Composition provides insights into:

• Source Area
– Tectonic Setting (availability)
– Climate (chemical durability)
• Transportation – Depositional Environment
– Grain Size (mechanical & chemical durability)
• Diagenetic Trends
 Wentworth’s Size Scale

Name Size Range Major Group

Boulder
-8 Φ Conglomerate
Cobble -6 Φ Breccia
Pebble Gravel
-2 Φ (Rudites)
Granule -1 Φ
Sand Sandstones
4Φ
Silt Siltstone
Mud 8Φ
Clay Claystone
 “Average Compositions”

Feldspar Quartz
“Average” Igneous Rock 65-70% 20%

“Average” Sedimentary Rock 5-15% 35-50%

“Average” Sandstone 10-15% 65%

“Average” Mudstone 5% 30%

“Average” Abyssal Plain <1% 10%

 Mineral Components include:

• ____________________:
– Sand- and coarse silt-sized particles
• _______________:
– Grains smaller than coarse silt (typically clays)
filling interstitial spaces between framework
grains ( may be detrital or recrystallized)
• _______________:
– Minerals precipitated from solution
 Mineral Components include:

• _______________ Minerals (>~1%)

• _______________ Minerals (<~1%)
• _______________
• _______________
 Mineral Components include:
Major Minerals Accessory Minerals
Coarse Micas
Stable minerals
Quartz Heavy Minerals
Chert Non-Opaque
*Zircon-Tourmaline-Rutile
Less Stable minerals Amphiboles, Pyroxenes, etc
Feldspars Opaque
Clay minerals & Micas: *Hematite, Limonite
Magnetite, etc
* Most stable minerals
Boggs, 1987
 Mineral Components include:
Rock Fragments Chemical Cements
Silicate minerals
Igneous Rocks
e.g. quartz, chert, clay
e.g. rhyolite, basalt
Carbonate minerals
Metamorphic Rocks
e.g. calcite, dolomite
e.g. slate, schist
Iron Oxide minerals
Sedimentary Rocks
e.g. hematite, limonite
e.g. chert(?), shale
Sulfate minerals
e.g. anhydrite, gypsum
Boggs, 1987
Sandstone Classifications

based on Folk, 1980

Stages of Textural Maturity

5%
 Mechanical Weathering
The disintegration or breaking up of
rocks without changes in the
composition of weathered products.
Chemical Weathering
The decomposition of rocks causing
changes in the composition of
weathered products.
Major Weathering Processes
include:
Physical Weathering
• Frost wedging
• Wetting & drying
• Salt crystallization
• Pressure release
• Biological activity

Boggs, 2001
Major Weathering Processes
include:
Chemical Weathering
• Solution
• Hydration
• Hydrolysis
• Oxidation-Reduction
• Chelation

Boggs, 2001
 Solution

A chemical process in which a solid

is completely dissolved into ions by
an acid.
e.g. dissolution of Halite or Calcite
 Hydration
A chemical process in which water is
incorporated within the mineral
structure .
e.g.
CaSO4 + 2[H2O] CaSO4 • 2H2O
anhydrite + water gypsum
 Acid Hydrolysis
A chemical process in which a
metallic cation (e.g. K+, Ca2+) is
replaced by hydrogen or hydroxyl
ions in water.

e.g.
 Oxidation-Reduction
A chemical process in which a
compound loses or gains an electron
(usually to an Oxygen ion).

e.g.
Products of Chemical Weathering
 Mechanical
Mechanical
Weathering
Weathering
Increased surface area ••Disintegration
Disintegration
increases rate of
chemical weathering

Dissolution and alteration

Chemical
Chemical increases rate of
Weathering
Weathering Mechanical weathering
••Decomposition
Decomposition
Climate and Weathering

Leopold et al, 1967

Global Climate Patterns
Atmospheric
Convection
Cells
Global Weathering Pattern

Strakhov, 1967
Climatic Controls on Weathering
Taiga- Semi-Arid Tropics
Tundra
Temperate Arid

Strakhov, 1967
 Strakhov, 1967

Einsele, 2000
Einsele, 2000
Chemical Weathering Mechanical Weathering
Dominates Dominates

Climate and Weathering

Einsele, 2000
Einsele, 2000
 General trends in climatically-controlled
weathering products.

Humid
Tropical Mainly clays Total
High
Climate

Humid Mixed clays Total

And sands Moderate
Temperate

Arid to Mainly sand Total

and gravel Low
Semi-Arid

Einsele, 2000
 General trends in climatically-controlled
weathering products.

Humid
Tropical
Climate

Humid
Temperate

Arid to
Semi-Arid

Einsele, 2000
 Typical Soil
Soil Profile
Profile
O: organics
A: leaching

B: illuviation

C: slight alteration

Press & Siever, 2003

 Climate and Soils Development
Podzolization Calcification Laterization

Allen, 1997

Einsele, 2000
Einsele, 2000
Regional Variations
of Soil Types
 Major
Soil-
Forming
Processes

Boggs, 2001
 Gleization

Reduction of iron under anoxic or

aerobic conditions producing
waterlogged (gley) soils (Bg horizon)

Retards mineral weathering.

Boggs, 2001
 Podzolization
Leaching (elluviation) of Al, Fe, &/or
organic matter from A horizon and
concentrated (illuviated) as Fe- & Al-
rich clays in B (spodic) horizon.

Si is concentrated in leached horizon.

Clays altered by leaching of Ca, Mg,

K, & Na ions.
Boggs, 2001
 Lessivage

Mechanical migration of clay-sized

particles from A to B horizon,
creating argillic horizons.

Leaching of Ca, Mg, K, & Na ions.

Boggs, 2001
 Ferrallitization
Intense weathering creates thick,
uniform soils depleted of
exchangeable cations.

Enriched in clay and sesquioxides,

e.g. kaolinite, gibbsite, hematite in
Bt horizon

Boggs, 2001
 Calcification
Calcium (caliche) accumulates near
the depth of average rainfall wetting
in semiarid to sub-humid regions.

PET > P

Jenny & Leopold, 1939

Boggs, 2001
 Salinization

The accumulation (salinization)

of soluble salts (e.g. sulfates and
chlorides) in saline horizons due
to intense evaporation.

Potential Evapotransporation (PET) > Precipitation (P)

Boggs, 2001
Dogma of the “Immaculate Feldspar”

LOW

All weathered
All moderate-
(feldspar gone)
weathered

Relief

All fresh Fresh and

Heavily weathered
HIGH
Arid &/or Temperate Humid &
Cold Warm
Climate
Folk, 1980
 Not all Feldspars are created equal!!

Microcline – most chemically stable

K
Orthoclase – very chemically stable
Na-Plagioclase – twice as soluble in fresh water
Ca-Plagioclase – relatively rare

therefore:
K-feldspars should be more abundant and less
weathered than Plagioclase feldspars
 Not all Feldspars are created equal!!

• ________________________:
________________________
– Most stable is more weathered – e.g. fresh
Plagioclase with weathered Orthoclase!

• Possible causes:
 Unusual Weathering History?
• K+ chelation:*
chelation
– Na + and K + leached from above water table
– K + selectively removed by plants below water table
– Enriches NA/K ratio in phreatic zone
– Dissolution of Plagioclase retarded, K-spar accelerated

•* Eocene
What ofabout pre-Silurian (pre-land plants):
California
Orthoclase
– Should more weathered
see more than Plagioclase
fresh feldspar, little Plagioclase
It –was an isarea
This of lowinrelief,
common subtropical, withsandstones
Cambro-Ordovician a high water table
– 1968)
(Todd, e.g. up tp 35% fresh K-spar with very little Plagioclase
 Unusual Weathering History?
• K+ chelation:
chelation
– Na + and K + leached from above water table
– K + selectively removed by plants below water table
– Enriches NA/K ratio in phreatic zone
– Dissolution of Plagioclase retarded, K-spar accelerated

• What about pre-Silurian (pre-land plants)?:

– Should see more fresh feldspar, little Plagioclase
– This is common in Cambro-Ordovician sandstones
– e.g. up to 35% fresh K-spar with very little Plagioclase

N.B. others argue an invalid indicator of paleo-climate!!

Climatic Controls on types of
Silicate Clays

Hydrous
Oxides
Micas

Vermiculite
Verm Smectite
Mont Kaolinite
Kaol Oxides
Oxides
Chlorite
Chlorite

Increased
IncreasedDegree
Degreeof
ofChemical
ChemicalWeathering
Weathering
Brady, 1990
 Chemical
Least
Stable
Weathering
Stability

Sequence of
destruction by
Chemical
Weathering

Most
Stable
Relative Stability of Common Minerals
LEAST STABLE Rate of Chemical Weathering
Halite Fastest
Calcite
Olivine
Amphiboles
Plagioclase
K-feldspar
Clay
Quartz
Al Oxide
Fe Oxide
MOST STABLE Slowest
 Compositional Changes due to
In-Situ Weathering
Quartz Lithic
Fragments

Feldspar Accessory
Minerals

Johnsson & Meade, 1990

 Optimum Conditions for
Preserving Climatic Signature
 Effect of
Source Area*
on
Composition

*Mainly Tectonic Setting

Major Plate Tectonic Settings
Continental Block
Provenance

Recycled Orogen
Provenance

Magmatic Arc
Provenance
Volcanic & plutonic rocks
high relief
after Dickinson & Suczek, 1979
 Plate Tectonics
and Sandstone Composition
Qt Qm
Recycled Orogen
Continental Block

Magmatic Arc

F F
L Lt
What to do with
coarse-grained rock fragments? Dickinson et al, 1983
 Plate Tectonics
and Sandstone Composition

Qt/F/L

Dickinson, 1985
Qm/F/Lt

Dickinson, 1985
 Polycrystalline
Quartz
Rock
Fragments

Qp/Lv/Ls

Volcanic Sedimentary
Dickinson, 1985
 Quartz - Feldspars
Monocrystalline
Quartz
Qm/P/K

Plagioclase K-feldspar
Dickinson, 1985
Compositional
of Major
Modern River
Sands

Potter, 1978
Composition of
Ancient River
Deposits

Potter, 1978
Rock Fragments in Major Rivers

Potter, 1978
 Trends Towards
Increasing
Chemical & Textural
Maturity
 Trends Towards
Increasing
Chemical & Textural
Maturity

Blatt, 1967
 Exceptions to the relationship between
“Plate Tectonics & Sandstone Composition?”

• Transitions between tectonic regimes

• Un-represented tectonic settings
• Modification by weathering and depositional
environment
• Carbonate and related grains

Mack, 1984
 Climate
verses
Tectonics?

Suttner & Dutta, 1986

Grain Size and Composition

Blatt et al, 1980

Fractional analysis of sand from Moose River, Canada

Composition
and
Grain Size

Potter, 1978
 Changes in
Feldspar % Composition
with
Grain Size
Total Rock
Quartz % Fragments
 Rock Feldspar Monocrystalline Polycrystalline
Fragments Quartz Quartz

(arid)

(humid)

Variations in first cycle

Holocene fluvial sand from
semi-arid and humid
climates as a function of
grain size

Mack & Suttner, 1977

 % Heavy
Minerals and
Grain Size
% Amphibole

% Garnet Kelling et al., 1975

 % ZTR
Minerals and
Grain Size

Kelling et al., 1975

 Downstream Changes
in Sediment Composition & Texture

Potter, 1978
Downstream Variations in QFL
in the Amazon River

Franzinelli & Potter, 1983

Franzinelli & Potter, 1983
 Plagioclase
Total Feldspar

Downstream
Polycrystalline Quartz
Variations
Total Quartz

Foliated Lithics
Total Lithics

Johnsson et al, 1988

 Downstream
Variations
in the
Composition
of
Amazon River
Sediment

Johnsson et al, 1988

 Effect of Climate on the Composition
of Big Rivers

Mechanical Chemical
Weathering Dominant Weathering Dominant

Franzinelli & Porter, 1981

Effect of Source Rock on Composition
in Hot, Humid Climates
 Effect of Rate of Erosion and
Transport on Final Composition

Rapid Erosion & Transport Sublitharenites

Temporary Storage

TIME Quartz
Arenites
Slow Erosion & Transport

Rapid Erosion & Transport Subarkoses

Johnsson et al, 1988

Why should Depositional Environment
affect Sandstone Composition?
 Effect of Depositional Environment
on % Original Rock Fragments
24%

15%

14%
Devonian – Appalachian Basin
(Pennsylvania)
8%

Smosna & Bruner, 1997

 Transitional
Fluvial Marine

Coarse Sand Feld.

Fluvial
RF Feldspar
Marine

Fluvial Rock
Marine Fragment
Medium Sand Feld.

RF
Permian deposits
Utah
Feld.
Fine Sand
RF
Distance from Source Mack, 1978
 Average ss composition in braided stream,
eolian, and shallow marine environments*
Quartz

f Permian deposits
m c Utah

Feldspar Rock
Fragments
Mack, 1978
 Feldspar mechanical stability diagram
Perthite

Littoral marine samples

Fluvial samples

(medium sand-sized fraction)

Microcline Twinned Plagioclase

+
Untwinned Plagioclase

Mack, 1978
 Quartz mechanical stability diagram
Non-undulous
Monocrystaline quartz

Littoral marine samples

Fluvial samples

(medium sand-sized fraction)

Undulous Polycrystaline quartz

Monocrystaline quartz
Mack, 1978
 Decrease in Feldspar & Rock Fragments
with Depositional Environment

Depositional % RF %F % RF % RF
Environment Cretaceous Paleozoic Devonian Modern
Wyoming Colorado Pennsylvania Mexico

Fluvial 14% 28% 24% 68%

Deltaic 11% - 15% -

Beach 3% 8% 8% 47%

Dune - - - 28%
 Qt/F/L

Qm/F/Lt

Dickinson, 1985 Kasper-Zubillaga et al, 1999

Pajaro River

Salinas River

Carmel River

Fluvial Deposits

All Deposits
Pajaro River

Salinas River

Carmel River

Fluvial Deposits

Marine Deposits
 Pajaro River

Salinas River
Marine
Carmel River
Fluvial
Carmel
Marine Pajaro
Marine
Carmel Pajaro
Fluvial Fluvial

Marine Deposits
 Diagenetic Processes include:
• Compaction
– mechanical Reduces
– chemical (pressure solution) Primary
• Cementation Intergranular
Porosity
– carbonate and silica most common
• Mineral Replacement
• Dissolution Increases
– of framework grains &/or cements Secondary
Intragranular
– generates secondary porosity
Porosity
 Effect of Composition on Porosity trends
with depth

Depth (m) Depth (ft)

Compiled by Dickinson, 1985

 Quartz
Frio (Upper Oligocene)
Sandstone Composition

Upper Texas
(n=84)
Middle Texas
(n=37)
Lower Texas
(n=69)

Feldspar Rock Fragments

Bebout et al, 1978
Paragenetic Sequence

Bebout et al, 1978

South Central Upper
Texas Texas Texas

Primary
Porosity Changes in
Porosity
with Depth
Secondary
Porosity

Bebout et al, 1978

Composition
of
Veracruz
Basin
Sandstones

Dutton et al., 2002

Highest % Rock
Fragments
closest to the
Laramide
Thrust and from
older rocks

Dutton et al., 2002

 Paragenetic Sequence for
Veracruz Basin Sandstones

Dutton et al., 2002

All Veracruz Samples

Dutton et al., 2002

Sand-Rich Facies

Dutton et al., 2002

Mud-Rich Facies

Dutton et al., 2002

Miocene & Pliocene
Samples from the
Veracruz Basin

Jennette et al., 2003

The Most Important Control on
Shear Velocity is ___________?
Controls on Shear Wave Velocity

Anstey, 1991
Thin-section vs Porosimeter Porosity

Dutton et al., 2002