 and 2.4 cm. in
maximum thickness. The single projecting point measures
between 0.3 and 0.4 cm. in length and 0.5 to 0.9 in
width at their base.
Function: the single point is similar to those
discussed for the single and double artifact forms and
has previously been interpreted as serving as an en-
graving tool. The retouched edges of this tool were
used as a scraper.

Backed Artifact Forms with an Obtuse

Triangular Outline
Seventy specimens of this artifact form were
recorded (illus. 9, b, c; illus. 11, a, b-d) and all were
 24

manufactured from gray quartzite. All are of interior

origin; thirty-eight were struck on the natural platform
and sixteen on an unfaceted platform, while the remainder
were indeterminable. All specimens exhibit a general
obtuse triangular outline and are all retouched unifa-
cially. Nineteen of these artifact forms are naturally
backed (original cortex remains) while the remainder have
a flat surface opposite the working edge resulting from
the removal of a flake (illus. 9, b, c and illus. 11,
b, c, d ) .
Function: since these artifact forms all exhibit
moderately steep retouching, restricted to one face,
these tools are interpreted as scrapers.

Retouched Flakes
Forty-three flakes with direct percussion edge
retouch were analysed (illus. 12, c ) . All of the flakes
are of interior origin and were manufactured from
quartzite. Four of the specimens were struck from un-
faceted platforms and the remainder from a natural
platform. Fourteen of the flakes were retouched on both
lateral sides, twelve on the right lateral side and
seventeen on the left lateral side. All exhibit a bulb
of percussion. The maximum thickness of these percussion
retouched artifact forms ranges from 0.4 to 2.6 cm. and
all are retouched unifacially. The angle of retouch is
acute and not steep which normally defines an implement
 25

used as a knife or cutting tool.

Function: due to its unifacial nature and acute
retouch, this artifact form may have been utilized for
a combination of functions, such as scraping, peeling
or trimming and cutting.

Retouched Ridged Flakes

Eighteen retouched flakes exhibiting on the dorsal
face, two parallel flake scars converging to form a
ridge. Two specimens were manufactured from chalcedony
and the remainder from quartzite. Three were struck
from prepared platforms and fifteen from natural plat-
forms. All are interior flakes exhibiting a bulb of
percussion. Five were retouched by direct percussion on'
both lateral sides, six on the right lateral side and
seven on the left lateral side.
Function: the acute retouch indicates a cutting
function; however, due to its unifacial nature a peeling
and scraping function has to be considered.

Retouched Ovate Artifact Forms

Eight specimens were analysed. Three were manu-
factured from chalcedony (illus. 12, a, b) and the
remainder from quartzite. Five exhibit natural platforms
(illus. 12, a) and the remainder are pieces of shatter.
All are interior flakes exhibiting retouch on two or
more edges. The retouched edges are not limited to an
end or side and the outline of the tool tends to be oval
 26

or square. They range from 3.0 to 3.9 cm. in length;

2.8 to 3.5 cm. in width and 0.5 to 1.1 cm. in maximum
thickness.
Function: the acute retouch indicates a cutting
function, but as in the above two cases, due to the
unifacial nature of the tool it may have served as a
scraping or trimming implement.

Hammerstones
A total of thirty-four hammerstones were re-
covered from the site which exhibited battering on one
or more edges. On the basis of outline and areas of
battering, they have been classified into four forms.
Form 1: are unmodified stream or beach pebbles
with scars and flaking resulting from battering on the
total circumference of the artifact. The twelve speci-
mens are basically oval in shape (illus. 13, d-g, i) and
eleven are of quartzite while one is of green andesite
(illus. 13, e ) . They range from 6.2 to 10.6 cm. in
length; 4.9 to 7.7 cm. in width and 2.8 to 5.8 cm. in
maximum thickness.
Form 2: is essentially the same as form 1;
however, in addition to a battered circumference the six
quartzite specimens have a central pecked depression on
both sides. The depression is normally interpreted as
providing the user with a better hold on the hammer when
in use (illus. 13, c, h ) . They range from 6.8 to 12.0 cm.
 27

in length; 6.2 to 7.0 cm. in width and 2.6 to 3.2 cm. in

maximum thickness. The diameter of the depressions varies
from 1.2 to 2.1 cm.
Form 3: are five elongated quartzite pebbles
with battering confined to each end (illus. 13, a, b ) .
Their length ranges from 5.3 to 6.8 cm.; width from 5.2
to 3.4 cm. and thickness from 2.4 to 3.6 cm.
Form 4: seven quartzite pebbles which have
been modified by the intentional removal of one end and
dressing the resulting ragged edges. The specimens were
basically oval in shape and exhibit battering on the end
opposite the flattened end. The flattened end of the
hammer would have enabled the user to buttress the hammer
solidly against the heel of his hand.
Four badly damaged hammers were recovered which
exhibited battering but were so badly fragmented that
they could not be classified as to form.

Grinding Stone
One piece of limestone with a ground surface was
recovered from the site. It is an irregularly shaped
slab of limestone ground on one side, measuring 10.8 by
13 cm. and is 1.6 cm. in maximum thickness. This piece
as well as the grinding facet on the mortar (illus. 16)
probably functioned as grinding surfaces for'the shap-
ing of axes. A similar limestone slab with one grc,\nd
surface was recovered from the El Estero site.
 28

Primary Artifacts
Primary tools were utilized in the securing of
resources and in most cases there is little doubt as to
their function. They will be described under functional
categories.

Pestles
Only one example of a short pestle was recovered
from the site (illus. 13, k ) . This is a natural oblong
pebble modified on one edge by battering to flatten the
rounded end. The opposite end is ground. This form is
similar to the El Estero pestles and is manufactured
from a fine grained igneous pebble. It measures 9.8 cm.
in length and 6.0 cm. in width and thickness.

Mortars
Four cup shaped mortars were recovered from the
surface of the site. Three were manufactured from blocks
of limestone and one from a block of fossil coral.
Illustration 14 is a block of limestone measuring
43.0 by 25.0 cm. and is 13.0 cm. in thickness.' Two cup
shaped mortars have been ground through the base of the
block. The diameter of the mouths of the mortars are
12 and 10 cm. and their depth is 10 cm. and approximately
11 cm.
Illustration 15 is a limstone block with a cen-
tral cup shaped mortar. The block measures 34.0 cm. by
31.0 cm. and is 9 cm. in thickness. The diameter of the
 29

opening of the mortar is 12 cm. and it is broken through

the base of the block.
Illustration 16 is a limestone block with a cen-
tral cup shaped mortar measuring 30 by 35 cm. and is
8.4 cm. in thickness. The diameter of the cup shaped
mortar is 11.5 cm. and it is broken through the base of
the limestone block. This specimen also has a grinding
facet along one edge measuring 20.5 cm. in length and
between 3.4 and 3.6 cm. in width.
Illustrations 17 and 18 are views of both sides
of a fossil coral block with three deep cup shaped
mortars ground into it. Illustration 17 has two mortars
(the central hole is the breaking through of the mortar
on the reverse side) with mouth diameters of 16 and 12
cm. and depths of 30 and 26 cm. The block measures
42.5 by 33.0 cm. and is 38 cm. in thickness. Illustration
18 shows a single circular shaped deep mortar with a
mouth diameter of 19 cm. which has broken through the
opposite side from use.
Function: cup shaped mortars have been normally
interpreted as primarily associated with the preparation
of seeds and other foodstuffs. The blocks of limestone
and fossil coral could easily have been obtained from the
surface of the Mancora Tablazo or from the edge of
Quebrada Siches. The mortar of fossil coral is very
porous due to the fact that the cellular structure of the
coral is still open. In grinding seeds or other plant
 30

material much of the resulting product must have been

lost due to its being mashed into the cellular structure
of the coral. The limestone mortars would seem to pro-
vide a more suitable material for food preparation.

Grooved Pebbles
Two quartz pebbles with a shallow pecked groove
were recovered (illus. 19, b, c ) . They measure 4.7 by
5.2 cm. and 5.4 by 6.8 cm. and are 3.5 and 3.2 cm. in
thickness. The pecked groove ranges between 0.8 and
1.0 cm. in the specimen in illustration 19, b and 0.9
to 1.2 cm. in illustration 16, c.
Function: there are two functions which seem
plausible. Use either as a bola or a fish net sinker.
The bola weights recovered by Junius Bird (1946:plate
10, a, i and plate 11, a) in his excavations of Fells
and Palli Aike Caves are similar to the Siches and Honda
specimens (illus. 19). The bolas from Bird's (1943:fig.
33, g and fig. 19, d-i) excavations in northern Chile
and from Tierra del Fuego are grooved both along the
short and long axis while the Siches and Honda specimens
are grooved only along the short axis. The smaller
bolas, (up to 5 cm. long) according to Bird (ibid:240-41)
are still used for hunting birds along the Desaquadero
River which drains Lake Titicaca. The larger weights
(up to 8 cm. long), if they were similar to the
Patagonian fighting bola (a single weight on a thong),
 31

could have been used to kill sea lions (ibid:241).

Fishnet sinkers are normally a flatish pebble
either grooved or with binding notches on the ends of
the pebble. Due to the correspondence in size and shape
of the Siches and Honda grooved stones with Bird's bolas
from Chile and Tierra del Fuego, I infer that they also
functioned as bolas.

Axes
Two ground stone axes were recovered (illus. 20
and 21) from the site.
Illustration 20 is a badly damaged poll and body
fragment with a markedly concave poll with a rounded
facet and converging rounded faceted sides. It is manu-
factured from dark green andesite and measures 7.9 by
9.9 cm. and is 2.6 cm. in maximum thickness. After the
axe became damaged it was used both as a hammerstone
and anvil (one face and an edge are heavily battered).
The axe was originally ground over its entire surface
(the grinding striations are reproduced in illus. 20).
Illustration 21 is the fragment of the poll and
body of an axe found by Joseph Wilson of the International
Petroleum Company (Hugh Hay-Roe, personal communication
1967) after I had returned from Talara. The photograph
of the one face that Hugh Hay-Roe kindly sent shows a
slightly unfaceted convex poll, protuberant ears and
rounded converging sides. The bit of the axe has been
 32

destroyed and the axe was secondarily used as a hammer-

stone. The poll width measures 7.2 cm. and the body
width at the bit end is 2.5 cm. The thickness cannot be
determined from the photograph. Although it does not
have faceted sides or poll, it is similar in form to the
El Estero axes. Both the Siches axes were originally
utilized as woodworking tools and after they could no
longer perform their cutting function, they were used as
hammerstones.

Artifact Analysis PV7-13, PV8-12, PV8-13

Few artifacts were recovered from PV7-13 or
PV8-13. Quartzite flakes and several badly wind eroded
artifacts were found on the surface of PV7-13 and PV8-13.
The main factor in designating both PV7-13 and PV8-13 as
sites was the scattering of mangrove mollusks on the
surface and the presence of quartzite detritus with bulbs
of percussion.
PV8-12 overlooking Talara Harbor is a more sub-
stantial site and yielded a total of sixty-eight arti-
facts. All the artifact forms from PV8-12 were manu-
factured from quartzite pebbles ahd all are interior
flakes.
Three specimens of the single pointed form were
recovered, all of which were struck from a natural plat-
form and each of which is naturally backed. They range
in length from 3.2 to 5.6 cm.; in width from 2.9 to 6.4 cm.
and in maximum thickness from 2.5 to 3.8 cm. The single
point ranges from 0.1 to 0.2 cm. in length and00i2rto
0.4 cm. in width at its base. These implements, as
previously discussed, are interpreted as incising and
scraping tools.
Seven denticulate forms were found. Four were
struck from a natural platform, two from an unfaceted
platform and one manufactured from a piece of shatter.
Six of the specimens are backed, five naturally and one
by the removal of a flat flake opposite the denticulate
edge. They range in length from 3.1 to 5.6 cm.; in
width from 2.3 to 4.6 cm. and in thickness from 2.3 to
3.4 cm. This form is characterized by irregular notches
and rounded projections ranging from 3 to 6 in number.
These implements have been interpreted as woodworking
tools.
Three pointed and notched artifact forms mea-
suring between 4.2 and 4.8 cm. in length; 3.9 to 5.2 in
width and 2.3 to 3.5 cm. in maximum thickness were
analyzed. All are naturally backed and have between 2
to 5 notches and rounded projections. The depth of the
notches ranged from 0.8 to 1.0 cm. in depth. The func-
tion of these tools have been interpreted as scraping
implements.
Twenty-one specimens of the backed artifact
forms with an obtuse triangular outline were recovered
(illus. 11, a ) . Twelve were struck from a natural
 35

The Siches knappers were restricted in the size of the

tools that could be produced due to the nature of their
raw material. The main source for artifact forms was
flakes and it appears that the pebbles were broken up
into flakes and shatter, thus accounting for the lack
of cores.
The size of the quartzite pebbles ranges from
8.2 to 14.3 cm. along their longest axis (47 pebbles
from the surface of PV7-19 were measured). Although no
chalcedony pebbles were recovered from the tablazo sur-
faces, the cortical surfaces of the chalcedony pieces
indicate a pebble size of under 8.0 cm. along the longest
axis.
The Siches sites yielded a total of 1,091 pieces
of chipped stone of which 302 were recognized as arti-
facts. Of the total only thirty-eight were of chalced-
ony. This does not, however, indicate a preference for
quartzite as a raw material. The Siches knappers did
not utilize the exposed chalcedony pebble beds at the
base of nearby quebradas either due to the fact that they
were unknown to them, or that quartzite was a suitable
material for their purposes and there was no need to
look for other chipping materials.
The percentage of natural to unfaceted pieces is
very high: 73% were struck from a natural platform, 8%
from an unfaceted platform and the remainder were in-
determinable. There was no attempt to modify the bulb of
 36

percussion (81%) or to further flake the dorsal surface

of any of the artifact forms.
The single pointed, denticulate, pointed, notched
and backed artifact forms with obtuse triangular outline
exhibit either natural or intentional backing which has
been interpreted as providing a flat surface opposite
the working edge to enable the user to handle the arti-
fact more efficiently.
Two major divisions of artifact forms have been
noted based upon their inferred function. The secondary
artifact forms have been interpreted as being utilized
in the production of primary implements and to have
functioned in a woodworking technology. For all mea-
surements not included in the text, see appendix B.
As will be seen in the following descriptions of
the Estero and Honda assemblages, the same technology
for the manufacture of artifact forms is used.
 CHAPTER III

ESTERO ASSEMBLAGE

The only site known for this assemblage is the

El Estero site (PV6-3) located in a pass through the
Buitre Hills. This pass between Quebrada Realenga And
Quebrada Realengal, allowed the passage of individuals
from the Amotapoe Mountains to the coast and vica versa*
by a series quebradas or overland on the tablazo sur-
faces.
The occupation area is located on the eastern
edge of the pass on the border of a now dry pond which
fills with water only during periods of rare rainfall
(illus. 22).
This site was discovered by Charles Barrington
Brown (1924, 1926) when he was on a geological survey
for the Lobitos Oilfields Limited. Because this was
the first preceramic site in Peru to have been described
in detail (C. Barrington Brown discovered the first pre-
ceramic site known for Peru at Punta Picos in 1911),
the circumstance of its discovery is of historical in-
terest. In a recent letter (January, 1966), C.
Barrington Brown made the following remarks on his dis-
covery of the site:

37
 38

In the course of my journeys by mule, of

course, inland to the Amotape foothills, I
must have passed El Estero several times. But
one day (I suppose in 1924) in passing I rec-
ognized an inhabited site from the purplish
earth•
I dismounted and immediately picked up a
perfect axe. Within minutes I had picked up
many more, mostly fragments and pieces of
stone jars. The next day I returned from my
camp of La Brieta and made a thorough search
without finding much more. I dug one or two
shallow holes without result.
I walked over the neighborhood for some
hundreds of yards all round, but found no
further middens, nor any possible burial
sites. Some months later I had another
thorough.. superficial search but could add
. very little material.
Sdmetime around 1930 I visited the place.
A wooden (algarroba) hut had been built and
was inhabited by a family . . . sometime
later, the hut was abandoned and again years
later, the site was bare: all the posts had
been removed.
Of course by that time there was plenty
of broken pots and glazed china lying about.
But I must repeat that there was nothing of
the sort in 1924.
Only on one occasion have I seen water
in the pond.
C. Barrington Brown's entire collection was
deposited in the Cambridge University Museum, Cambridge,
England.
In 1965 and 1966-1967 when I visited the El
Estero site an algarroba hut had again been erected on
the site (illus. 23) and subsequently abandoned. It is
now in a ruined state. The small pond also showed evi-
dence of recently having contained water, probably after
the rains of May of 1965. The bottom of the pond was
recently muddy as could be seen from the hobfprints of
horses and cattle. During the period of occupation the
 39

pond must have been a semi-permanent or permanent water

source replenished by more regular rainfall.
The midden covering in area of about 1,000 square
yards, consists mainly of dark black soil with charcoal
flecks between 2 and 4 feet in depth.

Analysis: Secondary Artifact Forms

Raw Materials
The raw material utilized for the production of
chipped stone artifact forms was quartzite and chalced-
ony pebbles could have been easily secured from the
stream beds of the nearby quebradas located on either
end of the pass in which the site is situated.

Single Pointed Artifact Forms

All these specimens exhibit a steep projection
and steep percussion retouch on either side of the sharp
point (illus. 24, a-c; illus. 25, a, b, d; illus. 26, b,
c). Of the total of twenty-eight pieces, seven are manu-
factured of chalcedony and the remainder of quartzite.
Seven were struck from an unfaceted platform (illus. 24,
a; illus. 25, b; illus. 27, d), fifteen from a natural
platform (illus. 24, a; illus. 25, a; illus. 26, c) and
the remainder indeterminable. One specimen (illus. 24,
a) was struck from the rounded end of a pebble. The
flake was then placed ventral face upward to which sev-
eral direct percussion blows were directed to the edge
of the flake to produce the steep point. Except for
 40

four specimens which do not exhibit any cortical sur-

face (illus. 24, c and illus. 25, c ) , all are interior
flakes. In contrast to the Siches single pointed forms,
none of the Estero examples are naturally or intention-
ally backed.
Function: used as a graving and scraping tool
(see discussion for this artifact form in Siches assem-
blage).

Denticulate Artifact Forms

Thirty-six denticulates characterized by closely
spaced shallow notches and short projections were found.
Twenty-seven were manufactured from quartzite and the
remainder from chalcedony. Thirty-one have nautral
platforms and two, unfacetdd platforms. All are in-
terior flakes and only nine specimens are either
intentionally (3) or naturally backed (6).
Function: woodworking tools used as a scraping
and shredding implement (see discussion of function of
denticulate artifact forms, Chapter 2 K

Pointed and Notched Artifact Forms

A total of seven examples with deep and wide
notches and rounded projections were recovered from the
surface of the site (illus. 27, b ) . All were manufac-
tured from quartzite pebbles and all are interior flakes.
They range in length from 3.2 to 4.9 cm.; in width from
3.4 to 6.9 cm. and 1.2 to 1.7 cm. in maximum thickness.
 41

Three were struck from natural platforms, the remainder

being indeterminable. Two are naturally backed and
three are intentionally backed (illus. 27, b) opposite
the semi-circular working edge.
Function: scraping and spokeshave tool (see
discussion of pointed and notched forms in Chapter 2 ) .

Denticulate Artifact Forms with a Right

Triangular Cross-section
Four specimens in this category were analyzed,
all manufactured from quartzite (illus. 27, a ) . Two
were struck from unfaceted platforms and the remaining
two were indeterminable. All are interior flakes and
are simular in form to the single pointed artifacts of
the same shape from the Siches assemblage. They range
in length from 2.6 to 4.8 cm.; in width from 2.5 to
2.7 cm. and in maximum thickness from 2.5 to 2.7 cm.
One edge of each of these implements has the character-
istic notched and pointed working edge.
Function: scraping and shredding of wood or
plant materials.

Backed Artifact Forms with an Obtuse

Triangular Outline
Six examples of the category were noted, manu-
factured from Quartzite (illus. 27, c ) . Two were struck
from a natural platform and the remainder were indeter-
minable. All are interior flakes and all are backed
(two naturally and four intentionally). They range in
 42

length from 3.2 to 4.4 cm.; in width from 5.5 to 7.1

cm. and in maximum thickness from 2.5 to 3.4 cm.
Function: utilized as scrapers.

Notched Artifact Forms

Eight specimens of interior flakes with a deep
notch, six of chalcedony (illus. 28, c, e) and two of
quartzite (illus. 28, f) were recovered. Seven were
struck from a natural platform (illus. 28, c, e) and
one from an unfaceted platform (illus. 28, f ) . The
width of the notch varies from 0,5 to 2.3 cm. and ranges
from 0.3 to 0.5 cm. in depth. They range in length from
2.7 to 4.7 cm,; in width from 2.3 to 3.7 cm. and 1.0 to
2.8 cm. in maximum thickness. Five of the pieces have
retouch along one edge (illus. 28, f ) .
Function: the single notch has been interpreted
as a notched scraper or spokeshave for preparing wooden
shafts. In addition, five of these implements appear to
have been used as a scraping tool in addition to a
spokeshave.

Ovate Ridged Flake Artifact Forms

Three specimens with a longitudinal ridge formed
by the converging of two flake scars were analysed
(illus. 29, a, b, c ) . All are steeply retouched on one
edge and one on one end and lateral edges. They are all
manufactured from chalcedony and exhibit no cortical
surface. They range in length from 2.9 to 3.4 cm.; in
 43

width from 1.3 to 1.9 cm. and in maximum thickness from

1.0 to 1.7 cm.
Function: due to the steep retouch these tools
may be interpreted as scrapers. In many artifact classi-
fications they are known as thumbnail scrapers.

Retouched Ovate Artifact Forms

Ten specimens with steep retouch on two or more
edges were recovered. The prepared edge is not limited
to one side and the outline of the tool tends to be oval
or square (illus. 25, c; illus. 26, a; illus. 29, e ) .
Eight were manufactured from chalcedony and two from
quartzite. All except two were struck on a natural plat-
form and all are interior flakes. They range in length
from 2.1 to 5.1 cm.; in width from 2.9 to 4.6 cm. and in
maximum thickness from 1.0 to 2.1 cm.
Function: these tools were interpreted as",
scraping implements.

Retouched Flake Artifact Forms

This class of artifact forms consists of all
flakes which have been modified to form one or more acute,
unifacial working edges. Of the thirty-five specimens,
nineteen were manufactured from quartzite and sixteen from
chalcedony. Twelve were struck from unfaceted platforms*
ten from natural platforms and the remainder were in-
determinable. All are interior flakes.
 44

Function: due to their unifacial acutely re-

touched edges they are interpreted as scraping or
trimming implements.

Retouched Ridged Flake Artifact Forms

Six flakes with a longitudinal ridge formed by
the converging of two flake scars and one or more re-
touched edges were recovered from the surface of the
site (illus. 28, a ) . Four were struck from a natural
platform and two from an unfaceted platform. All except
one of these interior flakes were manufactured from
quartzite and they range from 2.6 to 4.9 cm. in length;
3.0 to 4.8 cm. in width and 1.0 to 1.8 cm. in maximum
thickness.
Function: these tools, due to their unifacial
acute working edge (all except illus. 28, a is retouched
only on the right lateral side), are interpreted as
scraping and trimming implements.

Cores
Three cores from which no further flakes could
be attached were found (illus. 30, a, d, e ) . Two are of
chalcedony (illus. 30, a, d) and one of quartzite (illus.
30, d ) . All are of the pyramidal type with an unfaceted
platform from which flakes were detached. Each has been
utilized as a scraping tool as evidenced by use retouch
chips.

/***%
 45

Function: detachment of micro-flakes and sec-

ondarily as a scraper.

Large Oval Retouched Flake

One specimen of quartzite struck from a natural
platform was recovered (illus. 31). It is 11.7 cm. in
length; 6.2 cm. in width and 1.2 cm. in maximum thickness.
It is retouched unifacially on all sides and the dorsal
surface exhibits a number of flake scars.
Function: the unifacial retouch is steep, which
in most cases designates a scraper.

Hammerstones
All these specimens are unmodified stream peb-
bles, smooth and water worn, with one or more surfaces
showing scars and flaking resulting from battering. On
the basis of shape and area of battering the sixteen
hammerstones recovered are divided into three forms.
Form 1: eleven (illus. 32, a, b, c, e-1) are
pebbles with an oval to circular outline exhibiting
battering, primarily on the ends. Eight are quartzite
and two are andesite pebbles (illus. 32, h, k) and they
range in length from 4.7 to 8.9 cm.; in width from 4.6
to 7.8 cm. and in maximum thickness from 2.5 to 5.2 cm.
Form 2: a single specimen of fine grained
quartzite with two pecked central depressions which may
have enabled the user to better graps the hammer (illus.
32, d ) . It measures 8 cm. in length; 7 cm. in width
 46

and 3 cm. in thickness.

Form 3: three specimens of pebbles with a rec-
tangular outline (illus. 33; illus 56, a ) . One is of
quartzite and two are of fine grained igneous rock and
all are battered on the ends. They range in length from
8.4 to 10.7 cm.; in width from 7.5 to 7.8 cm. and in
thickness from 4.5 to 5.3 cm. Although these hammers
appear to have been intentionally shaped, there is no
evidence of pecking or grinding on the surface of the
pebble.
Function: these hammers functioned in the manu-
facture of chipped stone artifact forms.

Ground Slabs
Two irregular slabs with one ground side were
found. C. Barrington Brown (1926:3) recovered a slab of
sandstone which he interpreted as a polishing or grinding
stone for the finishing of axes. It measured 26.3 cm.
in length; 5.0 cm. in width and 1.9 cm. in thickness.
The other irregular slab of limestone was recovered in
1966 and is similar to the one from the Siches site
(PV7-19). One surface is entirely ground and the oppo-
site side is rough stone. It measures from 13.3 cm. in
length; 10.8 cm. in width and 3.3 cm. in thickness.

Function: used in the grinding of axes. Semenov

(1964:69) states that sandstone blocks are regarded as
the most valuable abrasive agent and that the grinding is
 47

usually performed on abrasive slabs. Both sandstone and

limestone are friable which Semenov (ibid:69) points out,
allows grinding without the addition of sand,
as these natural abrasives possess the prop-
erty of 'self-sharpening'; and plaques of this
rock need only have their surfaces soaked with
water. Without this intervening (washing-off)
agent, the abrasive surface would quickly
'salt up,' that is the sharp projections be-
come blunted and their interstices chocked up
by the product of grinding, so that the abra-
sive soon becomes unserviceable.

Discussion
The chipped stone industry of the Estero assem-
blage is based upon the use of quartzite and chalcedony
pebbles from which flakes were produced, either from a
natural or from an unfaceted platform. A total of 515
pieces of chipped stone were recovered from the heavily
overgrown site of which 143 were artifacts. Of the
total, 203 are of chalcedony flakes which were produced
from pebbles of under 6.5 cm. in diameter. The remainder
were struck from large quartzite pebbles readily avail-
able in the nearby quebradas.
Four hundred and eight were struck from a natural
platform, 71 from an unfaceted platform; the remainder
being indeterminable. Four hundred and eighty-six ex-
hibit a bulb of percussion and 32 a bulb flake. All
were produced by direct percussion both for the produc-
tion of the initial flakes and for retouching and
finishing the artifact form. Fort, artifact measurements
not included in the text, see Appendix B.
 48

Both the Siches and Estero assemblages are

similar in respect to the raw materials and modes of
production used to produce artifact forms. The secondary
artifact forms are basically the same for each assem-
blage.

Primary Artifact Forms

Axes
The C. Barrington Brown collection consists of
five whole and two almost whole axes plus twenty-six are
fragments. Fifteen further axe fragments were collected
in 1965 and 1966-67.
Except for three specimens, the whole and frag-
mentary axes represent one basic form which is character-
ized by a slightly convex poll with small protuberent
ears and parallel or slightly convex faceted sides
rounding toward the bit. The widest point is at the
polls. Of the three exceptions, one exhibits a pecked
poll and hafting groove 0.9 cm. below poll and it is the
largest axe in the collection (illus. 34-39, f ) . The
second exception is the fragment of the corner of a poll
section exhibiting a pecked groove below the poll
(illus. 40, j ) . Although there is no ear in evidence,
G. H. S. Bushnell (personal communication 1966) indicates
that the area of the ear has been heavily battered which
may account for its absence. The third exception is the
fragment of a poll with no evidence of an ear (illus. 40,
f; illus. 44, b ) .
 49

Of the totai of f6rty-eight specimens, thirty-

two are manufactured from various andesites which indi-
cates a preference and a selection for a specific raw
material. Andesite and the other material from which the
axes were manufactured could have easily been selected
from the pebbles in the nearby quebrada streams. There
are no outcrops of veins of andesite in the Amotape
Mountains, according to the International Petroleum
Company geologists. The Estero people probably used
flat pebbles for axe rough-outs and ground them using
both limestone and sandstone blocks.
The collection of forty-eight axes and axe frag-
ments will be discussed under the following headings:
whole or nearly whole axes, pole fragments with protu-
berent ears, fragments of faceted sides, bit fragments
and chips showing a ground surface.
The photographs of C. Barrington Brown's collec-
tion were provided by G. H. S. Bushnell and the Cambridge
University Museum. Catalogue numbers will be given in
the description of pieces from his collection. The
basis for the description of these axes is C. Barrington
Brown's 1924 manuscript and G. H. S. Bushnell*s comments
on the specimens.

Whole and Nearly Whole Axes

Illustration 34-39, a (25.264 C) is manufactured
from blue-white fine grained andesite. This axe is in a
 50

fragmentary state and consists of four pieces found with-

in a four square yard area. One side of the axe is red-
dened, possibly due to having been exposed to fire (C.
Barrington Brown 1924:4). The poll and side facets are
flat with fairly sharp edges. The ears of this specimen
protrude 0.5 cm. and are the largest in the collection
and there is a marked constriction below the ears. It
measures 6.1 cm. in length; 5.8 cm. in poll width; 1.9
cm* in medial thickness and weighs 90 grams.
Illustration 34-35, b; 36-39, c (25.264 G) is
manufactured from gray-green andesite. Both faces, poll
and bit show evidence of slight battering (ibid:3).
This specimen has flat faceted sides and poll and pro-
tuberent ears. It measures 6.0 cm. in length; 4.5 cm.
in poll width; 4.3 cm. in medial thickness and weighs
76 grams.
Illustration 34-35, c; 36-39,hb (25.264 E) is
manufactured from gray-green andesite with large felspar
white crystals (up to 0.4 cm. in width). The side and
poll facets are flat and the protuberent and poll surface
shows some evidence of battering (ibid:3). It measures
5.6 cm. in length; 4.8 cm. in poll width; 2.0 cm. in
medial thickness and weighs .74 grams.
Illustration 34-39, d (25.264 D) is manufactured
of gray-white veined quartz. The faces, pole, sides and
bit are battered and only a few areas of the original
ground surface is evident. The poll facet is flat whereas
 51

the side facets, due to battering, appear rounded.

This specimen measures 7.6 cm. in length; 6.7 cm. in
poll width; 6.2 cm. in medial thickness and weighs 210
grams (ibid:6).
Illustration 34-39, e (25.264 B) is manufactured
of gray-white granular quartzite. The faces and bit of
this specimen show extensive battering. The sides and
poll are rounded. It measures 8.5 cm. in length; 8.2 cm.
in poll width; 6.9 cm. in medial thickness and weighs
90 grams (ibid:5).
Illustration 34-39,:f (25.264 F) is manufactured
from g?ray-green fine grained andesite. The poll and
hafting groove are pecked while the remainder of the axe
is ground. This is the largest and is the only fully
grooved axes in the collection. The sides are sharply
faceted and the poll is rounded. This specimen measures
12.7 cm. in length; 8.9 cm. in poll width; 4.1 cm. in
medial thickness and weighs 707 grams (ibid:2).
Illustration 34-39, g (25.264 A) is manufactured
from red chert veined* with yellow quartz and has many
cavities which are lined with yellow quartz crystals.
The poll and sides are flatly ground and one side shows
some battering. It measures 8.8 cm. in length; 6.5 cm.
in poll width; 2.4 cm. in medial thickness and weighs
205 grams (ibid:l).
 52

Poll Fragments with Protube ^ent Ears

Illustration 40, c; 42, a (25.266) is manufactured
from gray-white andesite and has a sharp facet below the
ear and a rounded poll (ibid:6).
Illustration 40, b; 43, a (25.266) is manufactured
from green hornblende felspar. The ear has been battered
and both the poll and side facet is ground flat (ibid:9).
Illustration 40, d; 42, e (25.266) is manufactured
from gray-green fine grained andesite. The protuberent
ear is badly battered and the side and face are also
battered as if used as a hammerstone. The poll and side
facets are slightly rounded (ibid:10).
Illustration 40, f; 44, b (25.266) is manufactured
from gray, fine grained andesite. There is no projecting
of the poll, however (G. H. S. Bushnell, personal communi-
cation 1966) the Corner of the poll is battered which
may have obscured a slight protuberence. The side and
poll is unfaceted (C. Barrington Brown 1924:14).
Illustration 44, a (25.266) is manufactured of
banded rhyolite. The ear has been broken off. The poll
is sharply faceted and there are two distinct facets
below the ear (ibid:17).
Illustration 40, a; 43, b (25.266) is manufactured
from blue-black fine grained igneous rock. This specimen
has sharply faceted sides and poll. Both sides exhibit
extensive battering, possibly from use as a hammerstone
or anvil (ibid:20).
 53

Illustration 40, h; 42, c (25.266) is manufactured

from gray, fine grained andesite. This fragment exhibits
fine pitting below the ear (ibid:21).
Illustration 40, g; 42, d (25.266) is manufactured
from yellowish-gray banded fine grained rock. The poll
facet is sharply flattened and the ear is rounded (ibid:23).
Illustration 42, b is manufactured from gray-
green fine grained andesite. This fragment recovered in
1966 exhibits a pointed ear with a sharp facet beneath
the ear.
Illustration 40, h (25.266) is manufactured from
gray-green andesite. It exhibits a sharply faceted poll
and side (G. H. S. Bushnell, personal communication 1966).
Illustration 40, j (25.266) is manufactured
from green andesite. This specimen exhibits a battered
ear and pecked binding depression (C. Barrington Brown
1924:24).
Illustration 40, e; 49, a (25.266) is manufactured
from blue-green andesite. The poll section is badly
battered on both faces and sides as if used as a hammer-
stone (ibid:8).
Illustration 49, b (25.266) is manufactured of
green andesite. The poll facet is rounded and the speci-
men exhibits heavy battering on its edges from probably
use as a hammerstone (ibid:11).
 54

Fragments of Faceted Sides

Twelve ground axe fragments exhibiting a sharply
faceted side were recovered from the site. Six were
manufactured from green andesite (illus. 41, c; illus.
45, a, b; illus. 46, b, c, e); one of five grained
andesite with white felspare inclusions (illus. 48, a);
one of blue-black andesite (illus. 46, d); one of reddish
black andesite (illus. 46, a); one of dark green horn-
blende (illus. 45, a); one of black and orange banded
rhyolite (illus. 47, b); one of black grained igneous
rock (illus. 47, a) and one of white igneous rock with
brown streaks (illus. 48, b ) .
Two fragments (illus. 46, a; illus. 48, a) ex-
hibit battering from probable use as a hammerstone.
Illustration 46, b has a double sharp facet and is
probably a fragment from the area near the ear as is
illustration 24, a.
Except for two fragments (illus. 46, b, c), all
the faceted pieces are from C. Barrington Brown's collec-
tion (ibid:7, 12, 13, 15, 16, 18, 19, 22, 23, 24).

Bit Fragments
Twelve bit fragments, all of andesite were re-
covered from the site: one of blue (illus. 50, b), one
of reddish (illus. 50, e) and the remainder of green
(illus. 40, k-m; illus. 50, a, c, d, f, g) andesite. All
show various degrees of battering on the edges. Five
 57

as mortars; however, due to the fact that cup shaped

mortars are also present, a different use may be indicated.
Bird (1943:244), in dealing with both stone bowls and
mortars from Playa Miller Casino, in northern Chile, was
unable to suggest a use for the fairly thin walled bowls.
He does suggest, however, that if elongated pestles had
been found at the site, there would be some justification
in interpreting the Playa Miller bowls as mortars. Since
thirteen elongated pestles were recovered from the El
Estero site the bowls may have functioned as mortars,
but due to the occurrence of cup shaped sandstone
mortars, I am hesitant to ascribe a function to the El
Estero bowls.

Mortars
Three sandstone cup shaped mortars were located
at the El Estero site (illus. 57, a, b ) . Each sandstone
block has a part of a small cup shaped mortar which has
broken through the base from use.
Illustration 57, b, measures 22 by 14 cm. and is
9 cm. in thickness. The approximate diameter of the
mortar is 9 cm. Illustration 57, a, measures 12 by 22
cm. and is 12 cm. in thickness. The approximate dia-
meter of the mortar is 10 cm. The third specimen
measures 28 by 36 cm. and is 11 cm. in thickness. The
diameter of the mortar is approximately 10 cm.
 58

Pestles
Twelve elongated pepple pestles were recovered
from the site, nine of which were modified through pecking
and grinding. The photographs (illus. 58, 59) are speci-
mens recovered by C. Barrington Brown. Eight were manu-
factured from gray-green andesite (illus. 58, b-c, f-h;
illus. 59, b, c; illus. 60, b ) , one of granite (illus.
60, a ) , and three of fine grained igneous rock (illus.
58, e; 59, a, d ) . All exhibit one or two ground ends
and ten (illus. 58, b-d, f-g; illus. 59, b, c and illus.
60, a, b) were modified by pecking to obtain a regular
cylindrical shape. They range in length from 6.7 to
17.8 cm. and in medial thickness from 3.8 to 7.5 cm.
Function: used in conjunction with a mortar to
prepare plant foods.

Miscellaneous
C. Barrington Brown (1926:2) found several pieces
of ground slate faceted at one end (these were not in
the Cambridge University Museum collection)• A further
piece of ground slate, rectangular in cross-section and
outline (illus. 28, d ) , was recovered in 1966, measuring
0.9 by 4.3 cm. and 0.6 cm. in thickness.
C. Barrington Brown (ibid:3) mentions a piece of
ground shell in the shape of the bowl of a teaspoon
with two holes bored through it. In 1965 the circular
top of a Conus fergusoni (Sowerby) rubbed smooth on the
 59

ventral side and with a hole bored through t h e c e n t e r

(diameter of 0.5 cm.) measuring 4.4 cm. i n diameter was
picked up from the surface.

i
•

i
 CHAPTER IV

HONDA ASSEMBLAGE

Of the ten Honda period sites, only one site

(PV7-16), has any appreciable midden accumulation. Three
sites (PV4-1, PV4-2 and PV7-20) have extensive areas of
chipping debris, fire cracked rock and artifacts scat-
tered over the surface, while the remainder are small
surface sites. All the Honda period sites are situated
on the Mancora Tablazo or on marine terraces.
PV7-16 is the type site of this assemblage and
it is located on the edge of Quebrada Honda at its junc-
tion with Quebrada Faiquillal. It is situated between
International Petroleum Company concrete markers, W 10
and W 11 which are set a mile apart. The site is
located along the edge of the quebrada (illus. 61) and
extends about 1,000 feet inland. There are limited
midden deposits along two raised ridges (illus. 62) in
the approximate center of the site varying in depth from
one to two feet and composed primarily of charcoal, bone
refuse, rare shells and fossil Pectan shells.
PV7-20 is situated on the edge of Quebrada Honda
two miles south of PV7-16. Located in the center of the
extensive scatterings of chipping debris, fire cracked

60
 61

rock and artifacts is Empresa Petrolera Fiscal concrete

marker SP - 37-1954.
PV7-21 is a small scattering of chalcedony waste
chippage and artifacts situated on the edge of Quebrada
Honda at the junction of Quebrada Los Dos Bocanas.
PV7-22 is situated on the east side of Quebrada
Honda overlooking the junction of Quebrada Honda and
Faiquillal. It is characterized by a small scattering
of chalcedony waste chippage and artifacts.
PV6-2 is a scattering of chalcedony on the south
of Quebrada Pozo Siches across the old Pan American High-
way from International Petroleum Company wells 675 and
739.
PV4-1 is located on the lowest of three marine
terraces directly east of the International Petroleum
Company property at Punta Sol (illus. 63, 64). Scattered
over this extensive marine terrace is chalcedony chipping
debris, fire cracked rock and artifacts.
PV4-2 is a small site located on the highest of
three terraces between PV4-1 and Punta Sol. Only a
limited scattering of cultural debris was noted.
PV4-3 is a limited scattering of cultural debris
on an uplifted marine terrace known as Punta Picos. Situ-
ated on the edge of the site is an Empresa Petrolera
Fiscal concrete marker with Punta Picos inscribed on it
This is the first preceramic site discovered by C.
Barrington Brown (1926:1) and to my knowledge the
 62

first preceramic site known for Peru.

Two further scatterings of chalcedony chipping
debris and artifacts were noted, but since under twenty
specimens (waste and artifacts) were recovered, they
were not given site designations.

Raw Material
Chalcedony pebbles were the preferred raw
material from which the Honda knappers manufactured
artifacts, although quartzite pebbles were also utilized.
Chalcedony pebbles are found only in the pebble beds of
the Mirador and to some extent, the Chira and Verdun
formations of Upper Eocene age. These pebble beds are
exposed only where the overlying Quarternary deposits
have been cut through by erosion. It is only at the
base of deep Quebradas that these beds are available
for utilization by man (illus. 61). At the base of the
quebrada walls of Honda, one is able to walk up to these
deposits and select chalcedony pebbles with little diffi-
culty. The quartzite pebbles were easily obtained on
the tablazo surfaces.

Secondary Artifacts
The chipped stone industry of the Honda assem-
blage was based upon pebble raw material as were the
Siches and Estero assemblages. However, there was one
important difference: the Honda knappers were utilizing
specific deposits for their raw material. The modes of
 63

manufacture of artifact forms are the same as that of the

Siches and Estero assemblages, although there is a marked
increase in the use of an unfaceted platform, probably
due to the use of a more suitable material for artifact
manufacture.

Single Pointed Artifact Forms

The surface of PV7-16 yielded seventy-three speci-
mens of this artifact form, all exhibiting a steep nosed
point produced on flakes or shatter. Four were manufac-
tured from quartzite and the remainder from chalcedony.
All are interior flakes except three specimens which do
not exhibit any cortex. Twenty-seven were struck from
a natural platform; forty-three from an unfaceted plat-
form while the remainder were indeterminable. Thirty-
two are naturally backed and sixteen are intentionally
backed through the removal of a flake opposite the point.
All exhibit use and percussion retouch on the lateral
edges near the steep point.

Fourteen pointed artifact forms were recovered

from PV7-20 and all were manufactured from interior
flakes. Two are of quartzite and the remainder of chalced-
ony. Four are naturally backed and seven are intention-
ally backed and all exhibit use and percussion retouch
near the working point.
From PV4-1 forty-one single pointed tools were
recovered (illus. 65, a-c). All are manufactured from
 64

chalcedony: eight were struck from a natural platform

(illus. 65, a, d ) ; twenty-three from an unfaceted plat-
form (illus. 65, b ) ; the remainder are indeterminable.
Twelve are naturally backed and nineteen are intentionally
backed.
Seven single steep pointed tools were analyzed
from PV4-2 and all are manufactured from chalcedony
(illus. 66, a-c). Illustration 66, c, is the only speci-
men in the collection manufactured on the distal end of
a ridged flake. The distal end is steeply retouched
while the left lateral edge is acutely retouched. Four
were struck from a natural platform (illus. 66, a-c) and
three from an unfaceted platform. They range in length
from 3.7 to 8.0 cm.; in width from 3.1 to 4.9 cm. and
1.0 to 2.1 cm. in thickness. The steep point ranges from
0.5 to 1.0 cm. in length an 0.7 to 2.1 cm. in width at
its base.

Three single pointed forms were recovered from

PV4-3. All were manufactured from chalcedony and all are
naturally backed interior flakes. They were struck from
a natural platform and range in length from 3.2 to 4.6
cm.; in width from 3.8 to 5.6 cm. and in thickness from
1.2 to 2.3 cm. The length of the steep point ranges from
0.3 to 0.7 cm. in length and 0.1 to 1.3 cm. in width at
its base.
Function: utilized as graving implements and as
scrapers (see Chapter I for a discussion of their function).
 66

Forty-eight were struck from an unfaceted platform and

thirteen from a natural platform, the remainder being
indeterminable•
Fourteen denticulates were recovered from PV4-3
and all were manufactured from chalcedony. Six were
struck from unfaceted platforms and eight from natural
platforms. Six were naturally backed and two intention-
ally backed. They ranged in length from 3.1 to 6.6 cm.
3.0 to 6.5 cm. in width and 1.0 to 3.7 cm. in thickness.
The notches ranged from 3 to 5 and the points from 4 to
5 in number.
PV7-22, PV6-2 and the two limited scatterings of
artifactual material yielded eleven specimens, all manu-
factured from chalcedony. Two were struck on an un-
faceted platform and five on a natural platform. These
interior flakes ranged in length from 2.8 to 6.8 cm.; in
width from 2.9 to 5.4 cm. and in thickness from 1.2 to
2.8 cm. The notches ranged from 3 to 6 and the points
from 3 to 5 in number.
Function: utilized as woodworking tools for
shredding and scraping.

Notched and Pointed Forms

Artifacts of this form exhibit deep notches range
in width from 0.5 to 1.2 cm. and 0.3 to 0.6 cm. in depth.
PV7-16: twenty-seven specimens; eight manufac-
tured from quartzite and the remainder from chalcedony
 67

were found. Fourteen were struck from an unfaceted plat-

form and six from a anatural platform. Eighteen are
intentionally backed and four are naturally backed.
PV7-20: eight notched and pointed examples were
analyzed; all of which were manufactured from chalcedony.
Three were struck from an unfaceted platform and four from
a natural platform. Six are intentionally backed and one
naturally backed. They range in length from 3.8 to 6.7
cm.; in width from 4.1 to 7.3 cm. and in thickness from
1.3 to 4.3 cm. The number of points ranges from 3 to 4
and notches 3 to 5.
PV4-1: thirty-five specimens manufactured from
chalcedony were recovered. Twenty-four were struck from
a natural platform and eight from an unfaceted platform.
Four are naturally backed and tv/enty-one are intentionally
backed.
PV4-2: nine specimens were recovered, all manu-
factured from chalcedony. Six were struck from a natural
platform and two from an unfaceted platform. Two are
naturally backed and one is intentionally backed. They
range in length from 3.2 to 5.3 cm.; in width from 3.7
to 5.2 cm. and in thickness from 1.0 to 1.8 cm. The num-
ber of notches ranges from 2 to 4 and points from 3 to 4.
PV4-3: four specimens were analyzed; one manu-
factured from quartzite and the remainder from chalcedony.
One was struck from a natural platform and two from an
unfaceted platform. Three are naturally backed and one
 68

is intentionally backed. They range in length from 5.4

to 7.3 cm.; in width from 4.2 to 4.9 cm. and in thickness
from 2.5 to 3.5 cm. The number of points ranged from 3
to 4 and notches from 3 to 5.
Function: a combination scraper, spokeshave and
shredding tool used in woodworking.

Square Projecting Artifact Forms

Five specimens with a square projection were
recovered from PV7-16 (illus. 69, a, b ) . All are manu-
factured from interior flakes of chalcedony. Two were
struck from a natural platform and three from an unfaceted
platform (illus. 69, a, b ) . All are characterized by a
square, steeply retouched projection. One (illus. 69, b)
was produced on a ridged flake and is further retouched
on the right lateral side. All the remainder also, are
retouched on the edges near the projection. These speci-
mens are similar to the one recovered from PV8-12, a
Siches period site (illus. 69, c ) .

Function: referred to in the literature as "snub-

nosed" scrapers, these specimens are probably implements
used for controlled scraping.

Notched Artifact Forms

PV7-16: thirty-two interior flakes exhibiting a
wide and deep notch were recovered. All are manufactured
from chalcedony; thirteen were struck from an unfaceted
platform (illus. 70, d) and twelve from a natural platform,
 69

the remainder were produced on shatter. There has been

no attempt to back any of these implements. All except
three specimens exhibit steep retouch on one or more
sides (illus. 70, d ) .
PV7-20: three interior flakes with deep notches
were analyzed from this site. All are manufactured of
chalcedony and all were struck from a natural platform.
They range in length from 3.2 to 4.6 cm.; in width from
2.3 to 6.8 cm. and in thickness from 1.2 to 2.3 cm. The
width of the notches ranges from 1.3 to 2.1 and in depth
from 0.4 to 0.9 cm.
PV4-1: eighteen specimens were recovered
(illus. 70, c; illus. 71, a, b ) . Two of quartzite and
the remainder of chalcedony. Eight were struck from a
natural platform and six from an unfaceted platform. All
are interior flakes and none exhibit backing.
PV4-2: four specimens were found, all of which
were manufactured from chalcedony. They were struck
from a natural platform and the range in length from 3.8
to 4.3 cm.; in width from 3.0 to 4.3 cm. and in thickness
from 0.1 to 2.4 cm. The width of the notch ranges from
0.9 to 2.4 cm. and is between 0.3 to 1.1 cm. in depth.
Function: in addition to the wide and deep
notch, these artifact forms also exhibit steep retouch,
on one or more edges. These implements are interpreted
as scrapers and spokeshaves for the working of wood,
 70

especially wooden shafts.

Unifacial Ovoid Artifact Forms

Three of these implements were recovered from
the surface of two sites. Two of these specimens (illus.
72, a, b) represent the only unifacially finished arti-
facts of the three assemblages. They are manufactured
from chalcedony; two being struck from a natural plat-
form (illus. 72, a) and one indeterminable. They all
represent the convex side of a chalcedony pebble. The
cortex on the dorsal side of illustration 72, a and b,
hgas been removed by irregular flakes and the edges of
these artifact forms and the third specimen have been
retouched by direct percussion. Illustration 72, a was
picked up from the surface of PV7-16 and it measures in
length 7.5 cm.; in medial width 5.0 cm. and in maximum
thickness, 1.8 cm. Illustration 72, b, from PV4-1
measures 7.6 cm.; in width 5.3 cm. and in maximum
thickness, 1.6 cm. The third specimen is also from
PV4-1 and does not exhibit secondary flaking on its
dorsal side. It measures 7.4 cm. in length; 4.9 cm. in
width and 1.4 cm. in thickness.

Function: due to the unifacial nature of this

artifact form, they are interpreted as scraping imple-
ments. Cardich (1958:48, 49) interprets similar uni-
facial artifacts of his Laruicocha 2 period as knife-
scrapers •
 71

Acute Retouched Flakes

One hundred and eighty-four flakes with acute
retouch were recovered from PV7-16. Twenty-one were
manufactured from quartzite and the remainder from
chalcedony. Seventy-seven were struck from a natural
platform, ninety-one from an unfaceted platform, the re-
mainder were indeterminable. All are interior flakes
except twelve with no evidence of a cortex. Thirty-
seven are retouched on the left lateral edge; sixty-
eight on the right lateral edge; twenty on the distal
edge; thirty-one on the right lateral and distal edge
and twenty-eight on both lateral sides.
Sixty-seven retouched flakes were recovered from
PV7-20, all of which were manufactured from chalcedony.
Thirty-four were struck from a natural platform; the re-
mainder being indeterminable. Fourteen were retouched
on the left lateral side, twelve on the right lateral
side, eight on the right lateral and distal edges, six-
teen on the left lateral side and distal edge and eigh-
teen on the distal edge.
Eighty-three retouched flakes were recovered
from PV4-1. All, except thirteen of quartzite, the
manufactured from chalcedony. Thirty-three were struck
from a natural platform, forty-eight from an unfaceted
platform, the remainder being indeterminable. Twenty-
one were retouched on the left lateral side, thirty-
three on the right lateral side, fourteen on the left
 72

lateral and distal edges, seven on the right lateral

and distal edges, five on both lateral sides and three
on the distal edge.
PV4-2: sixty-one retouched flakes were analyzed
from this site, all manufactured from chalcedony (illus.
71, c ) . Of these interior flakes, sixteen were struck
from an unfaceted platform and the remainder from natural
platforms. Thirty-three were retouched on the left
lateral side; twenty-two on the right lateral side,
three on the right lateral side and distal edge, and
three on the distal edge.
PV4-3: six retouched flakes were recovered. All
are of chalcedony and all were struck from a natural
platform. Three are retouched on the left lateral side
and distal edge and three on the right lateral side.
A total of fifteen flakes were recovered from
PV7-22, PV6-2 and the two limited scatterings of cultural
debris near El Alto. All are of chalcedony and all are
interior flakes. Twelve were struck fromfa natural plat-
form and three from an unfaceted platform. Four are re-
touched on the left lateral side, two on both lateral
sides, three on the right lateral side and six on the
right lateral and distal edge.
Function: it is difficult to determine if the
retouched edge was produced by percussion or by use due
to the irregular flake scar pattern; however, it may be
a combination of both. All these specimens are
 74

Eight ridged flakes were found at PV4-3, all

manufactured of chalcedony. Two were struck from natural
platforms and six from unfaceted platforms. Six were
retouched on both lateral sides and two on the right
lateral side.
Thirty ridged flakes were analyzed from PV7-20,
all manufactured from chalcedony. Twelve were struck
from a natural platform and the remainder from an un-
faceted platform. Five are retouched on the left lateral
side, twelve on the right lateral side and the remainder
on both lateral sides.
Function: all are unifacially retouched by a
combination of percussion and use. The ridge flakes are
interpreted as scraping implements; however, they may also
have been used as trimming and cutting tools.

Bifacially Retouched Ridged Flakes

One specimen of a bifacially ridged flake was
found on the surface of PV7-16 (illus. 70, a) and may
have functioned as a cutting tool.

Hammerstones
A total of seventy-nine waterworn pebbles,
exhibiting battering on one or more edges, were recovered
from PV7-16 and were classed into five forms.
Form I consists of eighteen waterworn circular
to oval pebbles with battering on both ends (illus. 73,
h). They range in length from 4.7 to 13 cm.; in width
 75

from 3.7 to 6.3 cm. and in thickness from 1.9 to 3.9 cm.
Form 2 consists of twelve hammers which have
been modified on one end to produce a flat surface-
probably to facilitate easier handling (illus. 73, c-e,
g, i-k). The end opposite the flat surface exhibits
battering. They range in length from 5.8 to 11.2 cm.;
in width from 4.4 to 8.2 cm. and in thickness from 1.4
to 2.7 cm.
Form 3 consists of twenty-nine elongated, cylin-
drical hammers which exhibit battering on each end
(illus. 73, a, b; illus. 74, a, b ) . They range in
length from 6.4 to 14.3 cm.; in width from 3.2 to 6.7
cm. and in thickness from 1.9 to 3.2 cm.
Form 4 consists of rectangular flat hammers ex-
hibiting battering at both ends. Eleven of these speci-
mens were recovered (illus. 73, e; illus, 75, b ) . They
range in length from 8.9 to 12.2 cm.; in width from 4.9
to 7.6 cm. and in thickness from 1.2 to 2.1 cm.
Form 5 consists of nine generally oval, water-
worn pebbles with battering over the total circumference
of the hammer. They measure from 3.2 to 6.7 cm. in
length; 3.4 to 5.9 cm. in width and 2.1 to 3.6 cm. in
thickness.
A total of thirteen hammers were recovered from
PV7-20. Six are classed as form 2 with a modified flat
end and measure in length from 2.9 to 4.8 cm.; in width
from 2.7 to 3.9 cm. and in thickness from 1.3 to 2.4 cm.
 ! 76

Seven are of form 3 and measure in length from 5.2 to

11.9 cm.; in width from 2.9 to 4.3 cm. and in thickness
from 1.2 to 3.8 cm.
Five hammers were analyzed from PV4-1. One is
of form 3 and measures 7.7 cm. in length; in width 3.5
cm. and in thickness 1.8 cm. Four are of form 2 and they
measure between 3.8 to 7.4 cm. in length; 3.4 to 5.3 cm.
in width and 2.9 to 4.2 cm. in thickness.
One hammer of form 2 was found on the surface of
PV4-2. It measures 5.4 by 4.5 cm. and is 2.7 cm. in
thickness.
Function: all the hammers of form 1, 2, and 5
are manufactured from quartzite pebbles which could have
easily been recovered from the tablazo surfaces. These
forms probably were used in manufacturing the chipped
stone artifact forms. Forms 3 and 4 are waterworn flat
and elongated schist rocks which can be found only in
the quebrada stream beds. These forms may have been
utilized in the manufacture of the circular, drilled
fossil shells. The elongated form 3 would have allowed
the very controlled chipping necessary for the produc-
tion of the fossil shell pieces.

Cores
No cores were recovered from any of the Honda
sites which can be accounted for by the fact that the
raw material utilized (quartzite and chalcedony pebbles)
 78

Primary Artifacts
Grooved Pebbles
One white quartz pebble with a shallow groove,
10 cm. in width, was recovered from PV7-16 (illus. 19,
a). It measures 5.1 cm. in length and 4.7 cm. in width.
This specimen is the same as the two from PV7-19 (Siches
period site) and it has been interpreted as a bola stone
(see discussion of grooved pebgles for Siches assem-
blage).

Notched Pebble
One flat pebble with notching at either end was
recovered from PV7-20 (illus. 75, a ) . It measures 5.1
by 5.3 cm, and is 1.2 in thickness.
Function: notched pebbles have been consistently
interpreted as fishnet sinkers by most authorities.

Projectile Points
The fragment of the tip of an obsidian projectile
point was found on the surface of PV7-16. It is bi-
facially chipped and measures 1.8 cm. in length; 1.1 cm.
in width at its widest point and 0,6 cm. in maximum
thickness. Although PV7-16 was extensively surface
collected by a large number of persons under my super-
vision, no further examples of projectile points were
recovered. Obsidian deposits are unknown in northwest
Peru and according to the International Petroleum Company
geology staff, the nearest deposits are in Ecuador.
 79

Function: utilized as a projectile secured

either to the shaft of an arrow or spear.

Mortars
Eight mortars were found on the surface of PV7^16
(illus. 76, a-h). All are manufactured of limestone
except one (illus. 76, c ) , which is manufactured of bedded
schist. All the irregular blocks of limestone and schist
contain one cup shaped mortar except figure 76, a, which'
contains two.
Illustration 76, a, measures 14" by 21" and is
12" in thickness. The central depression pierces the base
of the block and is 5" in diameter. The second depression
is 4-1/2" in diameter and 3-1/2" in depth.
Illustration 76, b, has a large cup shaped de-
pression in the center of the block. The block measures
16" by 24" and is four inches in thickness. The diameter
of the mortar is 8" by 13" and it has been broken through
the base.
Illustration 76, c, is a block of schist which
has split through the mortar. The block measures 11-1/2"
by 13" and is 3" in thickness. The diameter of the cup
shaped mortar is 4" and it is broken through the block.
Illustration 76, d, shows three fragments of a
mortar. The block measures 10" by 14" and is 3" in
thickness. The diameter of the mortar is 4" and it is
broken through the base of the block.
 80

Illustration 76, e, is split through the cup

shaped mortar. The block measures 11" by 18" and is
6" in thickness. The cup shaped mortar is 3" in diameter
and is broken through the base of the block.
Illustration 76, f, is a cup shaped mortar which
measures 3-1/2" in diameter and is 1-1/2" in depth. The
block measures 12-1/2" by 14".
Illustration 76, g, is a block which has split
through the cup shaped mortar. The block measures 7"
by 11" and is 3" in thickness. The diameter of the
mortar is 3" and is broken through the base of the block.
Illustration 76, h, is a cup shaped mortar which
measures 4-1/2" in diameter and 2-1/2" in depth. The
block in which it is contained is 10-1/2" by 17" and is
6" in thickness.
One badly fragmented mortar of bedded sandstone
was found On the surface of PV4-1. It measures 6" by
11", and is 2" in thickness. The mortar is 3" in dia-
meter.
Function: utilized for the preparation of plant
foods. The raw material for these "portable bed rock"
mortars could have been obtained from the outcrops at
the edge of the quebrada.

Hematite (Fe2 0.)

Six small lumps of red hematite were recovered
in a test pit,in PV7-16. They range in measurement from
 84

forty-one exhibit the natural edge of the shell on one

border. The natural edge of the remainder have been
modified by slight chipping to smooth the convoluted edge.
Form 3: these are one half of the shell blank,
broken along the rib axis1,- which exhibit no indication of
drilling. One hundred and ninety-eight specimens were
recovered. One hundred and three exhibit the natural
edge of the shell used as one border. The remainder have
a modified natural edge produced by chipping the edge.

Discussion
The size of the perforated shells and fragments
exhibit a bimodal distribution. The diameter of the rib
axis of the shells peaks at 4.5 cm. and 2.2 cm. and sug-
gests that there were two significant sizes of perforated
shell disks selected by the Honda people. Illustration
77, a, c, d, e, f, illustrates the size range in the
larger category and illustration 77, b, h, the range of
the smaller category. A total of thirty-one specimens
falls within the smaller size range, while the remainder
are within the larger category.
The counter-sunk holes in the mineralized shell
range in diameter from 0.4 to 0.6 cm. at its opening
and 0.3 to 0.5 cm. at the point of breakthrough. The
perforations are regular and were made by drilling
through from one side (in all but six cases, the ventral
side) and then the aperture was made symmetrical by
 85

drilling from the opposite side. This explains the more

or less biconical appearance of the holes. Since the
holes are very regular in shape and size, a drill must
have been used. Stone drills were not recovered from the
site. The single pointed implements were not used to
perforate the heavily mineralized shell. Both quartzite
and chalcedony single pointed implements were experimented
with, and after less than 30 seconds of drilling, the
steep nosed point was worn flat in the case of quartzite,
and badly chipped in the case of chalcedony, so as to
make the tool useless for further use. Rotary drilling
was used to perforate the shells, but exactly what form
of object was used is unknown (possibly bone or hard
wood)•
Function: used as ornamentation.

Summary
The secondary artifact forms have been interpreted
as tools used in a woodworking technology. Few primary
artifact forms were recovered which is a further indica-
tion that the primary artifact forms were of a perishable
nature. The range of measurements not included in the
discussion of artifact forms can be found in Appendix B.
 CHAPTER V

PLEISTOCENE AND POST-PLEISTOCENE ECOLOGY

OF NORTHWEST PERU

The Pleistocene and Recent deposits of northwest

Peru overlie a truncated surface of the Cenozoic and the
rocks of the Pennsylvanian amotape formation and are
composed of a thick sequence of marine quartz sands,
shelly and calcoreous sands, marls, coquinas and pebble
beds (Bosworth 1922:147).
These deposits occur at three distinct levels,
each marking a period of marine encroachment followed by
uplift of the coastline. Viewed from the sea, these table-
lands (tablazos) resemble terraces, but are actually ele-
vated sea floors. From the oldest to youngest, they are
the Mancora, Talara and Lobitos Tablazos.
The three tablazo surfaces are the result of a
series of vertical uplifts during the Pleistocene, which
emerged along the Pacific Fault that borders the continen-
tal shelf off the coast. The shelf is approximately 600
feet in depth and at its edge drops off to 2,400 feet
within a mile, coming within five miles of land at Cabo
Blanco and Punta Parinas (ibid:193). The elevation of
the tablazos and thickness of the marine sediments is as

86
 87

follows: Lobitos, 14-41 meters in height consisting of

1.4-4.5 meters of sediments; the Talara Tablazo between
49-90 meters in height consisting of 2.4-6.1 meters of
sediments and the Mancora Tablazo which is between 61-330
meters in elevation, consisting of between 22.7-61.0
meters of marine sediments (ibid:147).
Regional warping and local faulting have deformed
the tablazos; the deformation being greater on the north
than on the south, so that, for example, the Mancora .
Tablazo reaches elevations of over 330 meters near Cabo
Blanco, while south of the Rio Chira, elevations of 60 to
75 meters are common. A major fault zone, followed by
Quebrada Parinas, visibly accounts for many meters differ-
ence between the surfaces of the Mancora tablazo to the
north and south of the quebrada. Lemon and Churcher (1961:
413) have noted the coquinas are more compact on the coastal
cliffs of the Mancora Tablazo, which they attribute to oro-
graphic rainfall. Although the winds blowing off the cold
Humboldt Current are devoid of moisture, the rapid rise of
over 800 feet above sea level between El Alto and Quebrada
Parinas (a distance of 21 miles) results in localized con-
densation. The amount of rainfall in the El Alto area is
significant when compared to that of Talara, just thirty-
seven miles to the south. During March 1964 the El Alto
station reported 10 mm.; in May 6 mm. and in June 1 mm. of
rainfall while the Talara station reported 0 nun.
 88

North of Quebrada Parinas, the Mancora Tablazo is

10-14 miles west to east, south of Parinas, it is only
3-4 miles in extent. Only a few remnants of the Talara
Tablazo are evident north of Parinas, while south of
Parinas the Talara Tablazo is between 8 and 10 miles from
west to east. Map 1. At Talara, the surface is at 280
feet above sea level, sloping to 130 feet just north of
the Rio Chira.
The Lobitos Tablazo was probably never more than
one mile in width and the largest portion is a narrow ridge
of seven miles southeast of Negrotos.
The Recent Salinas deposits at the mouth of Quebrada
Porinas, Talara and south of Negritos (Map 1), are broad
flats covered by sand and extensive salinas or salt flats
which are at times inundated at the period of highest tides.
These Salinas areas have only recently emerged as a result
of the latest phase of uplift of the coastline.
The history of the Salinas episode is not clear;
however, it appears that it is comprised of two stages
(Bosworth 1922:257). An initial relative submergence
eliminated much of the Lobitos Tablazo. Relative emergence
has been the trend to the present.
The Salinas transgression produced estuaries in
the Salinas deposits south of Negritos and at the mouth of
Quebrada Parinos (Lemon and Churcher 1961:147). The
Salinas area south of Negritos is comprised of two zones;
an outer area of beach and shell ridges and an inner
 89

Salinas flat zone which is periodically inundated by

the sea. Evidence of the periodic flooding of this
region can be seen along the eastern border of the flat
zone where driftwood litters the surface. The mouth of
the river (Quebrada del Pozo) flows into the area in
back of the emergent beach ridges, which at one time
must have also been an extensive lagoon.
The dating of the Pleistocene tablazo development
is difficult. The tablazos are generally assigned to the
Pleistocene on the basis of their complement of marine
fossil fauna (Boswotth 1922:126). The faunal assemblages
of the Mancora and Talara Tablazos are closely similar and
it is suggested that the interval between the two stages
was relatively brief (Lemon and Churcher 1961:420). The
fauna of the Lobitos Tablazo consists of many additional
species (Bosworth 1922:175); there is an increase in the
number of gastropod species and an absence of such forms
as Pectan purpuratus (Lamarck) and the large Ostrea so
characteristic of the Mancora and Talara Tablazo deposits.
As Bosworth (ibid:75-176) has suggested, this -change
probably reflects variations in the configuration of the
shoreline. At present, the cold Humboldt Current is
deflected by Punta Balcones and Parinas and the coastal
waters, as far south as Paita, are periodically warmed by
the warm counter current known as El Nino. During the
period of the Mancora rind Talara Tablazo development, the
Humboldt Current apparently ran further north before
 90

turning west, so that along this part of the coast the

counter current had little effect on the temperature of
the sea. During the Lobitos emergence, the ocean was
probably somewhat warmer, which would account for the in-
crease of a warm water fauna.
Richards and Broecker (1963:1044) report a radio-
carbon date of greater than 30,000 years (L-703-A) for the
Lobitos Tablazo. This date is, however, a "dead" date and
the Lobitos Tablazo could be considerably older. An Early
to Middle Pleistocene date has been suggested for the Mancora
and Talara Tablazos and a Late Pleistocene date for the
Lobitos Tablazo (Lemon and Churcher 1961:412). Fernando
Zuniga (personal communication 1966) believes the Mancora
Tablazo dates to ca. 250,000 B.P. Chrostowski (Ms.:16)
suggests that the Lobitos Tablazo was sculptured during the
Een Interglacial dating to between 90,000 and 75,000 B.P.
The Salinas deposits are post-Pleistocene in age.
Richard and Broecker (1963:1044) have given a radiocarbon
i
date of 3,000 200 B.P. (L-703-D) for Salinas beds near
Portocheulo, which they indicate are at an elevation of 4.5
meters. This date, is from the second oldest beach ridge
and was secured from near International Petroleum Company
well number 4715 (Fernando Zuniga: personal communication
1966). Pottery recovered from the third oldest beach ridge
is of Lanning's (1963) Paita A period and a radiocarbon date
on charcoal associated with Parta A ceramics from the
Lagunitos shell mound (PV8-7) dates to 3610 - 145 B.P.
 91

(GX1136). Since the first and second oldest beach ridges

are preceramic in date, the Richard and Broecker date of
3,000 B.P. is considerably too young for the dating of
beach ridge number two. The beach ridges began forming
prior to 3,600 B.P.; however, exactly how early will have
to await further radiocarbon analysis.

Geological and Paleontological Evidence of

the Pleistocene Environment
The cold water fauna of the Mancora and Talara
Tablazos is not a reflection of the coastal environment
of the Early and Middle Pleistocene. Although Bosworth
(1922:241) believes that the present desert climate is
similar to that of the Mancora and Talara Tablazo periods,
there is abundant evidence that the Talara region enjoyed
a wetter climate than that which prevails at present.
Anadara Grandis and Anadara tuberculosa are found through-
out the Mancora, Talara and Lobitos Tablazos (Bosworth
1922:178). These two mollusks are coextensive with the
distribution of mangrove swamps and thus indicate that
during the Pleistocene, mangrove vegetation existed nearby.
In the Pleistocene deposits north of Talara, Olsson
(personal communication 1966) found mangrove leaves and he
suggests (Olsson 1932:63) that the Pleistocene ...
"climate at least as humid as that of Tumbes existed in the
Sechura district or approximately 200 miles beyond the pres-
ent limit of mangrove vegetation."
 92

The hundreds of deep canyons (quebradas), river

terracing and breccia fans all point to periods of heavy
rainfall and semi-permanent or permanent streams (Lemon
and Churcher 1961:422).
The recent work by C. S. Churcher (1959, 1966) and
R. R. H. Lemon (Lemon and Churcher 1961) of the Royal
Ontario Museum on the Talara Tar Pits, has provided the
best available evidence of the Late Pleistocene Climate
of the Talara region. There are a series of tar seeps
(locally known as the La Brea Tar Pits) which occur on the
Mancora Tablazo surface ten miles southeast of Talara.
These tar pits have yielded an extensive fauna and flora
which indicates a more humid climate in the past. The
bone deposits occur in irregular lenses which may represent
pools of tar or patches of tar soaked quicksand in which
the animals were trapped (ibid:418; Churcher 1966:986).
Churcher (ibidt986) suggests that the surface of the tar
pools held fresh water during periods of rainfall, which
may have attracted animals to the tar pits. He states
(ibid:987) that:
the suspected presence of water on top of the
pools is emphasized by the composition of the
fauna which Includes a frog, crocodilians and
several kinds of water fowl, all of which prefer
proximity to water. Large herbivores like masto-
donts, horses, deer, caraelids, ground sloths and
armadillos can travel some distance to obtain
water as do many carnivores and thus the water and
the herbivores would act as a strong attraction
for the carnivores, especially when trapped
animals promised easy prey to the scavenger.
 93

The animal remains include insects, molluscs

and vertebrates and the plant remains consist of twigs,
pods, thorns and buds. The insects are predominantly
aquatic species which further supports the interpretation
of standing pools of water over the tar pits and some of
the deeper pools may have been used as water holes for
animals in the surrounding region (ibid:991). The molluscs
are represented by shells of a fresh water species
(Gyraulus sp.)• The vertebrates include representatives
of the classes amphibia (frogs and crocodiles); Aves (teal,
ducks, blackbirds, finches, vultures, cormorants, eagles,
hawks, falcons, goat-suckers and herons) and Mammalia
(mostodants, horses, deer, camelids, dire wolf, ground
sloths, armadillos, saber toothed tigers, pumas, etc.)
(Lemon and Churcher 1961:421).

The faunal and floral evidence from the Talara Tar

Pits suggests a climate somewhat wetter than that of today.
Lemon and Churcher (ibid:419, 422) state that:
The vertebrate fauna found in the tar seep
deposits includes many forms characteristic of
a habitat considerably wetter than any found in
the area at the present day. Although it is not
possible to say with certainty that the whole
region was well watered during Pleistocene times,
there must have been numerous permanent or semi-
permanent streams. This much can be adduced not
only from the presence of the tar seep animals
but also from the evidence of the deep river
valleys cut into the elevated marine terraces and
in the Aaotape Mountains; their origin clearly
dates back to a period of greater precipitation
and runoff.
Further evidence is seen in the great abundance
of vegetable material found throughout the
 J ';>

94

fossilferous brea deposits, including finely

comminuted fragments of woody plants, twigs,
thorns, seeds, and seed cases. A proportion
of this material possibly represents debris
washed in from higher ground upstream, and
there is evidence also that some cane from
the stomachs of animals trapped in the seeps;
nevertheless the abundance of the material is
considered ecological evidence for at least a
moderate vegetation cover in the immediate
vicinity•
. . . it suggests a relatively open grass-
land interspersed with some trees, such as occurs
in the savannas and bushveld of southern Brazil
or Africa at the present day. This type of
environment is wetter than that of the Talara
region today, and the presence of bones of
Crocodilia and Anura, remains of Hydrophilidae,
Anatldae, Phalacrocoracidae, and Ardeidae, and
the presence of fragments of wood from large
trees that may have been nearby all support this
contention. Perhaps the climate was one in which
seasonal rains and partial droughts occurred
cyclicly, the faunal population migrating into
the area during the wet seasons.

The Talara Tar Pit fauna has recently been dated

to the Late Pleistocene from four radiocarbon dates, based
on wood from the stomach areas of the ground sloth. They
are 13,616 - 600 B.P. (SM852); 14,418 - 500 B.P. (SM853);
14,150 - 564 B.P. (SM853) and 13,790 - 535 B.P. (SM854),
which average at 13,994 B.P.

Archaeological Evidence for the Post-

Pleistocene Environment
Although no stratified preceramic sites were located
in the Talara region which would permit a discussion of
slight changes in the climate such as revealed by Lanning
(1967c) and Patterson (1966) for the Chivateros site on the
central coast of Peru; it is clear that the Recent period
was more conducive to habitation by man than at present.
 95

The mollusk remains (Appendix C) of the four

Siches sites are predominately mangrove species (Andara
tuberculosa and Ostrea columbiensis) which substantiates
the fact that the mangrove vegetation of the Pleistocene
was also present 8,000 years ago. The red mangrove
(Rhizophora mangle) cannot tolerate strong wave action
and as a result, developed in protected bays, estuaries
and back of barrier beaches where soft mud, comprised of
fine silt and clay is available. The red mangrove requires
a certain amount of fresh water and rainfall to provide the
large quantities of loose wet alluvium at the edge of bays,
at river mouths and in lagoons for its growth (West 1956:
101). Mangrove vegetation is absent from the Talara region
and is found over 150 miles north at the mouth of the Rio
Tumbez (for a discussion of Ecuadorian mangrove vegetation,
see Eggers 1892 and Soils 1961). Mangrove seedlings
occasionally take root along the coast during periods of
heavy rainfall. In 1925 when the warm counter current was
especially strong, seedings took root at Punta Parinas and
as far south as Sechura (Olsson 1961:34). The present
desert environment, however, cannot sustain mangrove
vegetation due to the lack of seasonal rainfall or semi-
permanent or permanent streams.

Although there are no semi-permanent or permanent

rivers between the Rio Chira and Rio Tumbez at present,
the Recent Salinas deposits at the mouth of Quebrada
Parinas, Talara and south of Negritos may have provided
 96

optimum conditions for mangrove development. It is sig-

nificant that all the Siches sites (PV7-13, PV7-19, PV8-
12 and PV8-13) are located either overlooking Salinas
deposits or are situated nearby. Since the middens of
these sites are mangrove species, the Siches people must
have been collecting these mollusks in a mangrove swamp
close by. These extensive Salinas deposits have only
recently emerged due to recent uplift. Although many
authorities (Richards 1962; Richards and Broecker 1963)
believe that these are true beach ridges, Lemon and
Churcher (1961:471) suggest that the Salinas deposits at
the mouth of Quebrada Parinas and south of Punta Parinas
are not true emergent beaches but " . . . are physiograph-
ically in the nature of estuaries and are underlain by con-
siderable thickness of alluvial sediments." This is prob-
ably also true of the Salinas deposits in Talara where
Quebrada Yale may have provided fresh\ water for mangrove
growth. The Salinas deposits south of Punta Parinas are
periodically flooded by spring high tides which break
through gaps in the coastal dunes with the result that the
area once again becomes a shallow bay. The establishment of
mangrove swamps in the Salinas deposits at the mouth of
Quebrada Parinas, in Talara near the mouth of Quebrada
Yale and south of Punta Parinas near the mouths of Quebrada
del Pozo and Ancha is firmly established by the mollusk
remains from the Siches sites.
 97

The middens of the Estero and Honda assemblages

are devoid of any mangrove associated mollusks which tends
to indicate that by 5,000 years ago mangrove vegetation
had retreated further to the north. If there were mangrove
swamps in the vicinity, mollusks such as Andara tuberculosa
certainly should have appeared in the middens. The re-
covery of a land snail (Scutulus proteus) from PV7-16,
the Honda type site, is indicative of heavier vegetation
and a higher annual rainfall than at present. At present,
there are no living land snails in the Talara region
(Olsson, personal communication 1967). Probably due to
continuing dessicating conditions, there is a shift in
settlement patterns (to be discussed in Chapter 6) from
the tablazo surfaces during preceramic times to the que-
brada beds and along the shoreline. The location of the
ceramic period sites near or at the mouths of major que-
brada streams is a further suggestion that these streams
may have been of a semi-permanent nature—possibly flowing
only a month or so a year. After the rare periods of heavy
rainfall (once every seven to ten years) the major quebrada
streams issue fresh water for a month or so and for several
years. Thereafter, the water table in these quebradas is
near the surface. The hand dug wells at the mouth of
Quebrada Parinas are still being used after the rains of
April and March, 1965. The oil town of Los Organos and
the town of Mancora obtain all their freshwater from sub-
surface water of Quebrada Mancora, which has not failed
 99

Estrada (1965) has also turned up abundant evidence of a

former wider distribution of mangrove swamps on the Santa
Elena Peninsula. Although they state (ibid:14, 25, 183,
fig. 9) that the Valdlvla middens lack any species of
mangrove mollusks they seem to have overlooked the fact
that Andara tuberculosa (Sowerby) is listed as making up
between 7.6%-11.6' of the midden of site G31 during Valdlvla
A; up to 4.5% during Valdlvla B and less than 2.2% of the
total midden during Valdlvla C. Although the above repre-
sents only a counting of the mollusks from a few cuts in
site G31 it suggests that in the late Valdlvla period
that mangrove mollusks had become scarce. The majority of
the Valdlvla sites discussed by Meggers, Evans and Estrada
(1065:13-14) were located on the edge of salitres or salt
flats which they suggest were:
. . . past marine inlets that remained full at
all times, or were inundated at high tide and ex-
posed at low. Another alternative is that they were
overgrown wholly or partly by mangrove as is the case
in many parts of the Guayas estuary today. The fact
that shell refuse in archaeological sites of the
Valdlvla culture lacks any species of mangrove
mollusks . . . tends to favor therreconstruction of
the salitres as former shallow bays partly or
entirely exposed by tidal action.
Lanning (1967:6) also notes a replacement of man-
grove associated mollusks with inter-tidal species throughout
the Valdlvla period. By late Valdlvla times, the mangrove
species had decreased to between 5-25% of the middens.
Lanning (1967:7, 27) further provides evidence of
periods of humid and dry periods within a time span of
 100

1,500 B.C. to 1,500 A.D. During the periods of more

abundant rainfall, wells were dug to the higher water
table; which have been identified with middle Guangala
(50-650 A.D.) and early Libertad (1,150-1,300 A.D.)
ceramics. Periods of minimum rainfall, when the Santa
Elena Peninsula was either partially or wholly abandoned,
occurred during Chorrera (950-500 B.C.), Milina (800-1,150
A.D.) and late Libertad (1,400-1,700 A.D.) periods.
Further to the south from the Playas-Posorja region
to Tumbes the middens of the Jambeli culture (500 B.D.-
500 A.D.) are comprised predominately of the mangrove
oyster Ostrea Columbiensis (Hanley) (Estrada, Meggers and
Evans 1964:489). Many of the Jambeli sites are located on
the edge of salitres which were probably formerly mangrove
swamps in southern Ecuador were at one time more extensive.
He notes that the roots and trunks of mangrove trees are
found in the salitres, many cuadros (1/4 of a mile) from
existing mangrove swamps. According to Estrada, Meggers
and Evans (1964:484) the present inhabitants of the
Posorja area can remember when mangrove swamps occupied
50% of the region. Today only remnants are evident due to
the lack of rainfall, which has forced the majority of the
inhabitants to abandon the area.

The Present Environment

Northwest Peru (between 3.5 and 5.0* south latitude)
is well known as a climatically unstable transition zone
 }.oi

between the heavy tropical rainfall of northern Ecuador

and the intense aridity, which characterizes the coast of
Peru and northern Chile. At present, the aridity of the
coastal plain is directly proportional to the intensity
of the Humboldt Current. As the warm Pacific air sweeps
over the cold Humboldt Current, the air is colled so that
evaporation is held to a minimum. With cool, heavy air
below and lighter air above, the atmosphere remains stable
and there is little or no rain on the coast.
The major factor in the fluctuating climatic condi-
tions of this region is the Warm countercurrent known as
El Nino, which periodically moves southward, displacing
the cold Humboldt Current. The occurrence of El Nino has
catastrophic consequences on the biological situation in
the region and on the climate along the coast. The rain-
fall which this phenomena produces is rarely felt south of
Trujillo; however, in 1891 and in 1925 the effects of the
warm countercurrent were felt in southern Peru (Murphy 1926:
27). The rains produced by El Nino were substantial in
northwest Peru in 1877-1878; 1912-1915, 1925-1926, 1930-
1932, 1941, 1953, 1957-1958, 1965-1966. These periods of
rainfall caused extensive destruction in this region,
mainly during the months of February and March. Bridges,
roads, and houses were destroyed and the usually dry que-
brada streams in the Talara area, once again became raging
rivers.
 102

In 1891 (ibid:35-37, Bosworth 1922:276) it rained

almost every day from February through March and foe two
years thereafter the countryside was covered by vegetation,
so that herds of cattle and goats were moved into the area
and cotton was planted. The rains were so heavy in the
Talara region that a river was opened up on the east side
of Talara bay, which was over 50 feet in depth (Murphy
1926:36). Crocodiles (also rarely found in the Chira
River), snakes and species of fish never seen in the
Talara region appear to have been swept down from the
north by the warm countercurrent (ibid:37, Murphy 1936:
282-286).

In 1925, when El Nino again affected the whole

coast of Peru, the bird life, dependent upon the resources
of the Humboldt Current, died by the hundreds of thousands
from starvation. In Talara, the 1925 rains caused such
widespread destruction, that fresh water had to be shipped
by tank steamer from Callao, 550 miles to the south.
Malaria became a health problem; the rate per thousand in-
creasing from 2 to 140 persons before and after the rains
(Murphy 1926:47). Heavy vegetation, shallow lakes and
running quebrada streams became the rule rather than the
exception throughout 1925 and into 1926.
In 1931 and 1932 heavy rains were again felt on the
northwest coast of Peru and Ecuador; however, the advance
of El Nino did not have the disastrous effects on the
central and south coast of Peru as it did in 1891 and 1925
 103

(Sheppard 1933:211). In his discussion of the 1930-1932

disturbance, Georg[ Petersen (1956:18) maintained a record
t

of rainfall for the Zorritos area, over 100 miles north

of Talara and about 20 miles south of Tumbez. The normal
rainfall in Zorritos is between 200-400 mm. during Feb-
ruary and March; however, in 1932, 1872.7 mm. of rain fell
(ibid:38).
In 1965 the warm countercurrent again affected the
climate of northwest Peru and for a period of several weeks,
the Pan American Highway, between Chiclayo and Piura, was
impassable. Quebrada Parinas was again flowing to the sea
and even in June, water was still flowing within 12 miles
of its mouth. On January 3, 1967 Talara was deluged by a
torrential rain for a period of three hours and for two
days thereafter, Quebrada Parinas again contained flowing
water near its mouth. For three weeks after this rain, an
excavation, measuring 150' by 200' and about 6' in depth,
near PV7-16 on the Mancora Tablazo, held water.
There is regular annual rainfall within the Amotape
Mountains and on the coastal plain north of Boca Pan
(Petersen 1956:44). If the annual rainfall within the
Amotape Mountains was heavier in the past than at present,
all the major quebrada streams (Parinas, Mogollon and
Mancora) which cut through the mluntains, may have been
seasonally flowing rivers.
The vegetation between the Chira River and the
Ecuadorian border reflects the present rainfall patterns
 104

of the normal years; however, in discussing the vegetation

of northwest Peru, Olsson (1932:63) says that,
in its plant-life, the Peruvian desert shows
signs of its recent origin in that only a few
species have as yet acquired adaptations fitting
them for a desert environment while the flora
as a whole, is merely the southern marginal
extension of the semi-arid equatorial plant-
zone of western Ecuador.
In discussing the vegation of the Tumbez region,
Maekawa (1963:95) suggests that the rare great ceibo trees
along the road from Tumbez to Zarumilla indicates that the
region was once covered by a tropical dry deciduous forest
in the past.
Weberbauer (1930) has classified the vegetation be-
tween the Chira and Tumbez Rivers into two major zones and
seven micro-zones. The vegetation between the Chira River
and Quebrada Mancora is characterized by sparse xerophytic
flora, consisting of scattered clumps of the hardy algarroba
tree (Propsopis julifera* and the thorny huarango (Acacia
macracanthic); while the zone from Mancora to the Tumbez
River, which receives more regular rainfall, has a general
ground cover of xerophytic vegetation, dominated by the
algarroba tree and in the Tumbes area by the mangrove tree.
A complete listing of the vegetation found within each
micro-zone can be found in Weberbauer's (1930) work (see
Map 2 for a summary of these micro-zones).
The area between Cabo Blanco and Punta Aquja is a
tranditional zone where the mollusk faunas of the Panaaic
and Peruvian faunal provinces intermingle. This 120 miles
 105

of ocean and coast, is called the Paita Buffer Zone and it

is where the warm water fauna of the Panamic zone give way
to the cold water fauna of the Peruvian zone (Olsson 1961:
37-39).
Northwestern Peru is also the transitional zone
where species of Peruvian coastal birds intermingle with
the tropical seabirds of Ecuador. The northern birds which
find their southern boundary in the Paita region are the
West Indian pelican (Pelecanus occidentalis), the Caribbean
man-o-war bird (Fregata) and others. From the south, the
large Peruvian pelican (Pelecanus thagus) and the white
breasted cormorant (Phalacrorax bougainvillei), among others,
find their northern boundary range (Murphy 1923:81-82)i

The southern sea lion (Otaria byronia) ranged as far

north as Punta Balcones and Parinas where they numbered in
the hundreds (Murphy 1920:96, 1923:82, 1925:37). Sea Lions
are rarely seen in northwest Peru at the present time due
to the fact that they have been killed for sport (Olsson
1961:38). The southern fur seal (Arctocephalus austrails)
also ranges only as far as the Negritos area as does the
large sea turtle.
The mammalian and avian fauna of the coastal, plain
and Amotape Mountains from the Chira River to Tumbez is
sparsely distributed at present. They include, a-, wide
variety of parrots (Ara), condors, jaguars (Felix onca),
puma (Felix concolar), deer (Cervus), monkeys in the
Tumbez area, armadillos, bears (Myrmecophaga jubata) in
 106

the mountains, boars (Dicotyles), foxes which are very

frequent, and crocodiles (Campsa Sclerops) (Petersen
1956:16-17). The majority of these animals are restricted
to the Amotape Mountains and are rarely seen on the coast,
south of Boca Pan.
The fish population of the coast also exhibits
a similar intermingling of cold and warm water species
(Schweigger 1964, Farrington 195 3). The present method
of subsistence fishing in the Sechura, Negritos and
Talara areas is primarily by hook and line either from
shore or with the use of balsa log rafts (Hammel and
Haase 1962:218).

Climatic Change in the Talara Region:

Possible Causes
The discussion of climatic change during the
Pleistocene and post-Pleistocene inevitably leads to the
question of ultimate causes. Before statements can be
made concerning the causal factors of climate change, ad-
equate paleoclimatic evidence must be collected. Funda-
mental to our understanding of South American climate
change is the accumulation of well dated, local paleo-
climatic information and the reconstruction of Pleistocene-
post-Pleistocene atmospheric circulation patterns must be
founded upon such Paleoclimatic evidence.
Although paleoclimatic information from South
America is limited, the recent work of paleontologists
have provided dates pollen sequences upon which tentative
 107

interpretations may be made. Since flora is a sensitive

indicator of environmental change a sketchy picture,
basically of local Pleistocene-post-Pleistocene climatic
change, is beginning to emerge from five or six areas
in South America.
Pollen sequences have been recently obtained:
in Colombia in the Sabana de Bogota (Van der Hammen and
Gonzelez, 1965), Paramo de Palacis (Van der Hammen and
Gonzalez, 1960), Sierra Nevada del Cocuy (Gonzalez,
Van der Hammen and Flint, 1966) and in the Llanos
Orientales (Wijmstra and Van der Hammen, 1966); in Guyana
from the Rupununi Sarannas (ibid.); from the southern
coast of Chile (Heusser, 1966) and in Patagonia and
Tierra del Fuego (AUer 1956, 1958, 1959).
Van der Hammen and his associates have established
eight pollen zones for the late Pleistocene and Holocene
of Colombia. This pollen sequence has been radiocarbon
dated which has permitted a correlation of this sequence
with the North American and European pollen zones (zone
la-Earliest Dryas, zone lb=Bolling, zone lc=Earlier Dryas,
zone II»Allerod, zone III=Younger Dryas, zone IV=Preboreal,
zone V=Boreal, zone VI=Atlantic, zone VII=Subboreal and
zone VIII»Subatlantic) (Gonzelez, Van der Hammen and Flint,
1966:179). The results support the view that major cli-
matic events in high altitude, tropical South America
during the last 12,000 years were synchronous with those
of mid-and high latitude North America and Europe
 108

(ibid:175-181). The general picture of their pollen

profiles is one in which the climate was cooler and more
moist during periods of glacial advance and warmer and
drier during periods of glacial recession.
This evidence is further corroborated by studies
of the snowline. In Colombia, during glacial advance,
the snowline was 1,200 meters below its present position
and the temperature was 8#-9*c less than at present. In
Peru the snowline during the late Pleistocene varied from
about 700 meters below the modern limit in the Cajamarca
area and up to 1,200 meters in the Arequipa area which
Hastenrath (1967:546-549) suggests is indicative of a
substantial increase in precipitation in Andean Peru
with a corresponding drop of 7°c in temperature.
The Patagonian pollen sequence established by
Auer (1956, 1958, 1959) and Heusser's (1966) pollen
profiles from southern Chile also reveal a sequence of
wet and dry phases which can be correlated with the late
glacial and post-glacial sequences of North America and
Europe.
Although the evidence for late Pleistocene and
post-Pleistocene climatic change has been recovered
from widely separated geographic regions, it is at least
indicative that climatic change in South America followed
a similar pattern as in North America and Europe. It
must, however, be kept in mind that the few pollen
sequences and geologic data (sea-level fluctuation,
 109

paleontology, tar pit fauna, etc.), have provided us with

only a framework of late Pleistocene and post-Pleistocene
climate change throughout South America. Before more
exact statements concerning climate change in the Talara
area can be made, pollen profiles must be secured, for
although, climatic change in Northwest Peru may parallel
that of other regions in gross details, it will have its
own distinctive climatic history.

The recent studies of Lemon and Churcher (1961)

and Churcher (1966) of the Talara Tar Pit fauna and flora
have demonstrated that the Talara region enjoyed a wetter
climate approximately 14,000 years ago. The reconstructed
environment is one of open savanna, interspersed with
trees.

Atmospheric Circulation and Climatic

Change
The modern climates of South America are con-
trolled primarily by the prevailing wind patterns modified
by topography.
At present there are five atmospheric circulation
zones which affect South American climate: northeast
trade winds, intertropical convergence zone, southeast
trade winds, the .ubtropical high pressure belt and the
prevailing westerlies. The intertropical convergence
zone is characterized by rainfall through the year; the
northeast and southeast trades zones are characterized
by seasonal heavy summer rainfall, in the subtropical
 110

high pressure belt, rainfall decreases while in the zone

of prevailing westerlies, rainfall is heavy in all sea-
sons (Riehl, 1954).
The climate of the Talara region, in addition to
being influenced by prevailing wind patterns, is under
the control of the cold Peruvian and warm equatorial
currents. The Peru current appears to be controlled by
the eastern end of the South Pacific subtropical anti-
cyclone where the prevailing winds are predominately from
the south and southeast paralleling the Peruvian coast-
line. The Humboldt current flows in the same direction
from high to low latitude. As a consequence the current
is cold and the coast is a desert. However, northwest
Peru is periodically affected by the warm equatorial
countercurrent (El Nino) which displaces the cold Humboldt
current southward and away from the coast.
This southward invasion of equatorial waters
appears to accompany large-scale dislocations of atmo«»
spheric circulation. Although a complete explanation of
the southward movement of the warm equatorial is not
possible at present, the climatic disturbance and heavy
rainfall, according to Trewartha (1962:31-32),
. . . seems to be due to a number of causally
interrelated phenomena. The normal cool souther-
ly and southeasterly winds of the subtropical
anticyglone are replaced by northerly and westerly
winds which cause a rapid increase in surface air
temperatures, so that characteristic tropical
heat prevails. The northerly winds, in turn,
induce a southward flow of warm equatorial water
 Ill

which displaces the cool upwelled water of

the Peruvian Coastal Current . . . The south-
ward advancing warm current is by no means
a local phenomenon, but rather is synchronized
with large-scale atmospheric dislocations . . .
The original disturbance which initiates the
weather change is probably an atmospheric
dislocation of cosmic proportions . . . it
appears that the equatorial convergence zone,
together with its disturbances, is displaced
well to the south of its usual position to
the north of the equator. This in turn sug-
gests a weakening of the South;Pacific anti-
cyclonic circulation . . .

Trewartha (ibid:32-33) suggests that the

climatic disturbance known as El Nino is a 'result of the
southward shift of the intertropical convergence zone,
but indicates that the cause of the cause of the shift
in atmospheric circulation is not known at present.
On the basis of his studies of the Peruvian snow-
line, Hastenrath (1967:549) feels that the increase in
precipitation in the Andes during the late Pleistocene
was due to a southward shift of intertropical con-
vergence zone.
If the intertropical convergence zone was situated
south of its usual position (about 5° north latitude)
during the late Pleistocene period, Northwest Peru would
have received more rainfall than at present. In addition,
the warm equatorial current may also have been a more
regular current in which case the Peruvian coastal current
would have terminated further south of its present north-
erly position at Punta Parinas.
 1

Summary
The overall trend in climate from the Late
Pleistocene to the present, is that of progressive
dessication. This change in climate may be attributable
to a change inthe northern countercurrent (El Nino) from
a seasonal visitor to the Talara coast, to the periodic
one of today. If El Nino was a more regular current in
the past, the climate of northwest Peru, would have been
more humid. The fauna from the Late Pleistocene Talara
Tar Pits (ca. 12,000 B.C.) is direct evidence of a more
humid climate, semi-permanent or permanent streams and
more extensive vegetation than that of today. The man-
grove mollusks of the Siches sites provide further sub-
stantiation of a more humid climate in the Talara region
to 6,000 B.C. and the land snail of the Honda site
(PV7-16) may be indicative of wetter conditions to 3,000
B.C. or later, The Talara region appears to have been
more conducive for habitation by man in the perceramic
period than at present, for if oil had not been dis-
covered in northern Peru in 1868, the region would be
almost devoid of inhabitants. All the water to support
the present populations of Negritos, Talara, El Alto,
Los Organos and Mancora is either piped from the Chira
River, distilled from salt water or obtained from deep
wells in Quebrada Mancora.
 CHAPTER VI

THE CHRONOLOGICAL AND STYLISTIC RELATIONSHIPS

OF THE SICHES, ESTERO AND HONDA
ASSEMBLAGES

In Chapters 2, 3 and 4, the recognized assem-

blages have been presented in presumed chronological
order without a demonstration of the validity of the
sequence. The basis for this seriation is site loca-
tion, subsistence patterns, artifact comparisons and
radiocarbon analysis.

Site Location
The Siches period sites are either situated on
the tablazo surfaces, overlooking the Recent Salinas
deposits (PV7-13, PV8-12, PV8-13) or nearby (PV7-19).
The location of PV7-19, at the head of Quebrada Siches
(a tributary of Quebrada Parinas) is explainable by the
fact that a permanent source of fresh water is available.
All the Siches sites are located within easy collecting
distance of the mangrove swamps* which must have been
thriving in the areas of the present Salinas deposits.
The El Estero site (PV6-3) was situated on the
edge of a now dry pond and between two quebrada streams,
which may have provided fresh water for the inhabitants.

113
 114

The site is also located in a major pass through the

Buitre hills, which is still a major route of access to
the coast.
The Honda period sites are either situated on
the tablazos or on terraces overlooking the Pacific
Ocean or on the border of Quebrada Honda. Only one site
(PV7-16) has any midden accumulation, and the remainder
may have had a shallow midden deposit, but due to the
offshore winds, which sweeps the coast and Tablazos
during June, July and August, whatever deposit there
may have been, has been dissipated. The location of the
sites on the high tablazos and terraces overlooking the
ocean suggests that the Honda subsistence pattern was
oriented to littoral resources. The sites along the
borders of Quebrada Honda are located near major sources
of chalcedony and possible water sources, within the
quebrada. Both PV7-16 and PV7-20 may have also been
situated on the border of Quebrada Honda for the banks
of Pectan shells which were used for the manufacture of
perforated shell disks.

Subsistence Patterns
The Siches peoples relied heavily upon mangrove
mollusks, which could be easily secured from nearby
mangrove swamps. In addition, the presence of cup
shaped mortars suggests the preparation of wild plant
foods and the two grooved pebbles may have been used as
 115

bolos for the killing of sea mammals and birds. From

test excavations on the site (PV7-19), a fragment of a
bottle gourd (Lagenaria sicerarla)* and several carbon-
ized seed were obtained. Also from PV8-12, three berries
were recovered. The seeds and berries are of unidenti-
fiable wild species; however, the bottle gourd may be
that of a domesticated plant (Hugh Cutler, personal
communication 1967).
The El Estero site yielded only a few faunal
remains; several small pieces of fishbone and a few
mollusks. The mortars and possibly stone bowls suggest
the preparation of wild plant foods. Although the midden
accumulation is up to four feet in depth, only rare faunal
remains were in evidence. The region of the site does
enjoy periodic rainfall, which may account for the lack
of subsistence evidence. The Amotape region, during
periods of heavier rainfall, must have provided ample
game for hunting, although there is no direct evidence
of this pursuit.
As indicated, the Honda sites appear to be
oriented toward littoral resources, both in regards to
their location on the coast and from the faunal remains
from PV7-16. The mollusks are all inter-tidal species
which could have only been obtained on the coast. A
quantity of fish and sea mammal bones were recovered
from the site, but are still in the process of being
identified. Tentatively, however, the sea lion is
 116

represented plus small fish which could have been ob-

tained from shore (Gilbert Barnes, personal communication
1968). There is no evidence of the collecting of mangrove
mollusks and it is inferred that the mangrove vegetation
has retreated northward due to continuing desiccating con-
ditions. The mortars indicate the preparation of food
plants; the grooved stone may have been used as a bola
for the stunning of sea mammals and birds and the notched
stone as a fishnet or fishline weight.

Artifact Forms
The secondary artifact forms of the three assem-
blages are similar in form: single pointed forms, den-
ticulate forms, pointed and notched forms, retouched
flakes being found in all three. Restricted to the
Siches assemblage are the double pointed forms and the
single pointed artifacts with a right triangular cross-
section. The Siches and Estero assemblages share the
backed artifacts with an obtuse triangular outline. Re-
stricted to the Estero assemblage are the ovate forms
with steep retouch. The Estero and Honda assemblages
share the single notched forms and the unifacial ovoid
form is restricted to the Honda assemblage. Except for
form 3 and 4 of the Honda assemblage, the hammerstones
of all three are similar.
 117

The primary artifact forms, shared by all three

assemblages, are the mortars. The Siches and Estero
assemblages have ground axes, pestles and grinding
stones in common. Restricted to the Estero assemblages,
are ground stone bowls and ground pieces of slate. Re-
stricted to the Honda assemblage are the perforated
Pectan shell disks, an obsidian projectile point tip and
pieces of hematite.

Radiocarbon Analysis
Four dates* based upon charcoal, were run on
samples from PV7-19:
GX0996 4,805 ± 130 B.P. 2,855 ± 130 B.C.
GX0997 7,908 ± 130 B.P. 6,030 ± 130 B.C.
GX0998 5,900 ± 120 B.P. 4,040 t 120 B.C.
GX1137 5,605 ± 95 B.P. 3,655 ± 95 B.C.
Both GX0996 (2855 * 130 B.C.) and GX1137 (3,655
± 95 B.C.) are suspect. GX0996 was recovered from 4" to
2' below the surface of midden on the extreme western
edge of the site. The deposit was situated on the north
edge of a low lying ridge and it exhibited the profile
of a wind layered deposit. The major reason this sample
was run, was to date the small fragment of Lagenaria
Siceraria found within this level. GX1137 should have
provided a date close to that of GX0997, since it was
recovered from a test pit only 15' away. The midden con-
sistence was exactly the same in both cases, each sample
 118

being selected from charcoal at 1' below the surface and

on top of sterile soil. The midden, in both cases, was
packed with Anadara tuberculosa and abundant charcoal.
GX0998 was recovered from a test pit on the extreme
north edge of the site, where the site dips down toward
the head of Quebrada Siches. The sample came from the
base of a 4' deposit of sand, Anadara tuberculosa, and
charcoal•
One sample of charcoal was run for PV8-12, situ-
ated on the Talara Tablazo overlooking Talara harbor:
GX1002 8,000 ± 140 B.P. 6,060 i 140 B.C.
This date is consistent with GX0997 from PV7-19.
It was recovered from a small midden deposit composed
of Anadara tuberculosa and abundant charcoal.
The dates GX0997, GX1002 and GX0998 are con-
sidered valid and should more or less bracket the time
span of Siches, from 6,000-4,000 B.C.
Two samples were run for the El Estero site
(PV6-3) and were recovered from a test pit 14' east of
the abandoned dwelling on the site, in the deepest
portion of the midden.
GX0999 625 ± 958 B.P. 1,325 ± 95 A.D.
6,800 ± ? B.P. 4,850 ± ? B.C.
GX0999 is a contaminated sample. It was secured
from 4" to 1' below the surface of the midden and rep-
resents much later activity at the site. As has been
noted, dwellings have been erected on the site recently.
 119

The second sample (4,850 ± ? B.C.) was floated from a

midden sample 3'-4' below the surface. Since this date
did not meet Geochran's standards, it should be con-
sidered confidential. It does, however, suggest that
the El Estero site dates within the 4,000 B.C. range.
Three samples were run from PV7-16, charcoal ob-
tained from the base of three test pits, spaced 10'
apart.
GX0993 4,820 ± 95 B.P. 2,870 ± 95 B.C.
GX0994 5,185 ± 105 B.P. 3,235 ±'105 B*C.
GX0995 5,150 ± 105 B.P. 3,200 ± 105 B.C.
The dates are consistent and place the beginning
of the Honda occupation at PV7-16 at circa. 3,000 B.C.
Honda can be bracketed between 3,000 to circa. 2^000 B.C.,
when ceramics were introduced to the region.
The earliest ceramics in the Talara area are of
the Paita period. Lanning has seriated Negritos as the
earliest pottery in this region (Lanning 1963:152, 153;
1967B:83, 85). This sample of thirteen sherds, was
collected from around International Petroleum Company
well numbers 4090 and 4400. These wells are situated
near the present beachline. In my 1967 traverse of
these ridges, however, only paddle marked and heavy
utilitarian were of the Piura style was recovered, the
Piura style pottery was situated on the first and second
beach ridge from the shore while sherds of Paita ware
were recovered from the eighth beach ridge from shore.
 120

Lanning's Negritos style is not the earliest pottery

known for the Talara region, but in fact is one of the
latest styles.
Two radiocarbon dates were run on carbon samples
from the Lagunitos shell midden (PV8-7) at Portacheulo
(Lanning 1963:147).
GX1003 3,390 ± 125 B.P. 1,440 ± 125 B.C.
GX1136 3,610 i 145 B.P. 1,660 ± 145 B.C.
GX1136 was recovered from near the base of the
eastern shell mound and was associated with Paita phase
B ceramics. GX1003 was taken 4 feet from the surface of
the western shell mound in the 50' cut that Haase col-
lected a stratigraphip sample of sherds. The cut is
badly slumped at present so that a deeper sample was not
obtainable. Associated with this sample were sherds of
Paita phase C thin red ware.

Paita ware was recovered from sites on the river

terraces of Quebrada Honda associated with chalcedony
artifacts of the Honda forms. This would indicate that
the initial ceramics in the Talara region were introduced
into the cultural framework of the Honda assemblage.

Summary
On the basis of the above evidence, from the
analysis of site locations, inferred subsistence patterns,
artifact analysis and radiocarbon dating, the following
chronology has been developed:
 121

Honda 3,000-2,000 B.C.

Estero 4,000-3,000 B.C.
Siches 6,000-4,000 B.C.

Relationships with Preceramic

South America
There will be no attempt to present a synthesis
of our present knowldege of the South American pre-
ceramic period, nor will the chronological frameworks of
Lanning and Hammel (1961) or Lanning and Patterson (1967)
be used to order the northwest Peruvian materials.
Lanning and Hammel (1961) have divided the South American
preceramic into five periods, based mainly upon projec-
tile point types, none of which are applicable to the
Talara sequence. Lanning and Patterson (Lanning 1967c:
25) have worked out a six period chronological framework,
based mainly upon their work on the Central Peruvian
coast; however, they have as yet to publish a discussion
of the criteria utilized to develop their sequence,
which makes their periodization of the preceramic diffi-
cult to use. Few syntheses of the preceramic period of
South America have been attempted. The first major
synthesis of the South American preceramic, since Alex
Hrdlicka's work (1912), is Lathrap»s 1954 work. Re-
cently a number of continental and regional syntheses
have been published, which may be consulted (Gonzalez
1960, Lanning and Hammel 1961, Rouse and Cruxent 1963,
Bryan 1965, Bell 1965, Lanning 1967a,:1967b,'-1967c,
 126

the earliest known T shaped axes from ceramic period sites

in Peru and Ecuador: specifically the Yarinacocha,
Kotosh, Cave of the Owls and Valdivia forms where the
exact provenience of the specimens are known.
At Lake Yarinacocha, Lathrap (1962) recovered T
shaped axes from all his ceramic complexes and he has
discerned two forms which appear to have chronological
significance. Form 1, represented by the poll fragments
of two axes, has downwardly pointed faceted ears and a
marked groove along the poll (ibid:fig. 125, a, b ) .
This form is associated with his Early-Late Tutishcainyo
period which he dates to Ca. 2,000 B.C. The second form
has downward pointing, rounded ears with a slightly con-
vex poll either ungrooved or with a vestige of a groove,
a flaring bit and a string cut groove beneath the ears
(ibid:fig. 125, h ) . This form dates to the Hupa-iya
phase.
The seven axes recovered by Lathrap and Roys
(1963, fig. 8) from the Cave of the Owls near Tingo Maria
are similar to those of the Tarinacocha forms. Six
have large, downwardly pointing ears, grooved polls,
faceted sides and the flaring bit of Lathrap's Form 1,
while the seventh has the short ears and convex poll
similar to Lathrap's Form 2.
The axes from the Kotosh site ('Izumi and Sono
1963 and Izumi MS) in the Huanaco Basin are varied in
form. Four have long, downwardly flaring ears and
 127

flaring bits, while eight have short downwardly pointing

ears with a grooved poll and flaring bits (ibid:plate
104). The remaining axes are T shaped forms with little
resemblance to the El Estero collection (ibid:plate 105,
a). The Kotosh axes date from the Mito through to the
Sajara-patac phase.
Four axes were recovered by Meggers, Evans and
Estrada (1965, plate 19, g, r) from Valdivia sites on the
Santa Elena Peninsula: two are wedge shaped and two have
a T shaped form. The Valdivia A (ca. 2,500 B.C.) T
shaped axe from site G-31, has a slightly flaring poll
and slightly tapering sides. The other T shaped axe from
a burial at site G-54 dating to Valdiva C (ca. 1,500 B.C.)
has a flat poll, large flaring ears and converging sides.
It is admittedly difficult to suggest affilia-
tions of the El Estero axes when one is forced to use
comparative material separated in time and space. The
El Estero axes are fron a coastal preceramic site while
the T shaped axes used in this comparison are from ceramic
period sites situated on the eastern slopes of the Andes
and in the tropical forest region (except for the two
from Valdivia). In comparison to the Yarinacocha, Cave
of the Owls and Kotosh forms, the El Estero axes exhibit
certain major differences. The Yarinococha, Cave of
the Owls and Kotosh specimens have either long or short,
downward pointing faceted ears, slightly conves polls
and faceted vertically parallel sides. The Valdivia T
 128

shaped axes are also disimilar to those of the El Estero

complex. The only axe which is comparable to those of
the El Estero site is the one from the preceramic Siches
site which is located within ten kilometers of the El
Estero site.
The presence of numerous T-shaped ground stone
axes at the El Estero site is indicative of the fact
that they were an important part of the tool kit. In
addition to functioning in a woodworking capacity (secur-
ing timber, manufacture of wooden implements, etc.) the
possibility that they may have been utilized in the slash
and burn method of agriculture cannot be overlooked.
Ethnographic instances which support this inter-
pretation should not be ignored. Throughout the South
American tropical forest (where agriculture is possible),
the primary means of clearing forested regions for the
preparation of agricultural fields is through the use of
axes (Nordenskiold 1924:115 and Yde 1965:24). Axes are
also presently used for a number of non-agricultural pur-
poses: dugout canoe construction, timber for dwellings
and for the manufacture of wooden items. The correlation
of axes and agriculture is a persuasive argument for a
similar interpretation of axe function on the prehistoric
time level.
The presence of ground stone axes does not, how-
ever, necessarily indicate that they were utilized in
the slash and burn technique of agriculture. Axes are
 129

used by the non-agricultural Australian Aborigines for

firewood collecting, manufacture of wooden implements and
for a multitude of other functions. Recently Carmel
White (1967:149-151) has recovered feldspare porphyry
edge-ground axes (several of which were grooved), from
the Malangangeri, Nawamoyn and Tyimede III rock shelters
near Oenpelli in Arnhem Land, northern Australia. The
radiocarbon dates for the axe bearing levels in these
sites ranges from 18,000 ±; 400 (ANV-19) to 24,800 ±:-1600
(ANV-77a) B.P. Thus these axes are the earliest known
ground stone axes for any part of the world and probably
prior to the development of agricultural techniques.
However, the dating of the El Estero axes (circa 4,000
B.C.) falls well within the period when agriculture might
have been practiced. Therefore it is within the realm of
possibility that the El Estero axes did function in the
clearing of land for agriculture.
Lathrap (1968b:27) has on numerous occasions
stated that the tropical forest environment would not
have been conducive to habitation before root crop agri-
culture, fishing technology and suitable watercraft had
been developed. In 1962 Lathrap suggested that the
earliest penetration of the Amazon Basin may have taken
place between 3,000-4,000 B.C. with a subsistence pattern
based upon the use of sweet potato and other root crops,
followed later by sweet manioc and bitter manioc. On
the basis of linguistic evidence he further indicates
 130

that Proto-Arawak and Proto-Tupi-Guarani occupied adjacent

areas of the Central Amazon between 2,000 and 3,000 B.C.
(Lathrap 1968b:28). These early dates suggest that the
earliest inhabitants of the tropical forest may well have
been onra.preceramic time'level, if they occupied the
Amazon region before 2,000-3,000 B.C. Although there is
no evidence, as yet, of a preceramic occupation in the
tropical forest, there is evidence that the savanna re-
gions were occupied on an early time level (see chapt. 6,
p. 123). The lack of evidence for a preceramic occupa-
tion of the tropical forest is not necessarily negative
evidence, for Lathrap (1968a) has pointed out that the
oldest sites (those that remain) are situated on the
remnants of old river channels, far back from the present
rivers. In addition, due to the absence of ceramics and
the probable extensive use of wood for tools, the non-
perishable tool kit of any preceramic population would be
sparse and difficult to locate.
To date, we have little information on the pre-
ceramic period sites, either in the savannah or tropical
forest regions of South America. Evans and Meggers
(1960:22) located a small preceramic site in the Rupununi
savannah of British Guinea. Only a few worked flakes
were recovered and no diagnostic artifact forms were
found. Cruxent (Cruxent and Rouse 1963:42) has found
abundant remains of a preceramic occupation at the site
of Canaima in the savanna region of the Venezuelan
 132

These sites should be further investigated to

determine if there is a preceramic component, overlain
by ceramic period remains. Even if these are not pre-
ceramic sites, an extensive chipped stone industry associ-
ated with ceramics in eastern Peru would considerably in-
crease our knowledge of the tool kit of savanna dwellers
within the tropical forest.
The finding of the fragments of two clay griddles
at the Rancho Peleudo site (Rouse and Gruxent 1963:49)
support Lathrap's interpretations of early root crop
domestication (manioc) prior to 2,000 B.C. Considering
the wide distribution of evidence at 2,000 B.C., root
crops may prove to have initially been under cultivation
far earlier than previously believed, possibly within the
4,000-5,000 B.C. range or earlier.
Until recently, the axes from the El Estero side
were the only known preceramic T-shaped groundstone axes
from South America. It has been previously stated that
it was doubtful that, due to their preceramic contest,
that the El Estero could have functioned in an .igricul^
tural economy.(Richardson and Brown, 1967). This opinion
has to be revised on the basis of the recent excavations
at the Kotosh site near Huanuco on the eastern slope of
the Andes which have provided substantial evidence that
root crop agriculture is indeed of a preceramic age.
The excavations of the University of Tokyo Scientific
 133

Expedition to the Andes have established that there is

a preceramic period underlying the Kotosh ceramic sequence.
In addition to the Templo de los Manos Cruzadas, there
are eight other architectural features which can be as-
signed to the Kotosh Mito period (Izumi MS:12-15). With-
in this preceramic level there were recovered partially
and completely polished groundstone axes, either notched
or unnotched below the poll. One of the few unbaked clay
objects found has the shape of a bottle gourd (Lagenaria
siceraria), (ibid:34) certainly under domestication by
this time.
The architectural features and axes argue for a
sedentary population with a subsistence based upon slash
and burn agriculture, probably of root crops. Axes have
now been excavated from all levels at the Kotosh site.
The Waira-Jirca axe illustrated by Izumi (Ibid:33) is
similar in form to the axes recovered by Lathrap from his
early Titishcainyo period. Many Waira-Jirca ceramic
features are also probably derived from early Tutishcainyo
(Lathrap 1967:17) indicating influence of population move-
ment from the tropical forests of Eastern Peru into east
Andean valleys.
On the basis of present evidence it can be postu-
lated that the El Estero axes may well have functioned in
an agricultural economy. It has been pointed out that
the earliest known T-shaped stone axes (except for El
Estero, Siches and Valdivia) have been recovered from the
 134

eastern slopes of the Andes and tropical forest, which is

suggestive of an ultimate tropical forest origin for the
El Estero axes. It is also important to note that in
Northwestern Peru, the Andean chain does not present any
great barrier and movement from tropical forest to the
coast and vice versa.
The ground stone bowls indicate affinities with
the numerous preceramic sites on the Peruvian and Chilean
coast. Ground stone bowls have been found on the
Illescus Peninsula (Kostritsky 1955); one fragment at
Huaca Prieta (Bird 1948:25) dating to 2,125 B.C.; bowls,
used as mortars (according to Lanning 1963:45 and 1965:
75) were found at Luz and Canario sites (6,000-4,200 B.C.)
in the Ancon area; two shallow pecked bowls from the Asia
site (Engel 1963:59), seventeen fragments of stone bowls
from the Playa Miller site and four fragments from Taltal,
northern Chile (Bird 1943:244 and 297). Two andesite
bowls were recovered from Valdivia A and B sites on the
Santa Elena Peninsula (Meggers, Evans and Estrada 1964:
26) and date to circa. 2,500-2,000 B.C. The function of
these spherical bowls is unknown at present, although
they have been interpreted as mortars (Lanning 1965:74)
and as containers (Bird 1943:244).

Honda
The chipped stone industry of the Honda assem-
blage is a continuation of Siches and Estero assemblages.
 135

There are, however, an absence of ground stone artifact

forms (axes, stone bowls and pestles). The environment
of the Talara region was progressively becoming drier as
evidenced by the retreat of the mangrove vegetation to
the north. The decrease in heavy vegetation may account
for the absence cf axes in the Honda assemblage. The
stone bowls are restricted to the Estero assemblage and
no explanation can at this time be offered to explain
their absence from both the Siches and Honda assem-
blages.
The closest affinities of both the chipped stone
industries of the Estero and Honda assemblages is with
the Vegas complex of the Santa Elena Peninsula of
Ecuador. Lanning (1967c<:'9, 14) restricts the Vegas
comples to between 6,850 and 5,300 B.C. and on his
chronological chart, (5Sbid:9) places a question mark for
an as yet undiscovered preceramic complex to cover the
period from 5,300 to 2,500 B.C. However, he states
(ibid:17) that the Valdivia 3tone work evolved from the
Vegas Complex with only a few additional artifact forms.
He further equates Siches, Honda and the El Estero
site with his Vegas Complex in his recent synthesis of
Peruvian culture history (Lanning 1967b:27, 54-55).
It would appear that Vegas did not end at 5,300 B.C.,
but continued into the Valdivia period.
 136

Summary
The chipped stone inventory of the Siches,
Estero and Honda assemblages represent a single cultural
tradition and have close affinities with the Vegas com-
plex of the Santa Elena Peninsula. It has also been
noted that similar chipped stone industries have re-
cently been discovered in Colombia and Uruguay and that
denticulates and pointed tools are included in the pre-
ceramic assemblages of the central coast and highlands
of Peru. All these assemblages were or are, located in
regions with a 'humid climate, an extensive vegetation
cover and freshwater resources. As will be discussed in
detail, in the concluding chapter, these assemblages
are interpreted as oriented to a woodworking technology.
 CHAPTER VII-

CONCLUSIONS

Explicit in Julian Steward's (1955:36-42) con-

cept of cultural ecology, is that the exploitative and
adaptive technology of particular cultures, constitutes
a major factor in the interaction between the environ-
ment and culture. The social systems and exploratative
technology of hunting, gathering and fishing societies,
past and present, are a direct response to the methods
used to exploit specific environments, more so than more
complex or highly developed cultures.
Similar adaptive processes in similar environ-
ments will exhibit specific technological and socio-
cultural similarities. These independent cultural
exological adaptations and similar levels of socio-
cultural integration, whether functional or synchronic
in nature, are what Steward (ibid:181) refers to as
cross-cultural regularities. Steward (ibid:88, 181)
has shown how, certain kinds of cultural traits recur
in historically discrete societies for functional
reasons; given a similar ecological adaptation at simi-
lar levels of sociocultural integration, a considerable
number of cultural regularities will occur.

137
 138

The denticulate (used hereafter to refer to an

assemblage of artifacts characterized by unifacial single
pointed tools, notched and pointed tools, notched tools,
retouched and utilized flakes) nature of the chipped
stone industries of the Siches, Estero and Honda assem-
blages are similar to several lithic assemblages in
South America (Vegas, Pomares, Catalanese and to a cer-
tain degree Oquendo, Chivateros 1 and 2). All are
located in desert environments (except Pomares and
Catalanese) which, in the past enjoyed a more humid
climate and more extensive vegetation cover.
These denticulate assemblages have been inter-
preted as secondary implements functioning in a wood-
working technology for the manufacturing of primary
artifacts, which were in turn, used in the exploitation
of economic resources (Lanning 1967b:54-55; Lanning and
Patterson 1967:49-50). Lanning and Patterson (ibid:50)
have suggested that the absence of stone projectile
points in these assemblages indicates that the predom-
inant subsistence activities were oriented to littoral
harvesting and the gathering of wild plant foods. It is,
however, just as conceivable that the projectile points
were manufactured of wood, as are the projectile points
of tropical peoples. The notched artifact forms (spoke-
shaves) may have been utilized in the fashioning of
wooden shafts for such points.
 140

Joyce (ibid:185) as woodworking tools. In the upper

levels, scrapers diminished in frequency and the in-
ferred woodworking functions were taken over by adzes
and flakes. In addition, knives, microliths and points
were recovered, all still being utilized by the Australian
aborigine.
The case is situated on the side of a dry canyon
and the present vegetation is, at present, of the savanna
type with tall grass and trees on the hills. The geo-
logical and soil analysis of the cave deposits suggests
that at the time when the cave was first occupied in the
late Pleistocene (14,000 B.C.), the climate was becoming
progressively less humid until, about 3,000 B.C., the
cave was abandoned probably due to the lack of water
supplies (ibid:167).
Further sites of this nonhafted or denticulate
period have recently been found in nearby caves (Tombs
Shelter) in the Northern Territory (Ingaladdi); on
Cape York at Laura and in New South'Wales (Seelands,
curracurrang and Capertee). Where dated, these assem-
blages are restricted to the nonhafted period before
3,000 B.C. In the sites, excavated by McCarthy (1964:
238) in the Capertee Valley of New South Wales, uniface
pebble choppers and saws were added to this early
period.
Mulvany and Joyce have ventured no interpreta-
tion for the development of the hafted artifacts of the
 141

later period except to say that they are either an intro-

duction from some other area (not specified) or local
inventions, which spread throughout Australia in a short
period of time.
Among the present Australian aborigines, unifacial
stone tools (adzes and flakes) are utilized exclusively
for the manufacture and decoration of wooden implements
(spears, spear throwers, digging sticks, shields,
boomerangs, throwing sticks, containers of wood and bark,
etc.). If Australian aborigine culture had disappeared
before European contact, archeologists would have only
a very meager lithic assemblage, on which to base an
interpretation and reconstruction of the culture. Lacking
(except under excellent conditions of preservation), would
be the wide range of wooden and bone implements used in
subsistence and other activities.
Only two basic artifact forms are used by the
Ngatatjara and Pintupi of the Gibson desert of western
Australia: an adze and flakes with a steep retouch for
scraping and thin flakes, used as a cutting or slicing
implement. The manufacture of these lithic tools, is
similar to that of the Siches, Estero and Honda assem-
blages and is described by Gould (1968:44) as follows:
First, there is the technique of direct
percussion by means of a small hammerstone.
The flake is held horizontally, bulbar face
upward, in one hand (before being hafted)
while sharp blows are directed downward along
the edge with a small stone, usually a smooth,
 142

rounded pebble. While doing this the worker

generally steadies himself by propping the
elbow of the arm holding the adze flake against
his knee while seated in a cross-legged position.
In a matter of from ten to twenty seconds, a row
of tiny flakes is removed from the underside of
the edge, and the flake is then ready to be
hafted to a club or spear-thrower.
The flakes, which are retouched only unifacially,
are used for a wide variety of pursuits; in addition to
their primary function of manufacturing implements of
wood and bark, they are used to skin animals, cut fire-
wood, to scarify, circumcision, for drilling and for
ceremonial presents and exchanges (Allchin 1966:157). The
flake artifacts from the Siches, Estero and Honda assem-
blages were probably also used in a multitude of tasks
and can be considered as an all-purpose tool.

The recent experimental manufacture of wooden

implements (Crabtree and Davis 1968:426), further sug-
gests that unifacial tools are well suited for wood-
working, while bifacial implements may be better suited
for skinning and fleshing hides.
On the basis of the brief discussion of the
denticulate assemblages in North and South America and
Australia and the unifacial woodworking technology of
the Australian aborigines, it is hypothesized that the
denticulate assemblages were oriented to woodworking,
either in areas which were more heavily wooded in the
past or are wooded at present. Thus, the inferred wood-
working technology of the Siches, Estero and Honda
 APPENDIX A

LIST OF ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITES LOCATED IN 1965

AND 1967 BETWEEN THE CHIRA RIVER AND
PUNTA PICOS, NORTHERN PERU

This listing of sites follows John H. Rowe's

system for the location of archaeological sites in
Peru. E.P.F. stands for Empresa Petrolera Fiscal and
I.P.C. for International Petroleum Company. Except
where noted all the well numbers are those of the
International Petroleum Company.
The prefix PV stands for Peru Valley. 4 desig-
nates sites between Quebrada Bocapan and Quebrada
Mancora; 5, Quebrada Mancora; 6, the region between
Quebrada Mancora and Quebrada Parinas; 7, Quebrada
Parinas and all its tributaries (i.e., Siches, Honda,
Mogollon, etc.); 8, the area between the Parinas Quebrada
and the Chira River; and 9, the Chira River. For example',
PV-1 designates site number 1 in the Chira River area.
PV4-1 Large preceramic Honda period site on the marine
terrace directly in back of the "resort" at
Punta Sol.
PV4-2 Small preceramic Honda period site on the high
terrace just south of Punta sol.

; 146
 147

PV4-3 Small preceramic Honda period site on the terrace

at Punta Picos. This was the first preceramic
site ever discovered in' Peru.
PV6-1 Site just north of the fishing village at Nuro
at the base of Los Organos Hill. Piurai Culture
with stone foundations evident.
PV6-2 Small preceramic site of the Honda Culture on
the south edge of Quebrada Pozo Siches, located
across the road from wells 675 and 739.
PV6-3 The El Estero site (preceramic) located 22 miles
due east of Cabo Blanco in the Buitre Hills,
just south of Cerro Buitre, in a wide pass. The
site is situated on the edge of a pond and is
between E.P.P. survey markers (erected Jan. 1963)
SH 22 and SH 27.
PV6-4 Shell midden at Los Organos is possible pre-
ceramic and is located across from E.P.F.
well no. P.B. 231.
PV7-1 Historic fishing village at Punta Malaccas
located next to the modern cemetery.
PV7-2 Three large middens at Punta Malaccas. Piura
Culture.
PV7-3 One of the largest sites in the Parinas Valley.
Located south of the Parinas gas plant. Well
no. 2728 is situated on the southwest corner of
the site. Piura Culture.
 148

PV7-4 Shell midden and foundations northwest of the

Parinas gas plant. Well no. 2949 is situated
on the west edge. Piura Culture, phase A.
PV7-5 Badly destroyed shell midden just west of
Battery 154. Piura Culture.
PV7-6 Largest ceramic site in the Parinas Valley.
The site is located on the north bank of
Quebrada Honda and east of Battery 154.
PV7-7 Small shell midden, badly destroyed, below I.P.C.
survey market 368. Well no. 5136 is located on
the northwest edge of the site. Piura Culture.
PV7-8 Piura Culture shell midden below I.P.C. survey
marker 368 and southwest of PV7-7.
PV7-9 Three large shell middens west of well no. 4775.
Piura Culture.
PV7-10 Small midden on the edge of Honda stream bank
1/2 kilometer southeast of PV7-9. Piura Culture.
PV7-11 Shell midden southeast of PV7-3 and near well
3469. Piura Culture.
PV7-12 Badly destroyed midden east of PV7-3 and near
well no. 3739 and 4798. Piura Culture.
PV7-13 Preceramic site on the terrace in back of (east)
Punta Malaccas. Siches Culture—associated with
Anadara tuberculosa.
PV7-14 Large Piura Culture cemetery and site located on
the south terrace of Quebrada Parinas 1/2 kilometer
 /
149

west of the I.P.C. picnic grounds.

PV7-15 Small preceramic and Paita Culture site on the
first terrace in Quebrada Honda.
PV7-16 The William Denton Site. Type site of the Honda
preceramic culture. Located between I.P.C.
markers W.10 and W.11 at the junction of Honda
and Faiquial. On the tablazo.
PV7-17 Preceramic and Paita Culture site on the large
Honda terrace just below I.P.C. survey market
W.ll. Located on the east bank at the junction
of Faiquial.
PV7-18 Village site on the terrace in Quebrada Honda
just south of the junction of Los Dos Bocanas.
Remains of 20 stone house foundations of the
Sechura Culture.
PV7-19 Type site of the Siches preceramic culture.
Located at the head of the west branch of Quebrada
Siches at the "waterhole."
PV7-20 Honda Culture preceramic site surrounding E.P.F
survey marker SP37-1954 and just north of E.P.F.
well No. 50.
PV7-21 Small Honda site on the tablazo at the junction
of Quebrada Honda and Los Dos Bocanas.
PV7-22 Honda period site on the tablazo just above
PV7-17.
PV7-23 Honda Culture site on the Honda Quebrada terrace
just below I.P.C. survey marker W.10.
 152

PV9-6 Area just around the base of the hill along side
the old I.P.C. water canal, and just northwest
of PV9-5. Piura Culture.
PV9-7 Area between PV9-6 and 8. Region appears to be
one continuous midden from PV9-3 to PV9-5 but
in reality areas of concentration of different
Piura phases and one Sechura phase cemetery.
PV9-8 Small Sechura phase cemetery within midden
scatterings of Piura phase.
PV9-9 Two Chimu period pyramids at the southeast
entrance of Vichayal reported by the Japanese
expedition. Both have houses built upon them.
PV9-10 Small cenetery of Piura phase in first bluff cut
on road from Vichayal to Paredones.
PV9-11 Small habitation and cemetery site in next cut
along the road. Piura phase.
PV9-12 Largest site located between Vichayal and
Tarmarindo. Located in quebrada cut valley
within the area of Bentinite mining. A series
of rooms with Chimu influenced Piura style
pottery.
PV9T13 Largest shell midden of the Piura culture, just
east of Tarmarindo on the old Pan American
Highway on the right side of the road traveling
East and just west of Kilometer 1109 market on
a low ridge running for about 1/2 mile.

t
 APPENDIX B

STATISTICS ON MODES AND DIMENSIONS

All measurements are in centimeters. The follow-

ing symbols were used: n, the number of specimens;

X, the arithmetic mean; range, the range of variation

in each sample and s.d., sample standard deviation.

PV7-19

n X range s.d.

Single pointed artifact

forms

Length 16 4.5 2.7-5.8 1.0

Width 5;2 3.7-7.0 0.9
Thickness 1.7 0.9-2.5 0.4
Length of point 0.5 0.3-0.8 0.1
Width of point at base 1.0 0.7-1.4 0.2

Denticulate forms

Kength 56 4.5 3.1-7.1 1.4

Width 4.4 2.2-6,6 1.2
Thickness 1.6 1.0-2.9 0.4
Number of notches 3.6 2-5 1.0
Number of points 3.7 2-6 0.9

Backed artifacts forms with

an obtuse triangular
outline

Length 70 4.3 3,3-6.5 0.8

Width 6.5 5.3-9.2 1.0
Thickness 1.5 0.9-2.7 0.5

153
 154

PV7-19 (Continued)

n X range s.d.
Retouched flakes
Length 43 5.0 2.0-7.6 0.9
Width 4.5 2.2-8.0 0.8
Thickness 1.2 0.4-2.1 0.3

Retouched ridged flakes

Length 18 5.0 2.8-8.5 0.9
Width 3.3 2.1-4.7 0.4
Thickness 1.3 0.7-2.0 0.3

PV8-12
Backed artifact forms
with an obtuse
triangular outline
Length 21 3.6 2.1-5.3 0.6
Width 5.1 4.3-7.9 0.9
Thickness 1.2 0.7-2.3 0.4
Retouched flakes
Length 34 5.1 1.9-7.4 1.0
Width 4.1 2.0-8.3 0.9
Thickness 1.3 0.3-2.4 0.4

EV6-3
Single pointed artifact
forms
Length 28 3.6 2.8-5.5 0.8
Width 3.5 2.0-5.4 0.8
Thickness 1.2 0.5-1.8 0.3
Length of point 0.2 0.1-0.4 0.1
Width of point at
its base 0.6 0.4-0.9 0.1
Denticulate artifact
form
Length 36 5.2 3.3-6.8 1.1
Width 5.7 3.8-7.0 1.0
 157

PV4-1 (Continued)

n X r a n ere s.d.

es
Acute retouched flakes
Length 83 4.1 2.0-7.9 0.4
Width 3.6 1.7-5.0 0.9
Thickness 0.9 0.8-2.5 0.3

Retouched ridged flakes

kes
Length 38 4.2 3.1-8.4 1.0
Width 3.8 3.0-4.5 0.8
Thickness 1.2 1.1-2.5 0.7

PV4-2
Denticulate forms
Length 64 4,8 3.5-5.5 0.8
Width 4.3 3.5-5.0 0.6
Thickness 1.6 1.2-2.0 0.9
Number of notches 3.8 3-5 0.6
Number of points 4.3 3-4 0.7

Acute retouched flakes

Length 61 4.4 1.8-8.2 0.5
Width 3.8 1.5-6.2 0.8
Thickness 0.8 0.9-2.8 0.4

Retouched Ridged flakes

Length 13 5.6 4.7-7.3 1.1
Width 3.5 1.6-5.2 1.1
Thickness 1.1 1.0-2.8 0.6

PV7-20
Single pointed artifact
forms
Length 14 4.3 4.0-4.6 0.2
Width 3.5 2.5-4.5 1.4
Thickness 1.7 1.5-2.0 0.1
Length of point 0.3 0.3-0.4 0.7
Width of base of
point 0.6 0.5-0.9 0.1
 PV7-20 (Continued)

n range s.d.
Denticulate artifact
forms
Length 41 5.0 4.5-5.3 0.4
Width 4.9 2.3-7.1 1.8
Thickness 1.6 1.4-1.7 0.1
Number of notches 5.2 4-6 0.7
Number of points 4.4 4-5 0.4
Acute retouched flakes
Length 67 3.4 2.9-4.5 0.5
Width 4.2 4.1-4.3 0.1
Thickness 1.3 0.8T1.8 0.4
Retouched ridged flakes
Length 30 4.6 3.8—5.8 0.8
Width 3.5 2.7-4.2 0.5
Thickness 1.2 1.0-1.4 0.1
 APPENDIX C

MOLLUSK ANALYSIS

Axel A. Olsson (personal communication 1966 and

1967) provided the following identifications for the
mollusks recovered from the preceramic sites in the
Talara region and has made the following comments:
All the shells belong to common.species of
the coast. They show the usual mixture of
northern forms of the Panamic-Pacific province
and with southern forms from the Peruvian province,
the former predominating. This is the sort of
fauna which characterizes the border zone which
I named the "Paita Buffer Zone" whose faunal
feature changed as the warm currents of the north
shifted back and forth with the colder Peruvian.
Among the Panamic species there are a number of
mud-flat dwellers which usually live best along
the margins of a mangrove swamp. The oysters
support the same general habitat stations. Al-
though the evidence is inconclusive,, as we do not
know whether these types may represent transported
forms from some distance away, there is a good
chance that they came from a mangrove station
near by, probably a mangrove stand in the mouth
of the Parinas valley in Indian days. In more or
less support of this contention is a fragment of
a land snail which I have identified as a member
of the Scutulus proteus group of species. The
genus Scutulus is typically Andean _of which the
larger number of species live in the high interior,
some species living at higher elevation than any
other known land shell. The Scutulus proteus
group, however, descends to sealevel; there are
records for instance from Trujillo, etc. I have
collected the species inland at a number of places
where vegetation was more abundant as well as
annual rainfall higher. I also collected a few
specimens in holes and fissures in the Mancora

159
 160

Tablazo limestone above the Parinas Charcra; the

specimens are at the Academy in Philadelphia but
were never worked up. They would indicate a
moister climate and since they are post-Mancora
Pleistocene, they could well date from the same
time as the specimen from the Honda Indian
site. . . . I might add that I have no knowledge
of any living land snails in the Talara—
Negritos region today.

Siches (PV7-19) Mollusks

Anadara tuberculosa (Sowerby)
Ostrea columbiensis (Hanley)
Nioche asperrima (Sowerby)
Chione subimbricata (Sowerby)
' Malea rinqens (Swainson)
Turbo maqnificus (Jonas)
Turrltella broderipiana (d•Orbigny)
Aequipecten purpuratus (Lamarck)
Lithophaqa peruviana (d'Orbigny)
Cymatium Parthenopum (Von Salis)
Taqelus dombeii (Lamarck)
Balanus tintinabulum concinnus (Darwin)
The middens of PV7-19, PV7-13, PV8-12 and PV8-13
are comprised predominately of Anadara tuberculosa
(Sowerby) which is found only in the mud among the roots
of mangrove trees (Olsson 1961:87-88), especially
Rhizophora mangle. Dall (1909:154) reported that:
Among the first phenomena to catch one is
attention on entering the mangrove swamps is a
sound heard repeatedly on every side, as of nuts
falling into the water or soft mud. Tracing the
sound with some care, it is found to come from
 163

Conus brunneus (Mawe)

T.ivela planulata (Broderip and Sowerby)
Scutulus proteus (Broderip)
Mollusks in the Honda (PV7-16) midden are very
rare. In the excavation of two 5' by 5' test pits in
the deepest portion of the midden (2? in depth), only
fifty-six shells were recovered. Thirty-two are Donax
peruvianus and fifteen are Tivela. The remainder
represent one or two specimens of the other species
listed. Scutulus proteus (Broderip) is the only land
shell to have been collected from the middens of the
preceramic period and it has important implications for
evidence of climatic change in northwest Peru during the
Honda period.
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177

Map 1. The location of preceramic sites and

major topographic features of northwest
Peru. The following symbols are used:
MT Mancora Tablazo
TT Talara Tablazo
LT Lobitos Tablazo
SD Salinas Deposits
Q Quebrada
9 ? JP
Miles
Punta Pico /PV4-3
x*

MAP 1
179

Map 2. Modern vegetation zones of northwest

Peru (adapted from Weberbauer 1930:47,
map 1 ) .
1. Algorrobe (Prosopis juliflora) woods
and agricultural fields.
2. Mangrove (Rhizorphora mangle) vegeta-
tion.
3. Dispersed ligneous shrubs and small
trees supported by subterranean
water.
4. Dispersed ligneous shrubs and small
trees and rare cactus. The ground
is covered by grass during periods
of rainfall.
5. Zerophytic vegetation: dispersed
leafless shrubs and trees and cactus
within theterminal zone of limited
yearly rainfall.
6. Zerophytic vegetation: leafless
shrubs trees cactus and herbs,
clustered frequently in small groves.
7. Mountain zone with leafless shrubs
trees and cactus.
 180

Q 10 25
Km.

4°S.L.

Talara

Chira River

MAP 2
181

Illustration:!. A view of the head of Quebrada Siches

looking north. PV7-19 is located just
to the south on the Mancora Tablazo
surface. At the base of the now dry
waterfall is the only permanent standing
source of water between the Chira and
Tumbes Rivers.

Illustration 2. The north edge of the type site of the

Siches assemblage (PV7-19), looking
west. The black square on the horizon
in the upper left center of the photo
is a Landrover.
182
183

Illustration 3. View of the town of Talara, looking

southwest from PV8-12. The site is
situated on the Talara Tablazo which
overlooks the Salinas deposits, upon
which the present town of Talara is
built. In circa 6,000-4,000 B.C.
these deposits would have supported
mangrove swamp vegetation.
 184

/ i
185

Illustration 4. Dorsal, cross section and ventral views

of single pointed artifact forms from
PV7-19 (a, d) and PV7-16 (b,c), reading
from the top on the illustration. All
drawings in the illustrations are
actual size.
186
187

Illustration 5. Dorsal, cross-section and ventral view

of single artifact forms from PV7-19,
a-c, reading from the top of the
illustration.

;
188
189

Illustration 6. Dorsal, cross section and ventral view

of single pointed artifact forms from
PV7-19, a-c, reading from the top of
the illustration.

i
 190

«>v
191

Illustration 7. Dorsal and cross section view of double

pointed, denticulate and retouched
ridged flake artifact forms. Reading
from the top a:*d from left to right in
the illustration:
a,b double pointed forms PV7-19
c Denticulate PV4-3
d-f Denticulates PV7-19
g Ridged flake PV4-3
193

Illustration 8. Dorsal and cross section view of

notched and pointed artifact forms
from PV7-19, a-c, reading from the
top of the illustration.
194
195

Illustration 9. Dorsal and cross section view of pointed

and notched (a) and backed artifact
forms with an obtuse triagular outline
(b,c), reading from the top of the
illustration.
196
197

Illustration 10. Dorsal and cross section view of single

pointed artifact forms with right tri-
angular cross section from PV7-19.
A-c reading from the top of the illus-
tration,
199

Illustration 11. Cross section and dorsal view of backed

artifact forms with an obtuse triangular
outline from PV7-19. A-d reading
from the top of the illustration.
200
201

Illustration 12. Dorsal, cross section and ventral views

of retouched ovate artifact forms
(a,bKand of-a retouched flake (c),
reading from the top of the illustration.
202
204
205

Illustration 15. Limestone, cup shaped mortar from

PV7-19.

Illustration 16. Limestone, cup shaped mortar from

.PV-7-il9.
208
207

Illustration 17. Fossil coral mortar from PV7-19.

Illustration 18. Reverse view of the above fossil mortar

from PV7-19.
209

Illustration 19. Grooved pebbles. Reading from the

top, asis from PV7-16 and b,c are
from PV7-19.
210
211

Illustration 20. Ground stone andesite axe from

PV7-19.
213

Illustration 21. Axe with a slightly convex pole and

protuberant ears from PV7-19.
215

Illustration 22. The El Estero site (PV6-3), looking

southwest. The site is situated on
the east edge of the dry pond bed in
the center of the picture within a
pass through the Buitre Hills.

Illustration 23. The El Estero site (PV6-3), looking

southeast into the Amotape Mountains.
The main occupation area is located
around the abandoned dwelling (lower,
central left portion of photo) and on
the edge of a now dry pond bed. This
photo was taken in January of 1967,
two days after a heavy rainfall and
the sky was entirely clouded, a rare
phenomena.
217

Illustration 24. Dorsal, cross section and ventral

view of single pointed artifact forms
from PV6-3. A-c reading from the top
of the illustration.
218
219

Illustration 25. Dorsal, cross section and ventral

views of single pointed (a, b, d) and
retouched ovate (c) artifact forms
from PV6-3, reading from the top of
the illustration.
 220

11
221

Illustration 26. Dorsal, cross section and ventral

views of retouched ovate (a) and single
pointed (b, c) artifact forms from
PV6-3, reading from the top on the
illustration.
 222

>* ' i ' - i\

223

Illustration 27. Artifact forms of PV6-3. Reading

from the top of the illustration the
dorsal, cross section and ventral
view of the following artifact forms
are illustrated:
a. Denticulate artifact from with a
right triangular outline
b. Pointed and notched artifact form
c. Backed artifact form with an
obtuse triangular outline
d. Single pointed artifact form
225

Illustration 28. Dorsal, cross section and; ventral views

of retouched ridged flake (a) and notched
(b, c, e, f) artifact forms and a
ground piece of slate (d), from PV6-3,
reading from the top and from left to
right on the illustration.
227

Illustration 29. Distal, cross section and ventral

views of ovate ridged flake (a-c)
and steeply retouched ovate artifact
forms (d, e) from PV6-3, reading
from the top and from left,to right
on the illustration.

i
228
229

Illustration 30. Cross section and ventral views of

cores from PV6-3 (a-e) and from PV7-16
(f).
230
232
233

Illustration 32. Hammerstones from PV6-3. Reading

, from the top of the illustration and
from left to right, form 1 (a-c, e-1)
and form 2 (d).

Illustration 33. Hammerstones from PV6-3. Reading from

left to right, form 3 (a, b ) .
 234

IW.v.8?
235

Illustration 34. Ground stone axes collected by C.

Barrington Brown in 1924 from PV6-3.
The reader should orient the scale so that
it is at the bottom of the illustration
and then read A-g from the top and from
left to right on the illustration.
237

Illustration 35. Reverse view of ground stone axes on

illustration 34 from PV6-3. The reader
should orient the scale so that it is at
the bottom of the illustration and then
read A-g from the top and from left to
right on the illustration.
 238

1 s
^ ,!, < >,<•>> i ' f~

•ytyyvu ,

', '(
„ ,.(" «-y. *) J, ,
239

Illustration 36. Side view of ground stone axes on

illustration 34 from PV6-3. The
reader should orient the scale so
that it is at the bottom of the
illustration and then read A-g from
the top and from left to right on
the illustration.
241

Illustration 37. Side view of ground stone axes on

illustration 34 from PV6-3. The
reader should orient the scale so
that it is at the bottom of the
illustration and then read A-g
from the top and from left to right
on the illustration.'
242
243

Illustration 38. Poll view of ground stone axes on

illustration 34 from PV6-3. The
reader should- orient the scale so that
it is at the bottqm of the illustration
and then read A-g from the top.' and
from left to right on the illustration.

\
245

Illustration 39. Bit view of ground stone axes on

illustration 34 from PV6-3. The
reader should orient the scale so
that it is at the bottom of the
illustration and then read A-g from
the top and from left to right on
the illustration.
 246

I
'Si**

*f'v

->}

ft '
247

Illustration 40. Ground stone axe fragments collected

by C. Barrington Brown in 1924 from
PV6-3. The reader should orient the
scale so that it is at the bottom of
the illustration and then read A-n from
the top and from left to right on the
illustration.
249

Illustration 41. Fragments of the faceted sides of

ground stone axes collected by C.
Barrington Brown in 1924. The
reader should orient the scale so
that it is at the bottom of the
illustration and then read A-c
from the top and from left to right
on the illustration.

in
 250

"t", w:<s;-^:^:';W '"' ,- ll>.

I '-t -L V

l <' •w^'.rMI
' EB^B*f
•* i ,, ,3 .v' i *» 'BH£

w:&>
^ „ *
- ' f 'I
,(

>.-\ ,?-W</.
' :<<W
>''-,'• .' i - . > <rT> ,<*£ \\< '»' \,ii,
251

Illustration 42. Ground stone axe fragments from

PV6-3. All except b were collected by
C. Barrington Brown in 1924 and are
redrawn from his 1924 manuscript.
A-3, reading from the top and from
left to right on the illustration.
252
25 3

Illustration 43. Ground stone axe fragments from

PV6-3 redrawn from C. Barrington Brown's
1924 manuscript. A and b, reading from
the top of the illustration.
254
255

Illustration 44. Ground stone axe fragments from

PV6-3 redrawn from C. Barrington
Brown's 1924 manuscript. A and b,
reading from the top of the
illustration.
257

Illustration 45. Ground stone axe fragments from

PV6-3 redrawn from C. Barrington
Brown's 1924 manuscript. A and
b, reading from the top of the
illustration.
259

Illustration 46. Ground stone axe fragments from

PV6-3, all except b are redrawn from
C. Barrington Brown's 1924 manuscript.
A-e, reading from the top and from
left to right on the illustration.
260-

n y ,"'l
261

Illustration 47. Ground stone axe fragments from PV6-3,

redrawn from C. Barrington Brown's
1924 manuscript. A and b, reading
from the top on the illustration.
262
263

Illustration 48. Ground stone axe fragments from

PV6-3, redrawn from ,C. Barrington
Brown's 1924 manuscript. A and b,
reading from the top on the
illustration.
265

Illustration 49. Ground stone axe fragments from

PV6-3, redrawn from C. Barrington
Brown's 1924 manuscript. A and b,
reading from the top of the
illustration.
266
267

Illustration 50. Ground stone axe fragments from PV6-3,

all except a, c, d, f, g are redrawn
from C. Barrington Brown's 1924
manuscript. A-g, reading from the
top and from left to right on the
illustration.
268
269

Illustration 51. Stone bowls from PV6-3, collected in

1924 by C. Barrington Brown. The
reader should orient the scale so
that it is at the bottom of the
illustration and then read A-c from
the top and from left to right on the
illustration.
271
271

Illustration 52. Stone bowl fragments from PV6-3,

collected in 1924 by C. Barrington
Brown. A-c, reading from left to
right on the illustration.
 2 72

i i
***,*.' ! . , , ^ , & W

« > ' i

it

t...-.
275

Illustration 54. Stone bowl fragment from PV6-3.

276
277

Illustration 55. Stone bowl fragment from PV6-3.'

278
279

Illustration 56. Stone bowl fragment (a) and form 3

hammerstone (b) from PV6-3.
280
281

Illustration 5 7. Fragments of sandstone mortars from

PV6-3. A and b, reading from the top
on the illustration.
282
283

Illustration 58. Ground stone pestles from PV6-3,

collected by C. Barrington Brown in
1924. The reader should orient the
scale so that it is at the bottom of
the illustration and then read A-h from
the top and from left to right on the
illustration.
284
 I

Illustration 59. Ground stone pestles from PV6-3,

collected by C. Barrington Brown
in 1924. The reader should orient
the scale so that it is at the
bottom of the illustration and then
read A-d from the top and from left
to right on the illustration.
287

Illustration 60. Ground -stone pestles from PV6-3. A and

b, reading from the top on the
illustration.
288
289

Illustration 61. Quebrada Hona, looking east into

the Amotape Mountains. PV7-16 is
located at the edge of this canyon.

Illustration 62. The main midden are of PV7-16. The

excavations were made by the Peruvian
army.
290
291

Illustration 63. The raised marine terrace at Punta Sal

on which PV4-1 is located, looking
northwest.

Illustration 64. Looking southwest toward the marine

terrace at Punta Sal upon which PV4-1
is located.
293

Illustration 65. Dorsal, cross section and ventral view

of single.pointed artifact forms from
PV4-1. A-c, reading from the top of
the illustration.
 294

1 1 K ,..- • . 'yy^y", ;yy>y4

295

Illustration 66. Dorsal aind cross section view of single

pointed artifact forms>from PV4-2.
A-c, redding from the top on the
illustration.

' ' ,V(VW ***i

296
297

Illustration 67. Dorsal, cross section and ventral

views of denticulate (a), ridged
single pointed form (b) and re-
touched flake (c, d) artifact forms
from PV7-16. A-d, reading from the
top of the illustration.
298
299

Illustration 68. Dorsal, cross section and ventral

view of retouched flake (a) and
denticulate (b, c) artifact forms
from PV4-1. A-c, reading from the
top of the illustration.
300
301

Illustration 69. Dorsal, cross section and ventral

views of square projecting artifact
forms. A and b from PV7-16 and c
from PV8-12. A-c, reading from the
top on the illustration.
302
303

Illustration 70. Dorsal, cross section and ventral

views of bifacially retouched ridged
flake (a) and denticulate (b) arti-
fact forms from PV7-16 and notched
artifact forms from PV4-1 (c) and
PV7-16 (d). A-d, reading from the
top on the illustration.
304

...,', ,. v.'i ). ,.•• -.-,\.y

305

Illustration 71. Dorsal, ..cross section and ventral views

of notched (a, b) artifact forms from
PV4-1 and ridged flake artifact forms
from PV4-2 (c) and from PV4-1 (d).
A-d, reading from the top on the
illustration.
 306
~ ,<#&> ~

'<zm&J
307

Illustration 72. Dorsal, cross section and ventral views

of unifacial ovoid artifact forms from
PV7-16 (a) and PV4-1 (b). A and b,
reading from the top of the illustration.
309

Illustration 73. Form 1 (h), form 2 (c-e, g, i-k) and

form 3 (a, b) hammerstones from PV7-16.
A-k, reading from the top and left to
right oh the"illustration.
 310

•ym
311

Illustration 74. Form 3 hammerstones from P\'7-16. A and

b, reading from the top of the
illustration.
312
313

Illustration 75. Notched pebble (a) from PV7-20 and

form 4 hammerstons (b) from PV7-16.
A and b, reading from the top of the
illustration (b).
315

Illustration 76. Mortars from PV7-16. The white paint

on several of the mortars was the work
of the Peruvian army. A-g, reading
from the top and from left to right on
the illustration.

i
318
3ZL7

Illustration 77. Steps in the manufacture of the

perforated fossil Pectan shell disks
from PV7-16. A-j, reading from the
top and from left to right on the
illustrated.
i. Unmodified shell
j. Rough blank
e-h Finished blank
b,d Specimens broken in the drilling
process
a,c Drilled, finished specimens

i
318
319

Illustration 78. Cross section and ventral views

of single pointed (a-c, h ) ,
notched (g) and retouched flake
(d-f, i') artifact forms from the
Gran Pajonal region of eastern
Peru. A-i, reading from the top
and left to right on the
illustration.
320
 VITA

James Bushnell Richardson III

Born; July 23, 1936
Place: Springfield, Massachusetts
Education;
Elementary School, Longmeadow, Massachusetts, 1950
Junior High School,Longmeadow, Massachusetts, 195 3
High School, Tabor Academy, 1956
B.A. Saint Lawrence University, 1960
M.A. Syracuse University, 1963
Teaching Experience:
1962-1963 Graduate teaching assistant for intro-
ductory anthropology, Department of
Anthropology, Syracuse University.
1963-1966 Graduate teaching assistant for anthro-
pology 102, Department of Anthropology,
University of Illinois.
1967- Assistant Professor of Anthropology,
Department of Anthropology, University
of Pittsburgh.
Research Experience:
1954 (June-August) Archaeological field assistant,
excavation of Fort William Henry, Lake
George, New York.
1957 (June-August) Assistant archaeological crew
chief, Missouri River Basin Surveys,
Smithsonian Institution in South Dakota.
1959 (June-August) Assistant archaeological crew
chief at the excavation of Johnson Hall,
Johnstown, New York for the New York State
Education Department.

321
 322

1962 (June-August) Field assistant to Dr. William

A. Ritchie, New York State Museum and Science
Service. Conducted excavations at the Lamoka
Lake site and the O'Neil site in New York.
1963 (June-August) Field assistant to Dr. William
A. Ritchie. Assisted in the excavation of
the Kipp Island and Kelso sites in New York.
1964 (June-August) Field assistant to Dr. William
A. Ritchie. Assisted in the excavations of
the Hornblower No. 2 site on Martha's Vineyard,
Massachusetts and a Late Woodland site in New
York.
1965 (June-August) Conducted an archaeological
survey of the Talara region of northwest
Peru.
1966/67 (Nov.-Feb.) Further survey of archaeological
sites in northwest Peru and analysis of
collections.
1967 (June-July) Field assistant to Dr. William A.
Ritchie. Assisted in the excavation of the
Perberson site on Martha's Vineyard, Mass.
Papers and Publications:
1963 The double curve motif in the decorative aire of
the northeastern Algonkian: origin-and diffusion.
Unpublished M.A. thesis, Syracuse, Syracuse
University.
1965 Sitios preceramicos del extremo norte de^ Peru.
Boletin del Museo Nacional de Antropologia y
Arqueologia 4:2, Lima.
1965 The prs-Colombian distribution of the bottle gourd;
a re-evaluation. Paper read at the 30th annual
meeting of The Society for American Archaeology,
Urbana.
1965 (with William L. Allen) Some parameters in the
reconstruction of kinship from archaeological data.
Paper read at the 64th annual meeting of the
American Anthropological Association, Denver.
1967 (with C. Barrington Brown) The El. Estero site, T
shaped group stone axes ana stone" bowls. Paper
read at the 32nd annual meeting of The Society
for American Archaeology, Ann Arbor.