School of Aerospace, Mech. & Manuf. Eng.

Aerospace & Aviation Discipline

AERO2358 Fundamentals of Aerodynamics

Propeller & Blade Element Theory, 2011

Lecturer: Dr. Jon Watmuff
Location: Room 251.3.08 Bundoora East
email: jon.watmuff@rmit.edu.au

References

1. Houghton & Brock, “Aerodynamics for Engineering Students”,

Edward Arnold, 1982, (Chap 11)
2. Chuan-Tau Edward Lan & Roskam Jan, “Airplane Aerodynamics and
Performance”, Roskam Aviation 1988 (Chap 7).

Introduction

The purpose of a propeller is to provide thrust for an aircraft.

A propeller needs energy input which is measured in terms of power.

Propeller analysis calculates the thrust provided and the power required
by a propeller at a particular velocity and propeller rotation speed.

The design objective is to maximize the thrust and to minimize the power.

The blade geometry is designed to maximize the thrust for a given speed
of rotation, engine power and flight speed.
1
 Outline of what we will study
1. Dimensional analysis

As in other areas of aerodynamics (e.g. wing lift and drag) it is

appropriate to express thrust and power of a propeller non-dimensionally
so that information for a range of propeller sizes and speeds can be
summarized on a single curve (e.g. CL and CD).

Dimensional analysis is used to get the relevant non-dimensional terms.

Charts using these non-dimensional parameters can then be used to

calculate thrust and power.

2. Momentum Theory

Momentum methods can be used to analyse the propeller very quickly

but not accurately.

Accurate analysis requires us to treat the propeller as rotating wing.

3. Blade Element Theory

A section through propeller can be considered as high aspect ratio wing.

This makes “strip theory” acceptable.

Finite wing effects are not required, such as in lifting line theory.

Momentum methods demonstrate that the velocity at the propeller is

greater than the free stream velocity.

Once this velocity is calculated then the lift and drag forces on a
propeller can be calculated at a number of sections.

The individual lift and drag forces can then be integrated (or summed
numerically) from the strip solutions to give the overall thrust and power.

2
 1) Propeller Dimensional Analysis

By assuming similarity, propeller performance can be determined from

model tests in a wind tunnel or from results at different flight conditions.

Complete similarity requires:

• geometric similarity

• dynamic similarity.

The advantage of dimensional analysis is that a large number of variables

can be collapsed into a few coefficients using the Buckingham π theorem

Buckingham π theorem (Revision)

Buckingham π theorem is a key theorem in dimensional analysis.

It says: given an equation involving, n, physical variables, expressed in

terms of k independent quantities (e.g. mass, M, length, L, and time, T),

then the original equation is equivalent to an equation involving a set of

ρ = n − k dimensionless parameters (derived from the original variables)

Also, the form of the equation does not have to be known!

THIS IS VERY POWERFUL. Simple example: the drag, D, of a

cylinder with diameter, d, in incompressible flow is some function of the
fluid velocity, U, and fluid density, ρ, and viscosity µ ,

D = f (U , d , ρ , µ )
Here, there are n = 5 variables, k = 3 quantities, so that the number of
dimensionless parameters, ρ = 5 - 3 = 2.

3
In this simple example there are two nondimensional coefficients, i.e.

D
Drag coefficient, C D = 2
1
2 ρU

ρUd
Reynolds number based on diameter, Rd =
µ

and we can express CD = g ( Rd )

THIS IS VERY POWERFUL because

every possible result can be stored on a single graph

Otherwise we would need 1000's or 1,000,000's of graphs

Application to Propellers

Thrust, T:

Propeller thrust, T, depends on the following variables:

D: propeller diameter
n: angular velocity
ρ: density of air
ν: kinematic viscosity of air
K: Bulk modulus of elasticity of air. This is a compressibility effect
related to the speed of sound, a, i.e. K = ρ a2
Vo: Forward speed (of the aircraft).

So T = T ( D, n, ρ ,ν , K ,V0 )

4
Since there are n = 6 variables and k =3 quantities, there will be 3
nondimensional coefficients:

Use the following technique to find coefficients (where C is constant)

T = CD a nb ρ cν d K eV0 f

Equating the dimensions of the LH and RH sides gives

 MLT −2  = ( L ) (T −1 ) ( ML−3 ) ( L2T −1 ) ( ML−1T −2 ) ( LT −1 ) 

a b c d e f

 

Equating for M: 1 = c + e
Equating for L: 1 = a - 3c + 2d - e + f
Equating for T: -2 = - b - d - 2e - f

It is convenient to keep ρ, n and D separated.

Eliminating a, b and c, and grouping the variables to do this, gives:

c = 1 - e

b = 2 - d - 2e - f

a = 1 + 3c - 2d + e - f
i.e. a = 4 - 2d - 2e - f

which gives

T = CD 4−2 d −2 e− f n 2−d −2 e− f ρ 1−eν d K eV0f


  ν 
d
 K 
e
 V 
f

= CD 4 n2 ρ  2   2 2   0  
 D n   D n ρ   Dn  

Which defines the three non-dimensional groups.

5
The three non-dimensional coefficients are:
 ν 
(1)  2  , which is of the form of an “inverted” Reynolds number
D n
The velocity of the tip of the propeller due to rotation is given by,
D  ν  πν π
VTip = 2π n so that  2  = =
2  D n  DVTip ReTip
ReTip is the Reynolds number based on the propeller diameter and the
rotational velocity of the propeller tip.

 K  2
(2)  D 2 n 2 ρ  , which is of the form of (Mach number)
 

 K  a2 π 2a2 π2
 D 2n2 ρ  = 2
= =
(VTip ) 2 ( M Tip ) 2
  ( Dn )

 V0 
(3)  nD  , which is a non-dimensional velocity
 
 V0 
 n  is the distance travelled in a single revolution
 
V 
So  0  is the distance travelled in one revolution
 nD 
measured in propeller diameters
V0
This quantity is known as the Advance Ratio, J=
nD
and it is a very important propeller parameter

6
So the equation for the propeller thrust is given by
T = C ρ n 2 D 4 f ( ReTip , M Tip , J ) = kT ρ n 2 D 4

Where kT = kT ( ReTip ,M Tip , J ) is a dimensionless quantity known as the

Thrust Coefficient which must be found from experiment or calculation.

So if ReTip, MTip and J are the same for the model and the full-size
propeller then complete similarity exists.

However, this is very difficult to achieve in practice.

The Advance Ratio is the most important quantity to match.

Torque, Q:
The torque is required to calculate the input power.
By using similar arguments as to those for Thrust above
Q = C ' ρ n 2 D5 g ( ReTip , M Tip , J ) = kQ ρ n 2 D5

Where Q: Torque (Nm)

kQ = kQ ( ReTip ,M Tip , J ) is the Torque Coefficient

Efficiency:

Propeller efficiency, ηP, is the ratio of output power to input power

PIN = ( Torque ) × ( Angular Velocity ) = Q × 2π n

POUT = TV0

POUT TV0 kT ρ n 2 D 4V0 1 V0 kT

ηP = = = =
PIN 2π nQ 2π nkQ ρ n 2 D 5 2π nD kQ

J kT
Hence the propeller efficiency is given by η P =
2π kQ

7
Power:
Using similarity arguments again
PIN = C p ρ n3 D 5 where Cp is known as the Power Coefficient

The thrust coefficient kT and power coefficient Cp are measures of output

and input power and are related by propulsive efficiency, ηP.
PIN = 2π nQ = 2π n ( kQ ρ n 2 D 5 ) = 2π kQ ρ n3 D 5

Comparing these two equations shows that

JkT
C p = 2π kQ , and η P =
CP

Alternative Thrust and Torque Coefficients:

We have defined thrust and torque coefficients, kT and kQ ,by
T = kT ρ n2 D 4 and Q = kQ ρ n 2 D 5

However, the similarity analysis could have been done in a slightly

different way by isolating ρ, V0 and D (instead of ρ, n and D) which
would lead to a set of alternative coefficients, CT and CQ such that
T = CT ρV02 D 2 and Q = CQ ρV02 D 3

NOTE: These alternative coefficients are in fact sometimes used.

So when using non dimensional propeller information

ALWAYS check how the data has been non-dimensionalised.

8
 Other Propeller Parameters
Other parameters are used to characterise a propeller. These include:

The blade activity factor AF,

The Design Lift Coefficient, CLi and

The propeller pitch, β

Blade Activity Factor, AF

The Blade Activity Factor, AF, is a measure of the amount of power that
a propeller can absorb.

Consider a propeller of diameter D metres rotating at n revolutions per

second with zero forward speed. (VO = 0). Examine a blade element of
the propeller blade at radius, r, with a chord, c.

9
Ignoring any flow which is induced through the propeller, then the
velocity and forces acting on the blade element can be represented as:
2
Drag of element: ∆D = CD 12 ρV 2 ∆S = CD 12 ρ ( 2π rn ) c∆r

Thrust ∆T provided by blade element is the same as lift (further below)

Torque ∆Q associated with blade element is related to drag, ∆Q = r ∆D

If the propeller has B blades, then the total torque required to drive the
propeller is given by
Tip

∫
2
Q=B CD 12 ρ ( 2π rn ) rc.dr
Hub
Tip

∫ cr .dr =
2 2 3
= 2π ρ CD Bn
Hub

And the power required to drive the propeller is given by

Tip

∫ cr .dr
3 3 3
P = 2π nQ = 4π ρ CD Bn
Hub

In practice the inner part of the propeller is ineffective, so the lower limit
is assumed to be at 20% of the propeller radius (0.2R or 0.1D).

So the power absorbed by the propeller at zero speed is given by:

R

∫
3 3
P = 4π ρ CD Bn cr 3 .dr
0.2R

The Blade Activity Factor, AF, is defined as:

R
105
AF = 5 ∫ cr 3 .dr
D 0.2R

10
 5
3 D 3
So the power, P, is given by P = 4π ρ CD Bn   AF
 10 

The Blade Activity Factor is a non-dimensional number

The Blade Activity Factor depends only on the chord distribution, c(r).

The Blade Activity Factor is a nondimensional number and the factor of

105 is just to make the numerical value convenient.

Typical values are 100-200.

The Design Lift Coefficient, CLi

The thrust producing capacity of a propeller is measured by the

integrated design lift coefficient, CLi

1 3 1
 r   r  64
CLi = 4 ∫ Cli   d   = 4 ∫ Cli r 3dr
0.2  R   R  D 0.2
Where the sectional design lift coefficient, Cli , is the value of the lift

coefficient at which the airfoil section is at its optimum.

Cli is approximately the lift coefficient at which (L/D) is a maximum.

Note that Cli may vary along the span of the propeller.

A propeller with a larger CLi is able to generate more thrust for the same

distribution of chord.

11
Propeller Pitch

Propeller pitch is defined in two ways:

1) Geometric Pitch

The Geometric Pitch, β, is the angle between the propeller plane and the
blade element zero lift incidence.

The geometric twist varies with span and so the blade twist is defined by
the value at one station, usually 0.75 R.

A propeller with little twist is called “fine” and the blade elements have
little incidence.

A “coarse” propeller has a lot of twist and its blade elements have large
incidence.

2) Experimental mean pitch, ρG is the distance the airfoil moves through

the air in one rotation, when generating zero thrust.

The experimental mean pitch is related to the geometric pitch.

The value of ρG is not fixed but varies with forward speed Vo and the
propeller angular velocity n.

12
For a given value of geometric pitch, say β A, the efficiency ηP of a
propeller varies with the advance ratio J.
If the propeller is designed so that the blade can be rotated about its
longitudinal axis then the geometric pitch can be changed to, say, βB
So the above propeller might use βB for take-off and β A for cruise.
There is a pitch angle that will provide the best efficiency for every J.

If the pitch of the propeller blade can be varied then the best efficiency
possible can be adjusted for every airspeed.

This is provided by the variable pitch or constant speed propeller.

13
Some interesting Web Sites related to propellers:

Fairly detailed description on propellers and how to design them in

relation to the aerodynamics of model aircraft.

http://www.mh-aerotools.de/airfoils/index.htm

An American propeller manufacturer and its products:

http://www.hartzellprop.com/product_applications.php

A Czech propeller manufacturer and its products:

http://www.vzlu.cz/en/news/actual-events/

Propellers used during the Wright Brothers era:

http://www.wrightexperience.com/progress/props.htm

14
 Momentum Theory
The following approach can be used for any propulsive device, e.g.
propeller, turbojet and jet engines. A propeller is shown below where the
A’s represent section Areas and the V’s represent Velocities.

The propulsive device increases the air velocity (momentum).

Newton’s Third Law: air applies an equal & opposite force (thrust).

Assume air is incompressible, i.e. ρ = constant, then the mass flow:

m& = ρ AoVo = ρ ASVS

Newton’s Second Law: Thrust, T, is given by the increase in momentum

per unit time: T = m& (VS − V0 ) = ρ AoVo (VS − V0 )

The propulsive device is moving at velocity, V0, so the power output is

POUT = TV0 = m& (VS − V0 )V0

The work done by the propulsive device is given by the change in

kinetic energy. Power required equals the rate at which work is done:

15
PIN = d  12 m (VS2 − V02 )  = 12 m& (VS2 − V02 )
dt  

Hence the efficiency of the propulsive device is given by:

POUT m& (VS − V0 )V0 2V0 2V0 / VS

ηP = = = =
2 m (VS − V0 )
2 2
PIN 1 & VS + V0 1 + V0 / VS

NOTE: For maximum propulsive efficiency V0 / VS → 1

This means that it is more efficient

to change the velocity of a large quantity of air by a small amount
rather than
to change the velocity of a small quantity of air by a large amount.

Therefore, efficiencyPropeller > efficiency Turbofan > efficiency Jet

16
 Application of Momentum Theory to Propellers

Froude Momentum Theory of Propulsion:

Rotating propeller is idealized as an “actuator disk” which
Increases the velocity of the air and increases its pressure.
These affects are assumed to occur uniformly over the whole disk.
A more sophisticated analysis of a propeller would need to consider:
• Non uniform disc loading
• Propeller blade forces
• Wake interference effects

17
Previous analysis: m& = ρ ADVD and T = m& (VS − V0 ) = ρ ADVD (VS − V0 )

Thrust can also be calculated by considering pressure difference across

the actuator disk: T = AD ( PD2 − PD1 )

Bernoulli’s equation can be applied upstream and downstream of the

actuator disk, but not across the actuator disk because energy is added to
the flow at the actuator disk.
P0 + 12 ρV02 = PD1 + 12 ρVD2
PD2 + 12 ρVD2 = PS + 12 ρVS2

But P0 = PS so that PD2 − PD1 = 12 ρ (VS2 − V02 )

Hence T / AD = ( PD2 − PD1 ) = 12 ρ (VS2 − V02 )

From top of page: T / AD = ρVD (VS − V0 )

VS + V0
Hence VD (VS − V0 ) = 1
2 (V
S
2
− V02 ) or VD =
2

Define the Inflow Factor, a, so that VD = V0 (1 + a )

Hence VS = V0 (1 + 2a )

The Inflow Factor is a measure of how much the flow velocity is

increased as it passes through the actuator disk.

Propeller efficiency can be expressed in terms of the Inflow Factor

2V0 1
ηP = =
VS + V0 1 + a
18
 Blade Element Theory
The forces on the blades are estimated by dividing it into elements.

Each element is analysed as a two-dimensional airfoil whose lift and

drag can be calculated when the incidence is known.

When the aerodynamic forces on each element are known, the forces can
be integrated to give the total thrust, torque and power.

VT Velocity at blade in thrust direction.

VQ Velocity at blade in torque direction (i.e. in the plane of propeller).
β Geometric pitch of the blade element.
φ Inflow angle (of resultant velocity relative to propeller plane)
α Incidence of blade element measured from zero lift.

When the velocities VT and VQ are known, then the blade incidence
(angle-of-attack) is known and hence the blade forces can be calculated.

Most of the thrust velocity VT occurs from the velocity of the aircraft V0.

From Momentum Theory: VT is increased due to inflow; VT = V0 (1 + a )

19
Also, the propeller is rotating, which causes the slipstream to rotate.

The “swirl” causes a slight reduction in the velocity VQ .

However, the effect of swirl is quite small and it will be ignored.

Aerodynamic forces are calculated using elemental lift, ∆L and drag, ∆D.

The resultant aerodynamic force on the element, ∆R, is resolved in the

thrust and torque directions giving components ∆T and ∆Q/r.

The element lift, ∆L, and the element drag, ∆D, can be calculated once
the incidence, α, and resultant velocity VR are known, i.e.

∆L = BCL 12 ρVR2 c∆r , where CL = CL (α ) = aα , and

2
∆D = BCD 12 ρVR2c∆r , where CD = CD (α ) = CD0 + kCL2 = CD0 + k ( aα )

And B is the number of propeller blades.

The aerodynamic forces are resolved to get the component of the thrust
and torque provided by the blade element:
20
∆T = B [ ∆L cos φ − ∆D sin φ ] = B 12 ρVR2 c∆r [ CL cos φ − CD sin φ ] , and

∆Q = Br [ ∆L sin φ + ∆D cos φ ] = B 12 ρVR2cr ∆r [ CL sin φ + CD cos φ ]

In practice, integration is performed numerically to get the total force

N N
and torque acting on the propeller, i.e. T = ∑ ∆Ti and Q = ∑ ∆Qi
i =1 i =1

where N is the number of elements.

The inflow angle, φ, which is required for the calculations, is calculated

from the resultant velocity,VR, which is obtained by comparing the
spanwise thrust gradient with the results from momentum theory.

dT
= B 12 ρVR2 c [CL cos φ − CD sin φ ] , and
dr

dQ
= B 12 ρVR2cr [ CL sin φ + CD cos φ ]
dr

VT V (1 + a )
VR can be eliminated from these equations since VR = = 0
sin φ sin φ

2
dT V 2
(1 + a ) c C cos φ − C sin φ , and
= B 12 ρ 0
[ L D ]
dr sin 2 φ

2
dQ V02 (1 + a )
=B2ρ
1
2
cr [ CL sin φ + CD cos φ ]
dr sin φ

However, the unknowns a and φ are NOT independent.

Note that they are both measures of the inflow and that additional
information is used from momentum theory to account for them
21
Recall that T = ρ ADVD (VS − V0 )

So that T = ρ ADV02 (1 + a )( 2a )
The inflow varies along the span of the propeller
This variation can be accounted for by applying momentum theory only
to the section of the disk covered by the blade element.

∆T = 2 ρ ( ∆AD )V02 ( a + a 2 ) = 2 ρ ( 2π r∆r )V02 ( a + a 2 )

dT ∆T
So that = = 4πρ rV02 a (1 + a )
dr ∆r
2
V02 (1 + a )
Hence 4πρ rV0 a (1 + a ) = B 2 ρ
2 1
c [ CL cos φ − CD sin φ ]
sin 2 φ

a Bc [CL cos φ − CD sin φ ]

So that =
1 + a 8π r sin 2 φ

22
All of this information gives a set of equations with the following
unknowns: a, φ, CL, CD and α at each blade element.
These unknowns are found using the following relations.

α = β −φ
CL = CLα α

CD = CD0 + kCL2

V0 (1 + a )
tan φ =
2π nr
a Bc [CL cos φ − CD sin φ ]
=
1 + a 8π r sin 2 φ

Once these equations have been solved then the local Thrust and Torque
gradients can be calculated using equations derived previously, i.e.

2
dT V 2
(1 + a ) c C cos φ − C sin φ , and
= B 12 ρ 0
[ L D ]
dr sin 2 φ

2
dQ V02 (1 + a )
=B2ρ
1
cr [ CL sin φ + CD cos φ ]
dr sin 2 φ

The gradients can then be integrated numerically to get the

total thrust and total torque

The power required to drive the propeller can be calculated from the
torque, P = 2π nQ

23
Note that the theory presented in these Course Notes is simplified but
nevertheless contains the main elements required for a thorough analysis
of propeller performance.

The following effects would have to be accounted for if a more accurate

solution were required:
• Effects due to non linear aerodynamics
• Compressibility effects
• Effect of slipstream swirl
• Effect of losses at the tip

24
 Example: Old Exam Question
The chord and pitch distribution of a propeller blade is specified in the
table below. The blade pitch is measured from a reference line to the
local chord line. The blade element section properties are provided
below, and they can be assumed uniform along the blade,
Lift curve slope: 6.0
Zero lift incidence: α0 = - 4°
Drag coefficient: 0.01, assumed to be constant independent of lift
The blade is on a 2.5 m diameter propeller with 3 blades and a hub
diameter of 0.5 m, which is operating at 1600 RPM at airspeed of 200
KEAS at sea level where the air density is 1.225 Kg m-3. The pitch angle
of the blade reference line is, βHub = 22°. Note that β = β Hub + β c − α 0

r/R 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9

βc 42° 37° 31° 25° 20° 15.5° 12° 92°
c / D 0.04 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.08 0.07 0.06 0.05
(a) At the station r / R = 0.7 the inflow angle is 36°. Use this
information to calculate: (12 marks)
i. The inflow factor, a
ii. Local lift coefficient
iii. Local thrust gradient, dT / dr
iv. Local torque gradient, dQ / dr
(b) Calculate the thrust of the propeller using the thrust and torque
gradients listed in the table below. (8 marks)

r/R 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9

dT / dr 13 895 2078 3370 4545 4961 5408 5559
N/m
dQ / dr 8 557 1308 2135 2891 3148 3427 3514
Nm/m
(c) The propeller torque is 2,200 Nm. Calculate the power required to
drive the propeller and the propeller efficiency. (5 marks)

25
 Solution
Use the following information:
CLα = 6.0, B =3, V0 = 200 KEAS = 102.9 m/s,
α 0 = −4°, R = 1.25m, ρ = 1.225 Kg / m3 ,
CD = 0.01, n = 1600 / 60 = 26.67 rev/s
(a) At r / R = 0.7, φi = 36° = 0.628 rad
Hence r = 0.7 × 1.25 = 0.875 m
and c = 0.07 × 2.5 = 0.175 m
V0 (1 + a )
tan (φi ) =
2π nr
2π nr 2π × 26.67 × 0.875
(1 + a ) = tan (φi ) = tan ( 36° ) = 1.0353
V0 102.9
a = 0.0353
α = β − φi
β = β Hub + β c − α 0 = 22° + 15.5° + 4° = 41.5°
α = 41.5° − 36° = 5.5°
5.5
CL = CLα × α = 6.0 × × 2π = 0.576
360
2 2
dT 1 V0 (1 + a )
=B ρ 2
c [ CL cos φi − CD sin φi ]
dr 2 sin φi
1.225 102.92 × 1.03532
= 3× 2
× 0.175 × [ 0.576 × cos36° − 0.01 × sin 36°]
2 sin ( 36° )
dT
= 4860 N/m
dr
2 2
dQ 1 V0 (1 + a )
=B ρ cr [CL sin φi − CD cos φi ]
dr 2 sin 2 φi
= 10563 × 0.875 × [ 0.576 × sin 36° − 0.01 × cos36°]
dQ
= 3204 Nm/m
dr
26
(b) Note that Hub is located at r / R = 0.25 / 1.25 = 0.2

8
dTi
Total Thrust = ∑ ∆ri , where ∆ri is constant, ∆r = 0.1× 1.25 = 0.125
i =1 dr
8
dTi
∑ dr = 13 + 895 + 2, 078 + 3,370 + 4,545 + 4,961 + 5, 408 + 5,559 = 26,829
i=1

Total Thrust = 0.125 × 26,829 = 3354 N

(c) Input Power = Torque × Angular Velocity,

P = 2200 × 2π × 26.67 = 368.7 kW

TV 3354 × 102.9
η= =
P 368.7 × 1000
η = 0.936

27