Main Report

CHEM ENG 4014 Plant Design Group 1/2010
Executive Summary
Global warming is an imminent problem caused primarily by carbon dioxide emissions from
combustion of fossil fuels, with the power generation sector being one of the major
contributors. Vacuum swing adsorption is an attractive post combustion carbon dioxide
removal technique due to its perceived low energy penalty. The objective of this project was
to produce a preliminary design of a post combustion carbon dioxide capture plant for the
existing Playford B power station at Port Augusta, South Australia with a 50 year design
lifetime. The chosen adsorbent was Zeolite 13X because of its high capacity and selectivity
for carbon dioxide. Therefore, a flue gas desulphurisation unit and a dehumidification system
were required upstream to prevent damage to the adsorbent. Design included raw materials
storage, utilities and engineering services, plant layout, operability and safety, environmental
impact and economic viability. The adsorber beds were simulated using Adsim and
optimised. The carbon dioxide recovery and purity were 78 % and 49 %, respectively.
Preliminary design indicated that the energy requirements of the plant would reduce the
efficiency of the power station from 40 % to 27 %. The net present value of the proposed
project was found to be -$4.9 billion. In order to break even, a tax of $502 per tonne would
have to be imposed on carbon dioxide emissions. It was concluded that the project was
economically unviable and environmentally unsustainable.
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Contents
1. Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 1
1.1 Scope ........................................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Background ................................................................................................................. 1
2. Review of Established Technology and Process Selection ................................................ 3
2.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................. 3
2.2 Adsorbent Selection .................................................................................................... 3
2.3 Flue Gas Desulphurisation System ............................................................................ 4
2.4 Dehumidification System ............................................................................................ 5
2.5 Conclusion................................................................................................................... 6
3. Process Design .................................................................................................................... 8
3.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................. 8
3.2 Block Diagram ............................................................................................................ 8
3.3 Process Description ..................................................................................................... 8
3.4 Process Design .......................................................................................................... 10
3.4.1 Software Packages ............................................................................................. 10
3.4.2 Adsorbent ........................................................................................................... 11
3.4.3 Fluctuations in Flue Gas Properties ................................................................... 11
3.5 Post Combustion CO2 Capture Process Flow Diagram ............................................ 12
3.6 Unit Summary ........................................................................................................... 13
3.7 Flue Gas Desulphurization Process Flow Diagram................................................... 14
3.8 Desulphurization Stream Summary Table ................................................................ 15
3.9 Dehumidification Process Flow Diagram ................................................................. 17
3.10 Dehumidification Stream Summary Tables .............................................................. 18
3.11 Adsorber Process Flow Diagram............................................................................... 20
3.12 Adsorption Stream Summary Tables ........................................................................ 21
3.13 Equipment Design Summary Tables ......................................................................... 25
3.13.1 Heat Exchangers ................................................................................................ 25
3.13.2 Pumps and Compressors .................................................................................... 26
3.13.3 Tanks and Hoppers ............................................................................................ 26
3.13.4 Fans .................................................................................................................... 27
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3.13.5 Vessels ............................................................................................................... 27

3.13.6 Pneumatic Conveyers......................................................................................... 28
3.13.7 Stack ................................................................................................................... 28
3.13.8 Baghouse ............................................................................................................ 28
3.13.9 Valves ................................................................................................................ 29
3.13.10 Pipeline Material Summary............................................................................ 29
4. Adsorption System Design ............................................................................................... 30
4.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................... 30
4.2 Adsorption/Desorption Step Time ............................................................................ 30
4.3 Purge Step Time ........................................................................................................ 31
4.4 Waste/Feed Ratio ...................................................................................................... 32
4.5 Column Length .......................................................................................................... 33
4.6 Summary of the Sensitivity Analysis ........................................................................ 35
4.7 Conclusions ............................................................................................................... 36
5. Plant and Equipment Selection and Design ...................................................................... 37
5.1. Circulating Fluidized Bed Absorber ......................................................................... 37
5.2. Vessels ....................................................................................................................... 38
5.3. Adsorption Column ................................................................................................... 40
5.4. Pneumatic Conveyers ................................................................................................ 41
5.5. Compressor................................................................................................................ 42
5.6. Fabric Filter ............................................................................................................... 43
5.6.1. Housing Material ................................................................................................... 44
5.6.2. Fabric Material ...................................................................................................... 44
5.6.3. Cleaning Method ................................................................................................... 45
5.7. Heat Exchangers ........................................................................................................ 45
5.8. Fans and Blowers ...................................................................................................... 47
5.9. Hoppers and Tanks .................................................................................................... 48
5.10. Centrifugal Pumps ................................................................................................. 50
5.10.1. P-101 and P-203 ................................................................................................. 51
5.10.2. P-201 and P-202 ................................................................................................. 51
5.11. Reciprocating Vacuum Pumps .............................................................................. 52
5.12. Stack ...................................................................................................................... 53
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5.13. Screw Conveyors ................................................................................................... 55

6. Raw Material and Product Storage ................................................................................... 56
6.1 Lime Storage ............................................................................................................. 56
6.2 Process Water Storage ............................................................................................... 56
6.3 Ammonia Storage ...................................................................................................... 57
7. Utilities and Engineering Services ................................................................................... 58
7.1 Electricity .................................................................................................................. 58
7.2 Process Water ............................................................................................................ 58
7.3 Sea Water for Cooling ............................................................................................... 58
7.4 Compressed Air ......................................................................................................... 59
8. Plant Layout and Site Development ................................................................................. 60
8.1 Scope ......................................................................................................................... 60
8.2 Relevant Australian Standards .................................................................................. 60
8.3 Codes ......................................................................................................................... 61
8.4 Design Method .......................................................................................................... 62
8.4.1 Site Selection ..................................................................................................... 62
8.4.2 Topography and Climate.................................................................................... 62
8.4.3 General Design Methodology ............................................................................ 63
8.4.3 Plant Accessibility ............................................................................................. 65
9. Plant Operability and Safety Assessment ......................................................................... 79
9.1 HAZOP...................................................................................................................... 79
9.1.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................ 79
9.1.2 Scope of HAZOP ............................................................................................... 79
9.1.3 Process Description ............................................................................................ 80
9.1.4 Methodology ...................................................................................................... 81
9.1.5 Discussion and Recommendations from HAZOP ............................................. 81
9.1.6 Conclusions ........................................................................................................ 85
9.2 Piping and Instrumentation Diagrams ....................................................................... 86
9.2.1 Piping and Instrumentation Diagram of Flue Gas Desulphurization Plant........ 86
9.2.2 Piping and Instrumentation Diagram for Dehumidification System ................. 87
9.2.3 Piping and Instrumentation Diagram for Adsorbers .......................................... 88
9.3 Plant Wide Control .................................................................................................... 89
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9.3.1 Flue Gas Desulphurization and Refrigeration System P&ID‟s ......................... 89

9.3.2 Adsorption.......................................................................................................... 94
9.4 Startup Procedures..................................................................................................... 99
9.4.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................ 99
9.4.2 Flue Gas Desulphurization ................................................................................. 99
9.4.2 Dehumidication (Refrigeration System) .......................................................... 100
9.4.3 Adsorption System ........................................................................................... 102
10. Environmental Impact and Sustainability Assessment ............................................... 103
10.1 Environmental Analysis Introduction .................................................................. 103
10.2 Raw Materials and Recycling ................................................................................. 103
10.3 Water Consumption................................................................................................. 104
10.4 Energy Requirements .............................................................................................. 104
10.5 Emissions to Air ...................................................................................................... 104
10.6 Emissions to Water.................................................................................................. 105
10.7 Emissions to Land ................................................................................................... 105
10.8 Noise........................................................................................................................ 105
10.9 Socioeconomic Impact ............................................................................................ 105
11. Economic Evaluation .................................................................................................. 107
11.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................. 107
11.2 Methodology ........................................................................................................... 107
11.3 Capital Cost Estimation........................................................................................... 113
11.4 Product Cost Estimation .......................................................................................... 115
11.4.1 Raw Materials .................................................................................................. 116
11.4.2 Utilities............................................................................................................. 117
11.4.3 Depreciation ..................................................................................................... 118
11.4.4 Plant Construction............................................................................................ 118
11.5 Profitability.............................................................................................................. 118
11.6 Economic Assumptions ........................................................................................... 119
12. Conclusions and Recommendations ........................................................................... 121
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Figures
Figure 1: Process Block Diagram .............................................................................................. 8

Figure 2: Post Combustion Carbon Dioxide Capture System Flow Diagram ......................... 12
Figure 4: Process Flow Diagram of Refrigeration Unit for Flue Gas Dehumidification......... 17
Figure 5: Process Flow Diagram of a Two Bed Carbon Dioxide Adsorption Train ............... 20
Figure 6: Influence of Adsorption and Desorption Time on the Recovery and Purity of
Carbon Dioxide ........................................................................................................................ 31
Figure 7: Influence of Purge Step Time on Carbon Dioxide Purity and Recovery ................. 32
Figure 8: Effect of Waste to Feed Ratio on the Recovery and Purity of Carbon Dioxide....... 33
Figure 9: Influence of Column Height on the Recovery and Purity of Carbon Dioxide ......... 33
Figure 10: Pressure Variations at given Intervals in Columns of Different Length ................ 35
Figure 11: Circulating Fluidized Bed Absorber for Flue Gas Desulphurization ..................... 37
Figure 12: Design and Construction Details of Pressure Vessel ............................................. 39
Figure 13: Adsorption Column ................................................................................................ 40
Figure 14: Pressure-Type Pneumatic Conveyor ...................................................................... 42
Figure 15: Screw Type Rotary Compressor............................................................................. 43
Figure 16: Fabric Filter ............................................................................................................ 44
Figure 17: Fixed Tube-sheet Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger ................................................ 45
Figure 18: Centrifugal Fan/Blower with a Backward Curved Impeller .................................. 47
Figure 19: Lime Storage Tank ................................................................................................. 49
Figure 20: Water Storage Tank ................................................................................................ 49
Figure 21: Centrifugal Pump ................................................................................................... 51
Figure 22: Duplex Direct-Acting Reciprocating Pump ........................................................... 52
Figure 23: Stack ....................................................................................................................... 54
Figure 24: Screw Conveyor and Several Designs of Screws .................................................. 55
Figure 25: Proposed Position for Carbon Capture Plant .......................................................... 63
Figure 26: Layout of Adsorption Plant on the Proposed Site .................................................. 64
Figure 27: Complete Carbon Capture Plant Layout ................................................................ 67
Figure 28: Site Elevation Diagram for Capture Plant .............................................................. 68
Figure 29: Overhead View of Capture Plant............................................................................ 69
Figure 30: Flue Gas Desulphurisation System Detailing Layout and Access ......................... 70
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Figure 31: Overhead View of Desulphurisation System Equipment ....................................... 71

Figure 32: Desulphurisation System Layout Detailing System Access................................... 72
Figure 33: Overhead View of Dehumidification System ........................................................ 73
Figure 34: Side View of Dehumidification Equipment Layout ............................................... 74
Figure 35: Layout of Dehumidification Equipment................................................................. 75
Figure 36: Overhead View of Layout of Adsorber Trains ....................................................... 76
Figure 37: Side View of Adsorber Train Layout ..................................................................... 77
Figure 38: Layout of Adsorbers ............................................................................................... 78
Figure 39: Flue Gas Desulphurization P&ID........................................................................... 86
Figure 40: Conventional Refrigeration System P&ID ............................................................. 87
Figure 41: Adsorption System P&ID ....................................................................................... 88
Figure 42: Flue Gas and Refrigeration Unit Valve Specifications .......................................... 93
Figure 43: Eight Step VSA Cycle with Typical Cycle Times at an Experimental Scale ........ 95
Figure 44: Modified Eight Step VSA Cycle Design for Carbon Capture Project ................... 95
Figure 45: Flow Chart for the Startup and Shutdown of the Adsorption System .................... 99
Figure 46: Condensate Controller .......................................................................................... 101
Figure 47: Flow Chart for the Startup and Shutdown of the Adsorption System .................. 102
Tables
Table 1: Process Flow Diagram Equipment Summary ............................................................ 13

Table 2: Adsorber System Valve Summary Information ........................................................ 13
Table 3: Stream Summary Table for Desulphurization Process .............................................. 15
Table 4: Stream Summary Table for Desulphurization (Continued) ....................................... 16
Table 5: Dehumidification Stream Summary Table ................................................................ 18
Table 6: Desulphurisation Stream Summary Table (Continued) ............................................. 19
Table 7: Adsorption Stream Summary Tables ......................................................................... 21
Table 8: Design Summary Data for Heat Exchangers ............................................................. 25
Table 9: Equipment Design Specifications for Pumps ............................................................ 26
Table 10: Equipment Design Specifications for Storage Tanks and Hoppers ......................... 26
Table 11: Equipment Design Specifications for Fans.............................................................. 27
Table 12: Equipment Design Specifications for Vessels ......................................................... 27
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Table 13: Pneumatic Conveyer Design Specifications ............................................................ 28

Table 14: Equipment Design Specifications for the Stack ...................................................... 28
Table 15: Equipment Design Specifications for Baghouse ..................................................... 28
Table 16: Adsorber Valve Specifications ................................................................................ 29
Table 17: Pipeline Material Summary ..................................................................................... 29
Table 18: Final Sensitivity Analysis Results ........................................................................... 36
Table 19: Specifications of a Circulating Fluidized Bed Absorber ......................................... 37
Table 20: Equipment Design Specifications for Vessels ......................................................... 38
Table 21: Specifications for the Adsorbers .............................................................................. 40
Table 22: Specifications for the Pneumatic Conveyers ........................................................... 41
Table 23: Specifications of Compressor .................................................................................. 42
Table 24: Specifications for the Fabric Filter .......................................................................... 43
Table 25: Design Summary Data for Heat Exchangers ........................................................... 45
Table 26: Specifications of Fans and Blowers ......................................................................... 47
Table 27: Specifications of Hoppers and Tanks ...................................................................... 48
Table 28: Specifications for Centrifugal Pumps ...................................................................... 50
Table 29: Specifications for Reciprocating Vacuum Pumps ................................................... 52
Table 30: Specifications for the Stack ..................................................................................... 53
Table 31: Specifications for the Screw Conveyors .................................................................. 55
Table 32: Lime Storage Silo Specifications............................................................................. 56
Table 33: Process Water Storage Tank Specifications ............................................................ 56
Table 34: Specifications for Ammonia Holding Tanks ........................................................... 57
Table 35: Capture Plant Electricity Consumption ................................................................... 58
Table 36: Process Water Requirements ................................................................................... 58
Table 37: Seawater Cooling Requirements.............................................................................. 59
Table 38: Compressed Air Requirements ................................................................................ 59
Table 39: Site Topography and Climate .................................................................................. 62
Table 40: Design Clearances for Plant Layout ........................................................................ 65
Table 41: Valve Positions for a VSA Cycle ............................................................................ 97
Table 42: Cycle for a 2 Bed VSA Process ............................................................................... 98
Table 43: Start-up and Shut-down Procedures for Heat Exchangers .................................... 101
Table 44: Raw Material Consumption ................................................................................... 103
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Table 45: Recycled Components ........................................................................................... 103

Table 46: Water Summary ..................................................................................................... 104
Table 47: Energy Requirements............................................................................................. 104
Table 48 Environmental Burden caused by Emissions to Atmosphere ................................. 104
Table 49: Environmental Burden caused by Wastewater Emissions..................................... 105
Table 50: Emissions to Land.................................................................................................. 105
Table 51: Ratio Factors for Estimating Capital Investment Items ......................................... 108
Table 52: Marshall and Swift Installed Equipment Index ..................................................... 109
Table 53: Summary of Capital Cost of Equipment ................................................................ 110
Table 54: Summary of Capital Cost of Equipment (continued) ............................................ 111
Table 55: Summary of Capital Cost of Equipment (continued) ............................................ 112
Table 56: Fixed and Total Capital Investment of Fluid Processing Plant ............................. 113
Table 57: Fixed and Total Capital Investment of Fluid Processing Plant (continued) .......... 114
Table 58: Estimation of Total Product Cost .......................................................................... 115
Table 59: Estimation of Total Product Cost (continued) ....................................................... 116
Table 60: Cost of Utilities ...................................................................................................... 117
Table 61: Profitability Measures ............................................................................................ 119
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1. Introduction
1.1 Scope
This report involved the design of a post combustion carbon dioxide capture system for an
existing coal fired power plant using vacuum swing adsorption. Carbon dioxide is a
greenhouse gas that is generally accepted to be contributing to worldwide climate change.
The aim of this report was to design the adsorption system for carbon dioxide removal along
with any other auxiliary design required for successful operation of the process. The
objectives of the report involved design and mass and energy balances for the adsorption
system, for a 50 year lifetime. It was found that the sensitivity of the chosen adsorbent,
zeolite 13X, to water and sulphur dioxide required the removal of these components from the
flue gas prior to entering the adsorbers. Appropriate processes for each of the desired goals
were completed, with the selection of a dry flue gas desulphurization system, conventional
refrigeration process and adsorbers. Process design, adsorption system design and sensitivity
and plant and equipment selection were then considered. Subsequently raw material storage
and required utilities and engineering services were outlined along with consideration of plant
layout and operability and safety. Finally, the environmental impact of the plant was
considered along with the economic viability of the plant. From these criteria conclusions
were drawn regarding the viability of the process. This allowed conclusions to be made as to
the viability of proceeding to the next design stage.
1.2 Background
The primary purpose of this process is to determine the technical, economic and
environmental viability of an adsorption carbon capture process. Carbon dioxide is a
greenhouse gas that is widely accepted to be a contributor to worldwide climate change. It
has been predicted that if emissions continue unabated, a 4oC temperature rise is expected by
the end of this century (Jenkins, 2003). There exist three main areas of background relevant
to this design including the social and environmental motivation of the proposal, a brief
outline of carbon dioxide removal technologies and methods for utilization of the recovered
carbon dioxide.
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There are both environmental and economic motivations for this proposed design. A
significant motivator was to design a process that can reduce the environmental impact of
coal fired power generation. From an economic perspective there exists the possibility of a
carbon tax being introduced by the Australian Government in the near future with a proposed
price of $23/t CO2 (Carbon Positive, 2010). This will require a response to secure the
economic future of the plant whilst also securing the interests of shareholders and staff.
A variety of choices were required regarding the removal process including choice of process
type and choice of removal medium, such as adsorbent type. There exists a variety of
different technologies that are able to remove carbon dioxide from power plant flue gases.
This includes absorption, membrane removal, cryogenic removal and adsorption. Adsorption
was chosen for investigation in this design, of which there also exist a variety of different
processes, including pressure swing adsorption, temperature swing adsorption and vacuum
swing adsorption. Vacuum swing adsorption was focused on due to its perceived lower
energy requirements. Different adsorbents can be utilised in vacuum swing adsorption
including zeolites, activated carbon and silica gel. The adsorbent chosen was zeolite 13X as
this represented to most well investigate and promising adsorbent to date.
There are a number of novel applications for recovered carbon dioxide. The recovered carbon
dioxide can be used as a raw material in a variety of processes including as an atmosphere for
crop production and enhanced oil recovery. Otherwise it can be geosequestred for long term
storage. Shell has used captured carbon dioxide from their Pernis refinery in the Netherlands
to improve the productivity of tomatoes and other vegetables by pumping the carbon dioxide
to greenhouses (Shell, n.d.). Carbon dioxide has also found application in improved oil
recovery. The carbon dioxide is injected into wells and subsequent dissolution into reservoir
fluids decreases the viscosity of the oil making it more mobile. Finally is geosequestration
which involves long term storage of carbon dioxide in geological formations. This provides
the opportunity for storage of significant volumes of carbon dioxide. To date this has not
been a widely adopted process for power stations due to the variations in flue gas production
and unfavourable locations of power plants relative to current storage locations.
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2. Review of Established Technology and Process Selection
A brief outline of the primary process selection decisions has been provided. A complete
analysis of these processes with detailed reasoning is outlined in Appendix B.
2.1 Introduction
There were three primary areas of process selection critical to the successful design of the
plant. This initially included selection of an adsorption process and then an appropriate
adsorbent. Once this was chosen, it was found that the adsorbent was sensitive to sulphur
dioxide and water. Therefore decisions then had to be made regarding the appropriate
desulphurization and dehumidification processes.
2.2 Adsorbent Selection
Adsorbent selection required consideration of the point at which the carbon would be
removed, then the type of technique and finally the adsorbent selection. Three primary
removal methods which are pre-combustion removal, post combustion removal and oxy-fuel
combustion capture were considered. As the design requirements indicated the use of a post-
combustion method this became the focus of the review. An analysis of the types of post-
combustion methods was undertaken including consideration of cryogenic removal,
membranes, absorption and adsorption. Due to the process specifications and literature data,
further analysis was conducted on the types of adsorption techniques including pressure
swing adsorption (PSA), temperature swing adsorption (TSA), pressure-temperature swing
adsorption (PTSA) and vacuum swing adsorption (VSA). The lower energy penalty of
vacuum swing adsorption ensured that adsorbents suitable for this technique were
subsequently investigated. Analysis of adsorbents included consideration of adsorbents that
use chemical or physical adsorption. Physical adsorption was selected due to the well
established nature of the technology. From the adsorbents that use physical adsorption a
variety were discussed. A decision was then made to design using zeolite 13X as the
adsorbent with the possibility of later extension to an analysis of a system using activated
carbon. The choice of zeolite 13X was due to its high selectivity and recovery of carbon
dioxide in laboratory scale tests.
3
2.3 Flue Gas Desulphurisation System
The carbon dioxide adsorption units are particularly sensitive to sulphur dioxide. It was
therefore necessary for an FGD system to be introduced in order to reduce the concentration
of sulphur dioxide in the flue gas to below 10ppm prior to the adsorbers. Possible FGD
processes that were investigated in detail were wet and dry processes with a discussion of the
advantages and disadvantages of each process being outlined.
There exist a variety of advantages and disadvantages for both the wet and dry FGD
processes which will determine the suitability of either process for the particular conditions
considered. The economic benefits of a dry FGD process include cheaper materials of
construction for the absorber unit since it may be constructed of unlined carbon steel (Sargent
& Lundy, 2007). The quantity of power used for a dry system is in general less than for a wet
FGD system. Lower operating and maintenance costs are also associated with the dry system
since it is a less complex process. The economic disadvantages of a wet FGD system include
increased operating costs as a result of the use of quicklime which is more expensive than
limestone along with a greater required volume of reagent due the processes lower removal
efficiency (Moles of Ca required per mole of SO2 used) when compared with the dry process.
There also exist economic benefits associated with wet systems as the by-product can be used
to produce gypsum which can be sold for wallboard. However there is often a market surplus,
and as a result this benefit is often very limited (Sargent & Lundy, 2007). The transportation
costs of the gypsum generally require the manufacturer of plasterboard to be located less than
200 km from the site to be viable (Sargent & Lundy, 2007). Since dry FGD processes
produce a dry product that can be easily transported, the product may be suitable for landfill.
As a result of economic and process evaluation a dry CFB system was determined to be the
most suited FGD unit for the proposed carbon capture process. The primary reasons for this
decision were the greater economic viability of this system over other FGD systems, the
reduced water consumption of the dry system improving the sustainability of the project.
Finally it was determine that the economic benefits of a gypsum by-product produced by a
4
wet FGD unit could not be realised due to the isolated locality of the plant relative to the
primary gypsum market in Adelaide.
2.4 Dehumidification System
Water must be removed before the flue gas enters the adsorbers. This is because water has a
much higher affinity to the adsorbent compared to carbon dioxide. Thus any water present in
the flue gas would reduce the capacity of the adsorbers for carbon dioxide. At high water
loading, condensed water will also form corrosive carbonic acid with carbon dioxide, as well
as inducing higher pressure drop causing operational issues (Li et al., 2008). Several methods
are used industrially to remove water vapour from gases including absorption using
dehydrating solutions, adsorption using desiccants, condensation by compression, and
condensation by cooling.
An absorption technique using a dehydrating solution involves the use of glycol. To

investigate the feasibility of using glycol to remove water vapour from the flue gas, a HYSYS
simulation was undertaken. The dried flue gas was adjusted to have a water content of 0.5%
by mass, which was the water content achieved through cooling the flue gas to 5oC. It was
found that 4 GW of energy (net energy input = 158 MW) was required to process the large
flowrate of saturated flue gas. Therefore, it is infeasible to use absorption to remove water
vapour from the flue gas.
Silica or activated alumina is the two common solid adsorbents desiccants used for gas
dehydration. Operation is quite simple. Wet gas passes through the adsorber where water is
removed from the gas until the adsorbent is at full capacity. The gas then passes through
another adsorber while the first adsorber is being regenerated. For the flue gas in this project
the energy consumption was found to be 53 MW for this process. This constitutes 22% of
power plant‟s capacity required to remove the water. This large energy cost makes adsorption
infeasible for dehydrating flue gas.
As the pressure of a gas increases, its saturated water content also decreases, thus excess
water is condensed out of the gas upon compression. It is estimated that the flue gas has to be
compressed to 7 bar to have a water content of 0.5% by mass. The energy usage of such
5
compression can be estimated to be around 71 MW, which is about 30% of the power plant‟s
capacity which is unfeasible in terms of the energy consumed.
In absorption refrigeration, instead of mechanical compression, heat is used to regenerate the

refrigerant. The refrigerant is first dissolved in a solvent, such as water, at low pressure. The
rich solution is then fed to the regenerator, where the solution is heated to produce high
pressure refrigerant vapour. The refrigerant is then re-condensed, while the solvent is
recycled to the absorber. The whole process uses mostly heat with minimal mechanical
energy input; therefore it is suitable for processes that have excess heat. Ammonia refrigerant
systems typically have a better CoP compared to other refrigerants and so was utilised in this
design. The energy consumption of the refrigeration process was expected to be 8 MW, in
reality the value was found to be 20 MW due to the high energy consumption of the
condenser cooling water pumps.
The chosen dehydrating method in this project is condensation by cooling. While this may
sound unorthodox, this method was found to consume the least energy. It also helps to
increase the capacities of the CO2 adsorbers, allowing smaller columns and hence lower
capital and adsorbent costs.
2.5 Conclusion
The three primary areas of process selection critical to the successful design of the plant were
chosen to facilitate efficient operation whilst minimizing the energy consumption of the
processes. A vacuum swing adsorption process using zeolite 13X was chosen for removal of
the carbon dioxide from the flue gas due to lower energy consumption and high selectivity of
zeolite 13X for carbon dioxide. A dry flue gas desulphurization process can meet removal
requirements whilst minimizing water consumption. Finally a refrigeration process for
removal of water from flue gas was found to be the least energy intensive process.
6
Mainly for O2/N2

separation and has Used in most
problems with dilute commercial
Cryogenic streams PTSA applications
Commercially not
viable for High energy penalty
concentrations of and high residence
Membranes CO2 less than 20% TSA time (~20 min)
Activated Carbon
Algae (AC)
Zeolite 13X
Physical
Vacuum Adsorbents Silica gel
High regeneration
PSA rate
Oxy-fuel Alumina
combustion Adsorption
CO2 separation Post-combustion High energy penalty

from flue gas for compression of HSC+
Pre-combstion Pressurised flue gas
H20, Nox and Sox
reduce
Metal alkalines effectiveness Stability over
repeated
temperature cycles
and cost of
Amines immobilised commercial
Chemical in porous media quantities
High energy penalty

Carbonation/ (37% of heat input
calcination loop to plant)
High temperature
for operation
Lime (ENDEX) (~1000K)
Absorption Dry carbonate New Topic
MEA being the

most commercially
used but requires
Amine scrubbing 3GJ/tn CO2
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3. Process Design
3.1 Introduction
The process design incorporates all technical aspects related to the engineering design of the
carbon capture plant (CCP). A block diagram was developed to provide an overview of the
system that would be designed. This was then used to develop a more detailed process
outline. The process outline was used to facilitate completion of the material and energy
balances by hand. Computer calculations using Excel, MATLAB and ADSIM were used to
support the manual calculations. A complete summary of the stream data is outlined and
keyed to a detailed process flow diagram. Finally, technical engineering specifications for all
of the primary units were completed including construction material selection.
3.2 Block Diagram
Regeneration of
refrigerant
(4)
Ca(OH)2
Condensation by Effluent gas
SO2 absorption Separation of solids CO2 adsorption
Water cooling
(1) (2) (5)
(3) CO2 product
Flue gas
Solids to landfill Condensate
Figure 1: Process Block Diagram
3.3 Process Description
The development of a complete process outline was an ongoing process that changed based
on changing decisions. The flue gas produced by the power plant is predominantly nitrogen
with some carbon dioxide, water and oxygen. There is also trace quantities of sulphur dioxide
and nitric oxides. Water, sulphur dioxide and nitric oxides are detrimental to the selectivity of
the adsorbent, zeolite 13X. The process was designed to remove most of the water and
8
sulphur dioxide. It was assumed that the quantity of nitric oxides present was negligible (<50
ppmv). It is also know that calcium hydroxide reacts with nitric oxides in the process at block
1. This should reduce the levels of nitric oxide further. It was also assumed that ash is
removed from the flue gas by an electrostatic precipitator (ESP) before leaving the CCP.
The first major process is flue gas desulphurization process. This is represented by block 1
and block 2. At block 1, flue enters the process at 110°C and 95 kPa and is mixed with
atomized water and pulverized lime in a circulating fluidised absorber (A-101). Water is
injected to lower the temperature of the flue gas to about 75°C and to obtain operation close
to the adiabatic saturation temperature of 10°C. Lime reacts with sulphur dioxide by two
reaction pathways to form solid calcium sulphite and calcium sulphate. Flue gas leaves
through the absorber at about 65°C and slightly above atmospheric pressure. At block 2, the
reaction products along with unreacted lime are separated from the flue gas. Ninety eight
percent of the solids are recirculated back to the absorber while the rest is sent to landfill.
Flue gas leaves block 2 at the same temperature of 65°C and 117 kPa(a).
The desulphurisation process is followed by a flue gas dehumidification process. The

dehumidification process is mechanical ammonia refrigeration system represented by block 3
and block 4. At block 3, the flue gas is cooled down in a seawater heat exchanger (E-201)
from 65°C to about 40°C to reduce the refrigerant load in the refrigeration system. The
cooled flue gas is contacted with ammonia refrigerant at -5°C and 0.3559 MPa(a) in an
evaporator (E-202). The refrigerant is vaporized drawing heat from the hot side of the heat
exchanger. This lowers the temperature of the flue gas to about 5°C. This causes
condensation of the water vapour which reduces the flue gas water mole fraction from about
7% to 1%. At block 4, liquid droplets that may be suspended in the vaporized refrigerant are
removed in a low pressure break tank (A-202). The tank contains both liquid and vapour
phases, where liquid refrigerant is sent to E-201 at block 3 while vapour refrigerant is
returned to a compressor (C-201). The refrigerant is compressed to a pressure of about 1.17
MPa(a) which increases its temperature from -5°C to about 35°C. It is then passed through a
seawater condenser (E-203) thus producing a saturated liquid which is returned back to A-
202 for reuse.
9
The final process is the carbon dioxide adsorption system represented by block 5. Flue gas
enters a 25 long parallel train of 2 adsorption columns each. Each column has a diameter of 4
m, height of 6 m and is filled with adsorbent up to a height of 4 m. In vacuum swing
adsorption flue gas is passed through the column for a predetermined amount of time. In this
operating period carbon dioxide is adsorbed onto the adsorbent. The vacuum swing process is
an 8 step process, 4 of the steps are unique while the other 4 are the reverse. These 4 steps are
adsorption, purge, pressure equalization and evacuation. The control system actuates the
appropriate control valve which determines the individual cycle times. The effluent gas
consisting of primarily oxygen and nitrogen is vented to the atmosphere through a stack. The
stack has a height of 60 m and diameter of 2 m and has been designed such that the
concentration of nitric oxides does not exceed the recommended limit of 0.12 ppm for greater
than 1 hour in 24 hours of monitoring. The carbon dioxide product has a flowrate of 1.02
million tonnes per year and purity of about 50% and can be used for EOR and ECBMR or
permanently stored in spent petroleum reservoirs or similar geological formations.
3.4 Process Design
3.4.1 Software Packages
Aspen Adsorption (formerly known as Aspen Adsim) was used to model the adsorption
columns. The software package is built specifically for the process simulation and
optimization of adsorption processes including vacuum swing adsorption. Scale-up from the
bench scale or pilot scale was not possible because no reliable data for real flue gas exists.
Most research groups experimented with vacuum swing adsorption using “flue gas”
consisting of nitrogen, oxygen and carbon dioxide. The detrimental effects of water, sulphur
dioxide and nitric oxides on the adsorbent were therefore never investigated. Furthermore
scale-up is likely to be unreliable because of the significant differences in thermal effects
between a small-scale test and a full-scale plant which will alter process performance (Zhang
& Webley, 2008).
10
3.4.2 Adsorbent
A variety of adsorbents were investigated for use in the adsorption system. The adsorbent
properties including selectivity and capacity were considered along with consideration of the
consistency of the product. Investigation of zeolite 13X and activated carbon suggested that
zeolite 13X would be the most promising adsorbent based on previous investigations. The
advantages of Zeolite 13X include a higher capacity for carbon dioxide and a higher
selectivity for carbon dioxide over nitrogen as compared to activated carbon. Furthermore the
volume of purge gas required when using zeolite 13X is lower which therefore increases the
purity of the carbon dioxide product (Chue et al., 1995). The of the Zeolite 13X product
which is a manufactured adsorbent has more consistent properties than activated carbon
which is a natural carbonaceous material which has surface properties that can vary
considerably. The higher selectivity and capacity of zeolite 13X along with more reliable
product quality made this the optimal adsorbent selection.
3.4.3 Fluctuations in Flue Gas Properties
The processing requirements for flue gas from a power station will vary through the course of
a day. A power stations flue gas output will fluctuate throughout the course of a day. The
composition of the flue gas will also fluctuate depending on the type of coal and the process
conditions. Therefore the carbon capture plant must be able to adjust to these variations. One
method to cope with changing flow rates of flue gas is a method known as turndown. The
turndown ratio as defined by ANSI/ISA-77.13.01-1999 is the ratio from maximum operating
to minimum operating conditions, providing a controllable or measurable span. The plant has
been designed to operate at turndown through the addition of safety factors where appropriate
and through the control system. To cope with changes in gas composition the plant and in
particular the adsorption unit control systems have been designed such that fluctuations in
process parameters can lead to changes in the cycle times ensuring efficient system operation.
If the parameters were to deviate beyond the plant‟s operating range, the flue gas would be
bypassed to the stack. The ability to cope with varying conditions is a necessity in any plant,
and the control instrumentation implemented allows efficient operation of this plant.
11
3.5 Post Combustion CO2 Capture Process Flow Diagram
H-101
8 D-101 13
T-102 c.w return., 30oC, 1750 m3/h

F-102
9 14
6 7
E-201 15
5
B-102
B-101 E-202
A-101 10
condensate, 17.8 m3/h 33
4 condensate, 38.9 m3/h
c.w., 20oC, 1750 m3/h
3
P-201 F-302
P-101
T-101 2 11
H-102 17 18 16 32
19
S-301
Flue Gas 1
A-201
F-101
c.w return., 25oC, 10500 m3/h
V-307 V-309
23
V-308 V-310
12 20 21 22
P-204 30 31
C-201/202 E-203/204 V-201

A-202
V-315 V-316
V-311 V-312
o 3
c.w., 20 C, 10500 m /h
P-202/203
A-301 A-302
V-301
V-313 V-314
23
28
V-304
25
27
V-306
V-303 V-305 29
For CO2 EOR/ECMBR
24 26
P-301
F-301
V-302
To Landfill
Figure 2: Post Combustion Carbon Dioxide Capture System Flow Diagram

*The adsorber section contains bypass lines that are not used under normal operating conditions. These are not numbered, however have been included in an effort to display all relevant process valves and numbers
12
3.6 Unit Summary
Table 1: Process Flow Diagram Equipment Summary

Label Equipment Label Equipment Label Equipment
A-101 CFB Absorber A-201 Low Pressure Ammonia Receiver Tank AC-301 Adsorption Column
B-101 Pneumatic Conveyor A-202 High Pressure Ammonia Break Tank AC-302 Adsorption Column
B-102 Pneumatic Conveyor C-201/202 Ammonia Compressor F-301 Blower
D-101 Fabric Filter E-201 Flue Gas Heat Exchanger F-302 Induced Draught Fan
F-101 Flue Gas Fan E-202 Heat Exchanger (Evaporator) P-301 Vacuum Pump
F-102 Baghouse Exhaust Fan E-203/204 Heat Exchanger (Condenser) S-301 Stack
H-101 Lime Day Holding Hopper P-201 E-201 Cooling Water Pump
H-102 Intermediate Storage Hopper P-202/203 E-203 Cooling Water Pump
P-101 Water Pump P-204 Ammonia Recirculation Pump
T-101 Water Storage Tank V-201 Throttle Valve
T-102 Lime Storage Silo
Table 2: Adsorber System Valve Summary Information

Label Equipment
V-301 Flue Gas Feed Valve
V-302 Blower Recycle Valve
V-303 and V-305 Flue Gas Feed Valves to each Column
V-304 and V-306 Evacuation Valves
V-307 and V-309 Effluent Gas Valves
V-308 and V-310 Effluent Gas Transfer Valves
V-311 and V-312 Lockout Valves to Pressure Controllers
V-313 to V-316 Gate Valves to CO2 Concentration Controller
13
3.7 Flue Gas Desulphurization Process Flow Diagram
60.7 kPa
25oC
102.9 kPa 101.4 kPa 117.4 kPa

64oC 64oC 72oC
T-102 14 To Dehumidification
6
H-101 8 D-101 13
F-102
Shaft Work, 6.42 MW
101.3 kPa 9
25oC 5 7 101.4 kPa
64oC
B-101
Shaft Work, 3.78 kW
4
A-101 B-102
T-101 3
10
Shaft Work, 121 kW
101.3 kPa 360.9 kPa
25oC 25oC
P-101
Shaft Work, 2.55 kW
H-102
2 11
Flue Gas 1 12
To Landfill
F-101
95 kPa 111 kPa 101.3 kPa 101.3 kPa
110oC Shaft Work, 7.5 MW 127oC 64oC 64oC
Figure 3: Process Flow Diagram for Desulphurization System
14
3.8 Desulphurization Stream Summary Table
Table 3: Stream Summary Table for Desulphurization Process

Stream Number 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Conditions
Temperature (oC) 110 127 25 25 25 25 25
Pressure (kPa, abs) 95 111.0 101.3 360.9 101.3 102.6 102.6
Vapour Fraction 1.00 1.00 0.00 0.00 - - -
Mass Flow (tonne/h) 1025 1025 21.83 21.83 0.6761 0.6761 0.6761
Molar Flow (kmol/h) 34619 34619 1213 1213 9.137 9.137 9.137
Component Flows (kg/s)
CO2 55.0 55.0 - - - - -
N2 201.9 201.9 - - - - -
O2 15.4 15.4 - - - - -
H2O 12.1 12.1 6.06 6.06 - - -
SOx 0.203 0.203 - - - - -
NOx 0.022 0.022 - - - - -
Ca(OH)2 - - - - 0.188 0.188 0.188
CaSO3.0.5H2O - - - - - - -
CaSO4.2H2O - - - - - - -
NH3 - - - - - - -
15
Table 4: Stream Summary Table for Desulphurization (Continued)

Stream Number 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Conditions
Temperature (oC) 64 64 64 64 64 64 72
Pressure (kPa, abs) 102.9 101.4 60.7 101.3 101.3 101.4 117
Vapour Fraction 1.00 - - - - 1.00 1.00
Mass Flow (tonne/h) 1059 34.6 34.6 33.2 1.417 1046 1046
Molar Flow (kmol/h) 35878 222.7 222.7 254.1 9.137 35821 35821
CO2 55.0 - - - - 55.0 55.0
N2 201.9 - - - - 201.9 201.9
O2 15.38 - - - - 15.37 15.37
H2O 18.17 - - - - 17.16 17.16
SOx 0.203 - - - - 0.02083 0.02083
NOx 0.02211 - - - - 0.02211 0.02211
Ca(OH)2 1.16 1.16 1.16 1.11 0.04736 - -
CaSO3.0.5H2O 3.73 3.73 3.73 3.57 0.1528 - -
CaSO4.2H2O 4.72 4.72 4.72 4.53 0.1936 - -
16
3.9 Dehumidification Process Flow Diagram
c.w. Return, 30oC, 1750 m3/h 117.1 kPa

40oC,,, 17 E-202
E-201
From FGD System 15
c.w., 20oC, 1750 m3/h Condensate, 38.9 m3/h

Condensate, 17.8 m3/h 305.9 kPa
-5oC,,,,
P-201 3.24 M.W. mechanical shaft power 355.9 kPa
-5oC,,,,
116.9 kPa
19
355.9 kPa 5oC,,,,
-5oC,,,,,
A-201
16
18
c.w.return, 25oC, 10500 m3/h 355.9 kPa
-5oC,,,,,
A-202 To Adsorbers
C-201/202 1170 kPa
120oC,,,,, 23
20 21 22
P-204
E-203/204 1170 kPa
30oC,,,,
1170 kPa
30oC,,,,,
V-201 1.94 k.W. mechanical shaft power
4 M.W. mechanical shaft power
c.w., 20oC, 10500 m3/h
P-202/20311.0 M.W. mechanical shaft power
Figure 4: Process Flow Diagram of Refrigeration Unit for Flue Gas Dehumidification
17
3.10 Dehumidification Stream Summary Tables
Table 5: Dehumidification Stream Summary Table

Stream Number 15 16 17 18 19 20 21
Conditions
Temperature (oC) 40 5 -5 -5 -5 120 30
Pressure (kPa) 117.1 116.9 305.9 355.9 355.9 1170 1170
Vapour Fraction 1.00 1.00 0.25 0.00 1.00 1.00 0.00
Mass Flow (tonne/h) 1006.7 985.4 498.4 498.4 124.6 124.6 124.6
Molar Flow (kmol/h) 34630 32473.8 33216 33216 8304 8304 8304
CO2 55.0 55.0 - - - - -
N2 201.9 201.9 - - - - -
O2 15.37 15.37 - - - - -
H2O 12.21 1.40 - - - - -
SOx 0.02083 0.02083 - - - - -
NOx 0.02211 0.02211 - - - - -
Ca(OH)2 - - - - - - -
CaSO3.0.5H2O - - - - - - -
CaSO4.2H2O - - - - - - -
NH3 - - 138.4 138.4 34.6 34.6 34.6
18
Table 6: Desulphurisation Stream Summary Table (Continued)

Stream Number 22 23
Conditions
o
Temperature ( C) 30 -5
Pressure (kPa) 1170 355.9
Vapour Fraction 0.00 0.10
Mass Flow (tonne/h) 124.6 124.6
Molar Flow (kmol/h) 8304 8304
CO2 - -
N2 - -
O2 - -
H2O - -
SOx - -
NOx - -
Ca(OH)2 - -
CaSO3.0.5H2O - -
CaSO4.2H2O - -
NH3 34.6 34.6
19
3.11 Adsorber Process Flow Diagram
33
From Dehumidification
32
F-302
S-301
V-307 V-309
V-308 V-310
30 31
V-311 V-312
V-313 V-314
AC-301 (A) AC-302 (B)
V-301
V-313 V-314
28
16
V-304
25 27
V-306
V-303 V-305 29
To Compression
24 26
P-301
F-301
V-302
Figure 5: Process Flow Diagram of a Two Bed Carbon Dioxide Adsorption Train
20
3.12 Adsorption Stream Summary Tables
Table 7: Adsorption Stream Summary Tables

Conditions for Step 1: Pressurization in A/Depressurization in B
Stream Number 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33
Temperature (oC) 5 5 - -6.5 - -6.5 - - - -
Pressure (kPa) 140 140 - 42 - 10 - - - -
Vapour Fraction 1.0 1.0 - 1.0 - 1.0 - - - -
Mass Flow (tonne/h) 25.6 25.6 0.0 38.2 0.0 38.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 -
Molar Flow (kmol/h) 841.8 841.8 0.0 1152.9 0.0 1152.9 0.0 0.0 0.0 -
Component Fractions
CO2 0.1386 0.1386 - 0.315 - 0.315 - - - -
N2 0.8081 0.8081 - 0.656 - 0.656 - - - -
O2 0.0533 0.0533 - 0.0296 - 0.0296 - - - -
H2O - - - - - - - - - -
Conditions for Step 2: Adsorption in A/Desorption in B
Stream Number 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33
Temperature (oC) 5 5 - 6.5 - -15.9 -15.9 - -15.9 -15.9
Pressure (kPa) 140 140 - 11 - 10 121 - 121 121
Vapour Fraction 1.0 1.0 - 1.0 - 1.0 1.0 - 1.0 1.00
Mass Flow (tonne/h) 42.7 42.7 0.0 8.97 0.0 8.97 36.8 0.0 36.8 885.5
Molar Flow (kmol/h) 1401.9 1401.9 0.0 373.9 0.0 373.9 1286.8 0.0 1286.76 30035
Component Fractions
CO2 0.1386 0.1386 - 0.23 - 0.23 0.0237 - 0.0237 0.078
N2 0.8081 0.8081 - 0.0093 - 0.0093 0.924 - 0.924 0.864
O2 0.0533 0.0533 - 0.0034 - 0.0034 0.0527 - 0.0527 0.058
H2O - - - 0.75 - 0.75 - - - -
21
Conditions for Step 3: Purging A/Receive Purge B

Stream Number 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33
Temperature (oC) 5 5 - -6.7 - -6.7 -6.55 -6.55 -15.9 -
Pressure (kPa) 140 140 - 33 - 10 120 119.8 120 -
Vapour Fraction 1.0 1.0 - 1.0 - 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 -
Mass Flow (tonne/h) 42.7 42.7 0.0 26.4 0.0 26.4 24.5 13.5 24.5 -
Molar Flow (kmol/h) 1402.7 1402.7 0.0 731.7 0.0 731.7 837.7 -462.4 837.7 -
Component Fractions
CO2 0.1386 0.1386 - 0.466 - 0.466 0.0614 0.0614 0.0614 -
N2 0.8081 0.8081 - 0.391 - 0.391 0.881 0.881 0.881 -
O2 0.0533 0.0533 - 0.144 - 0.144 0.0577 0.0577 0.0577 -
H2O - - - - - - - - - -
Conditions for Step 4: Pressure Equalization in A/Receive PE in B
Stream Number 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33
Temperature (oC) - - - - - - -5.5 -5.5 - -
Pressure (kPa) - - - - - - 94.7 68 - -
Vapour Fraction - - - - - - 1.0 1.0 - -
Mass Flow (tonne/h) 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 31.6 31.6 0.0 -
Molar Flow (kmol/h) 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 1062.7 -1062.7 0.0 -
Component Fractions
CO2 - - - - - - 0.0931 0.0931 - -
N2 - - - - - - 0.856 0.856 - -
O2 - - - - - - 0.0513 0.0513 - -
H2O - - - - - - - - - -
22
Conditions for Step 5: Depressurization in A/Pressurization in B

Stream Number 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33
Temperature (oC) 5 - 5 - -6.5 -6.5 - - - -
Pressure (kPa) 140 - 140 - 42 10 - - - -
Vapour Fraction 1 - 1 - 1 1 - - - -
Mass Flow (tonne/h) 25.6 0.0 25.6 0.0 38.2 38.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 -
Molar Flow (kmol/h) 841.8 0.0 841.8 0.0 1152.9 1152.9 0.0 0.0 0.0 -
Component Fractions
CO2 0.1386 - 0.1386 - 0.315 0.315 - - - -
N2 0.8081 - 0.8081 - 0.656 0.656 - - - -
O2 0.0533 - 0.0533 - 0.0296 0.0296 - - - -
H2O - - - - - - - - - -
Conditions for Step 6: Pressure Equalization in A/Receive PE in B
Stream Number 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33
Temperature (oC) 5 - 5 - 6.5 -6.5 - -15.9 -15.9 -
Pressure (kPa) 140 - 140 - 11 10 - 121 121 -
Vapour Fraction 1.0 - 1.0 - 1.0 1.0 - 1.0 1.0 -
Mass Flow (tonne/h) 42.7 0.0 42.7 0.0 4.06 4.06 0.0 36.8 36.8 -
Molar Flow (kmol/h) 1401.9 0.0 1401.9 0.0 93.9 93.9 0.0 1286.8 1286.8 -
Component Fractions
CO2 0.1386 - 0.1386 - 0.950 0.950 - 0.0237 0.0237 -
N2 0.8081 - 0.8081 - 0.0366 0.0366 - 0.924 0.924 -
O2 0.0533 - 0.0533 - 0.0134 0.0134 - 0.0527 0.0527 -
H2O - - - - - - - - - -
23
Conditions for Step 7: Receive Purging in A/Purging in B

Stream Number 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33
Temperature (oC) 5 - 5 - -6.7 -6.7 -6.55 -6.55 -15.9 -
Pressure (kPa) 140 - 140 - 33 10 120 119.8 120 -
Vapour Fraction 1.0 - 1.0 - 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 -
Mass Flow (tonne/h) 42.7 0.0 42.7 0.0 26.4 26.4 13.5 24.5 24.5 -
Molar Flow (kmol/h) 1402.7 0.0 1402.7 0.0 731.7 731.7 -462.4 837.7 837.7 -
Component Fractions
CO2 0.1386 - 0.1386 - 0.466 0.466 0.0614 0.0614 0.0614 -
N2 0.8081 - 0.8081 - 0.391 0.391 0.881 0.881 0.881 -
O2 0.0533 - 0.0533 - 0.144 0.144 0.0577 0.0577 0.0577 -
H2O - - - - - - - - - -
Conditions for Step 8: Receive PE in A/Pressure Equalization in B
Stream Number 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33
Temperature (oC) - - - - - - -5.53 -5.53 - -
Pressure (kPa) - - - - - - 94.7 68.0 - -
Vapour Fraction - - - - - - 1.0 1.0 - -
Mass Flow (tonne/h) 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 31.6 31.6 0.0 -
Molar Flow (kmol/h) 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 -1062.7 1062.7 0.0 -
Component Fractions
CO2 - - - - - - 0.0931 0.0931 - -
N2 - - - - - - 0.856 0.856 - -
O2 - - - - - - 0.0513 0.0513 - -
H2O - - - - - - - - - -
24
3.13 Equipment Design Summary Tables
3.13.1 Heat Exchangers
Table 8: Design Summary Data for Heat Exchangers

E-201 E-202 E-203/204
Role Flue Gas Cooling Evaporator Condenser
Type Shell and Tube Shell and Tube Shell and Tube
Front End Head Type Channel and Removable Cover (A) Channel and Removable Cover (A) Channel and Removable Cover (A)
Shell Type One Pass Shell (E) One Pass Shell (E) One Pass Shell (E)
Rear End Head Type Packed Lantern Ring Floating Head (W) Packed Lantern Ring Floating Head (W) Fixed Tube Sheet (M)
Duty (MW) 20.3 38.6 12.1
Heat Transfer Area (m2) 4330 8274 540
Heat Transfer Efficiency 80% 80% 80%
Tube Side
Composition Water Ammonia Water
Temperature In/Out (oC) 20/30 -5/-5 20/25
Flow Rate (kg/s) 486 138.4 2894
Tube Number 2086 1710 3762
Tube Diameter 1 inch nominal 1 inch nominal ½ inch nominal
Tube Length (m) 7.5 10 6.1
Tube Type Finned Finned Smooth Tubes
Material of Construction Super Ferritic Stainless Steel Aluminum Super Ferritic Stainless Steel
Tube Arrangement Square Square Triangular
Shell Side
Composition Flue Gas Flue Gas Ammonia
Inlet Temperature (oC) 72 40 120
Outlet Temperature (oC) 40 5 30
Flow Rate (kg/s) 284 273.7 138.4
Shell Diameter (m) 3.6 3.5 1.52
Materials of Construction CS with Alloy Laminate CS with Alloy Laminate CS with Alloy Laminate
25
3.13.2 Pumps and Compressors
Table 9: Equipment Design Specifications for Pumps

P-101 P-201 P-202/203 P-204 P-301 C-201/202
Power 2.53 kW 4.1 MW 5.5 MW 1.94 kW 1.12 MW 4.0 MW
Efficiency 60% 80 % 80 % 80% 60% 80%
Type/Drive Centrifugal Centrifugal Centrifugal Centrifugal Centrifugal Screw Compressor
Casing Material Carbon Steel Super Ferritic SS Super Ferritic SS Carbon Steel SS 304 Mild Carbon Steel
S44660 / S44735 S44660/ S44735
Impeller Material SS 316 Super Ferritic SS Super Ferritic SS Carbon Steel SS 304 Mild Carbon Steel
S44660 / S44735 S44660 / S44735
Pressure In (kPa) 103 101.3 101.3 356 10 355.9
Pressure Out 402 108.3 105.3 360 101.3 1170
(kPa)
3.13.3 Tanks and Hoppers
Table 10: Equipment Design Specifications for Storage Tanks and Hoppers
T-101 T-102 H-101 H-102
Application Water Storage Lime Storage Lime Day Hopper Intermediate Reaction
Product Recycle
Height (m) 5.5 12 3.96 3.96
Diameter (m) 10.5 4.1 2.74 2.74
Capacity (m3) 553 168 (243 tonnes) 12.4 12.4
Cone Height (m) - 2.9 - -
Cone Angle (o) - 58 45 45
Shell Thickness (mm) 27 5 5 5
Material of Construction Carbon Steel A36 Steel Plate Galvanized Iron Galvanized Iron
26
3.13.4 Fans
Table 11: Equipment Design Specifications for Fans

F-101 F-102 F-301 F-302
Application Flue Gas Supply to Baghouse Exhaust Fan Flue Gas Blowers to Induced Draught Fan to
Absorber Adsorbers Stack
Duty 2.43 MW 3.53 MW 413 kW 2.15 MW
Efficiency 65% 65% 60% 75%
Type Centrifugal Centrifugal Forced Draught Centrifugal Induced Draught
Centrifugal
Impeller Type Backward Curved Aerofoil Backward Curved Impeller Backward Curved Impeller Backward Curved Impeller
Casing Materials of Carbon Steel Carbon Steel with Carbon Steel Carbon Steel
Construction NICROFER 3127h
Impeller Materials Carbon Steel SS 316 Carbon Steel Carbon Steel
3.13.5 Vessels
Table 12: Equipment Design Specifications for Vessels

A-101 A-201 A-202 AC-301/302
Type Flue Gas Absorber Low Pressure Ammonia High Pressure Ammonia Packed Adsorbers for CO2
Vessel Vessel Removal
Diameter (m) 5.3 1.83 2.46 4.0
Height (m) 27 5.5 4.88 5.0
Efficiency 89.7% - - -
Shell Thickness (mm) - - - 15
Material of Carbon Steel with Bis-A Carbon Steel Carbon Steel Steel with a Thick Film
Construction Epoxy Lining Vinyl Ester Lining
Packing - - - Zeolite 13X
Orientation Vertical Horizontal Vertical Vertical
27
3.13.6 Pneumatic Conveyers
Table 13: Pneumatic Conveyer Design Specifications

B-101 B-102
Type Lime Conveyer to Hopper Lime Conveyer to Intermediate Storage Hopper
Operation Lean Phase Conveying Lean Phase Conveying
Air Flowrate (m3/h) 256 12,000
Air Velocity (m/s) 9.1 17.1
Conveying Pipe Diameter (m) 0.1 0.5
Material of Construction Mild Steel Mild Steel
Power 3.68 kW 122 kW
3.13.7 Stack
Table 14: Equipment Design Specifications for the Stack

S-301
Type Flue Gas Dispersion
Diameter (m)/ Height (m) 2/60
Material of Construction of Flue Nickel Alloyed Carbon Steel
Material of Construction of Shell Nickel Alloyed Carbon Steel
3.13.8 Baghouse
Table 15: Equipment Design Specifications for Baghouse

D-101
Area of Fabric (m2) 1161
Materials of Construction of Baghouse Carbon Steel with Bis-A Epoxy Lining
Materials of Construction of Bags Teflon or Ryton
Method of Bag Cleaning Reverse Airflow Cleaning
28
3.13.9 Valves
Table 16: Adsorber Valve Specifications

Label Equipment
V-301 Flue gas feed valve
V-302 Blower recycle valve
V-303 and V-305 Flue gas feed valves to each column
V-304 and V-306 Evacuation valves
V-307 and V-309 Effluent gas valves
V-308 and V-310 Effluent gas transfer valves
V-311 and V-312 Lockout valves to pressure controllers
V-313 to V-316 Gate valves to CO2 concentration controller
3.13.10 Pipeline Material Summary
Table 17: Pipeline Material Summary

Stream Material Stream Material Stream Material
1 Carbon Steel with Novolac Lining 12 Galvanized Steel 23 Mild Steel
2 Carbon Steel with Novolac Lining 13 Carbon Steel with Nicrofer Lining 24 Carbon Steel with Nicrofer Lining
3 Carbon Steel 14 Carbon Steel with Nicrofer Lining 25 Carbon Steel with Nicrofer Lining
4 Carbon Steel 15 Carbon Steel with Nicrofer Lining 26 Carbon Steel with Nicrofer Lining
5 Chrome Cast Iron 16 Carbon Steel with Nicrofer Lining 27 Mild Steel
6 Chrome Cast Iron 17 Mild Steel 28 Mild Steel
7 Chrome Cast Iron 18 Mild Steel 29 Carbon Steel with Nicrofer Lining
8 Carbon Steel &Bisphenol-A Epoxy 19 Mild Steel 30 Carbon Steel with Nicrofer Lining
29
4. Adsorption System Design
4.1 Introduction
The complexity of the mass and energy balance equations across the adsorbers, as well as the
lack of non-isothermal empirical relations meant that computer simulations were used
extensively to model the adsorbers. Most empirical relations are only suitable for fresh
adsorbents operating under isothermal conditions. The empirical relations are only applicable for
a single pass adsorption step. These results found that the temperature and capacity conditions of
the adsorbent at cyclic steady state were significantly different from the values predicted by the
empirical relations.
Both manual calculations using Excel and more rigorous modelling were attempted. Manual
solution of the adsorber column is provided in Appendix C. Software was used to model the
adsorption process, refer Appendix D. The most promising model was found to be the ADSIM
simulation which was used to model the column and to conduct a sensitivity analysis. The
primary objectives of the sensitivity analysis were to investigate changes in purity and recovery
of carbon dioxide based on changes in key parameters. These key parameters include adsorption
(and desorption) step time, purge step time, the waste/feed ratio during purging and the column
length. The results of primary importance are presented here with any secondary information
outlined in Appendix D.
4.2 Adsorption/Desorption Step Time
The adsorption and desorption steps were modelled together. The adsorption and desorption step
times were coupled together and varied from fifty to ninty seconds. Figure 6 shows that as the
times increase, carbon dioxide recovery decreases while purity increases. This observation may
be due to a longer adsorption step allowing increased uptake of carbon dioxide. This was also
found to increase purity. In contrast however, the increased uptake decreases the concentration
30
gradient between the gas and the adsorbent. This leads to a lower adsorption rate and ultimately a
lower carbon dioxide recovery.
0.68 0.56
0.67 0.54
0.66
Average CO2 Recovery
0.52
0.65
0.5
CO2 Purity
0.64
0.63 0.48
0.62 0.46
0.61
0.44
0.6
0.59 0.42
0.58 0.4
40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Adsorption/Desorption Step Time (s)
Figure 6: Influence of Adsorption and Desorption Time on the Recovery and Purity of Carbon
Dioxide
4.3 Purge Step Time
The purpose of the purge step is to clean the column prior to adsorption. The purge step rinses
the column using gas with a low carbon dioxide concentration. This rinsing enhances the
desorption of carbon dioxide from the column allowing more carbon dioxide to be flushed out. It
was therefore expected that the carbon dioxide recovery would increase as the purge time
increases. The observations shown in Figure 7 are consistent with these expectations. The
increased rinsing time also resulted in increased product purity when the operating purge times
were less than eighty seconds. For purge times greater than eighty seconds the carbon dioxide
purity was seen to level off. It is possible that this levelling off was a result of purging with low
carbon dioxide gas which diluted the product thereby overshadowing the benefits of increasing
recovery.
31
0.63 0.48
0.62
0.61
0.6 0.475
0.59
CO2 Purity
0.58
0.47
0.57
0.56
0.55 0.465
0.54
0.53
0.52 0.46
50 60 70 80 90 100 110
Purge Step Time (s)
Figure 7: Influence of Purge Step Time on Carbon Dioxide Purity and Recovery
4.4 Waste/Feed Ratio
A part of the cycle involves the use of clean gas from one column to purge the partner column,
with the remaining gas being vented to the atmosphere. The waste/feed ratio is the ratio of
flowrates of waste gas to feed gas. This ratio was used to represent the split between the gas
vented to atmosphere and the gas used for purging of the partner column. It was anticipated that
this ratio could best describe the change in flowrates as it has the least influence on other system
variables. Other ratios such as valve coefficient ratios are affected by changes in pressure. It
should however be noted that even when there is no purge gas, the waste/feed ratio will not be
unity because some of the carbon dioxide is adsorbed in the column.
It was envisaged that increasing the flow rate of purge gas (i.e. the lower the waste/feed ratio)
would result in a higher carbon dioxide recovery due to improved rinsing of the column.
However it was also expected to lower the carbon dioxide due to dilution of the product by the
purge gas that has a low carbon dioxide concentration. The results in Figure 8 are consistent with
these expectations. Although it was not expected that changes in this ratio would result in the
significant variations in the recovery and purity that was observed. These variations ranged from
78% to 50%, and 33% to 65%, respectively, as the waste/feed ratio increased from 0 to 0.97.
32
0.8 0.7
0.65
0.75
0.6
0.7
0.55
CO2 Purity
0.65 0.5
0.45
0.6
0.4
0.55
0.35
0.5 0.3
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Waste/Feed Ratio
Figure 8: Effect of Waste to Feed Ratio on the Recovery and Purity of Carbon Dioxide
4.5 Column Length
The column length will influence the recovery and purity of the product due to changed internal
operating dynamics in the column. Figure 9 shows the variations in carbon dioxide recovery and
purity as the column length changes from three metres five metres.
0.52
0.59
0.57 0.5
0.55 0.48
CO2 Purity
0.53 0.46
0.51
0.44
0.49
0.47 0.42
0.45 0.4
3 3.5 4 4.5 5
Column Height (m)
Figure 9: Influence of Column Height on the Recovery and Purity of Carbon Dioxide
33
Varying the column height and modelling the system resulted in some unexpected results. It was
expected that both the carbon dioxide recovery and purity would increase as the column height
increased. It was envisaged that a longer column would have a higher capacity. The recovery
was observed to increase from 49% to over 59% as the column height increased from three
metres to four and a half metres. However a maximum was reached at the four and a half metre
mark and a drop in recovery was observed after this point. The purity was also found to decrease
from 51% to 42% as the column increased from three metres to five metres.
The change in recovery and purity with increased column height is likely explained by a number
of factors including column regeneration and pressure drop. It was found that as the column
approaches cyclic steady state, the breakthrough times, recovery and purity are not influenced by
the column capacity. Rather they are influenced by the degree to which the adsorbent is being
regenerated. If the column is not regenerated it will soon become saturated irrespective of the
initial column capacity. Furthermore a longer column will experience a higher pressure drop.
Therefore the average column pressure during the desorption step, when the vacuum is applied,
would be higher than experienced when operating a shorter column. This reduces desorption and
adsorbent regeneration efficiencies resulting in a decrease in product purity. Similar factors are
likely to have contributed to the decrease in recovery. When the column was five metres long the
large pressure drop which reduced the adsorption driving force resulting in a low carbon dioxide
adsorption rate at the tail of the column. The pressure distributions for a four metre and a five
metre column, during a particular adsorption and desorption time node in the simulation can be
seen in Figure 10.
34
1.3 0.128
0.126
1.28
0.124
1.26
Pressure (bar)
0.122
1.24 0.12 5m (adsorption)
0.118 4m (adsorption)
1.22 5m (desorption)
0.116
4m (desorption)
1.2
0.114
1.18 0.112
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
Column Length
Figure 10: Pressure Variations at given Intervals in Columns of Different Length
4.6 Summary of the Sensitivity Analysis
The sensitivity analysis aimed to improve the carbon dioxide recovery and purity through
optimisation of some key process parameters. The parameters considered included adsorption
and desorption times, purge time, the waste/purge split represented by the waste/feed ratio and
the column height. Promising results applied to the base case to obtain the optimal carbon
dioxide recovery and purity for the carbon capture process. The results of the sensitivity analysis
showed some results consistent with expectations while other results were not expected.
A variety of techniques were found to be successful for increase the carbon dioxide recovery and
purity. The simulations showed that an increase in carbon dioxide recovery could be achieved by
decreasing the adsorption and desorption times, increasing the purge time, decreasing the waste
to feed ratio and by increasing the column to four and a half metres. An increase in the
adsorption and desorption times and an increase in the purge time were found to increase carbon
dioxide purity. Furthermore an increase in the waste/feed ratio and a decrease in the column
height were also found to increase the carbon dioxide purity.
35
The results from the individual optimisation were collectively applied to optimise the columns.
This modelling required a compromise to be reached between increased recovery and improved
purity. Furthermore physical aspects such as valve size, opening time limitations, vibrations,
structural stability had to be considered. Operability aspects such as turndowns, fluidization
limits and economic factors were also accounted for. The final parameters for the optimal
column operation are presented in Table 18.
Table 18: Final Sensitivity Analysis Results

Base Case Optimized Case
CO2 Recovery (%) 62.6 77.8
CO2 Purity (%) 47.7 49.3
Adsorption/Desorption Time (s) 70 60

Purge Time (s) 80 90
Waste/Feed Ratio 0.716 0.597
Column Height (m) 4.0 4.0
4.7 Conclusions
A variety of factors were investigated in an effort to optimise the column performance. However
it was not possible to optimise all parameters. This sensitivity analysis considered the adsorption
and desorption step time, purge step time, waste to feed ratio and column length. Other variables
that could alter column performance exist however it was beyond the scope of the preliminary
design to analyse some of these parameters whilst in other instances analysis was not possible.
For example the vacuum pressure is a key variable contributing to the performance of the
adsorbers. However the software experienced considerable difficulty in achieving cyclic steady
state at different vacuum pressures. It was determined from these analyses that experimental
investigations with real flue gas would provide the most reliable modelling method. Furthermore,
significant insight could be gained from construction and operation of pilot adsorbers. These
pilot adsorbers would allow the collection of rigorous operating data providing greater insight
into process operation enabling improvements in process efficiency to be investigated. The case
studies undertaken provide novel data on the operation and optimisation of carbon capture using
vacuum swing adsorption.
36
5. Plant and Equipment Selection and Design
Complete and comprehensive equipment and material choices for the carbon capture plant have
been determined. Detailed equipment specifications are outlined along with a schematic of the
chosen piece of equipment. The operating characteristics of each unit have been outlined. This is
concluded with an outline and justification of the most appropriate material specifications.
5.1. Circulating Fluidized Bed Absorber
Table 19: Specifications of a Circulating Fluidized Bed Absorber

Equipment Label A-101
Diameter (m) 5.3
Height (m) 27
Efficiency 89.7%
Material of Construction Carbon Steel with Bis-A Epoxy Lining
Packing None
Orientation Vertical
Figure 11: Circulating Fluidized Bed Absorber for Flue Gas Desulphurization (Enviroserv,
2010)
37
The circulating fluidized bed absorber is the main unit operation in the flue gas desulphurisation
unit. The circulating fluidised bed absorber is a vertically arranged flue gas duct. The absorber
contains one or more venturi nozzles for flue gas and water injection. Solid slaked lime and
recirculated solids are delivered just below the venturi nozzles by a pneumatic conveying air
slide. The flue gas velocity is increased as it passes through the venturi nozzles. The fluid
velocity results in entrainment of the solids which are carried to the top of the absorber resulting
in the formation of an expanding circulating fluidized bed. The flue gas and solid product leaves
the absorber where it passes to a fabric filter. The solids and flue gas are separated by this fabric
filter. Solids are recirculated back to the absorber to ensure optimal consumption of the lime raw
material. The process is designed to provide sufficiently long contact times between absorbent
and flue gas to improve sulphur dioxide removal and absorbent utilisation (Cooper et al., 1997).
The absorber unit and associated duct work requires some different material selections due to
changing process conditions. The absorber may be divided up into two sections: the inlet
ductwork and the main adsorption section. The material specifications for the inlet ductwork are
outlined in Appendix C.5.1. The main unit is constructed from carbon steel with a corrosion
resistant 100% Bisphenol-A-Epoxy lining. This choice was selected as the flue gas is not
considered to be highly corrosive and the operating temperature is moderate.
5.2. Vessels
Pressure vessels required in the carbon capture plant have been outlined in Table 20.
Table 20: Equipment Design Specifications for Vessels

Equipment Label A-201 A-202
Type Low Pressure Ammonia Vessel High Pressure Ammonia Vessel
Diameter (m) 5.5 (length) 2.46
Height (m) 1.83 4.88
Material of Construction Carbon Steel Carbon Steel
Orientation Horizontal Vertical
38
Figure 12: Design and Construction Details of Pressure Vessel (Perry & Green, 1997)
Pressure vessel design must conform to the specifications set out in Section VIII of the ASME
Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code. The code covers all aspects of the design and construction of a
pressure vessel including heat treatment, inspection, loadings, materials, design temperature,
design pressure, and relief devices (Perry & Green, 1997). These vessels are cylindrical shells
capped by two elliptical heads. Installation may be vertical or horizontal depending upon the
process requirements.
39
A low pressure horizontal pressure vessel (A-201) for containment of liquid and vapour
ammonia for refrigeration is required. A high pressure vertical pressure vessel stores regenerated
liquid ammonia is required. Corrosion charts suggest that carbon steel construction of vessels for
containment of anhydrous ammonia is suitable (Sinnott, 2006). Vertical and horizontal carbon
steel vessels with a pressure rating of 250 psig can be obtained from Hanson Tanks.
5.3. Adsorption Column
The adsorber design specifications are outlined in Table 21.
Table 21: Specifications for the Adsorbers

Equipment Label A-301
Type Packed Adsorbers for CO2 Removal
Diameter (m)/ Height (m) 4.0/ 5.0
Shell Thickness (mm) 15
Material of Construction Steel with a Thick Film Vinyl Ester Lining
Packing Zeolite 13X
Orientation Vertical
Figure 13: Adsorption Column (Perry & Green, 1997)
40
The adsorption units are packed bed columns. In the design of these units consideration has to be
given to adsorbent support and even flow distribution. Support is required for the adsorbent in
the column. There are two types of support systems including a series of grid layers with
successively smaller pore sizes further up the column and a graded system of support material.
The purpose of both is to prevent crushing of to the adsorbent at the base of the column. The
most cost effective means of achieving even flow distribution is through the addition of space
allowance above and below the bed. Another method is the installation of baffle plates with
geometrically arranged inlet and outlet nozzles (Perry & Green, 1997). These methods all ensure
even flow distribution and in turn efficient operation of the column.
The material selection was based on corrosion data and information available regarding other
adsorption systems. Similar adsorption systems that remove contaminants from water using a
carbon adsorbent have been constructed of steel with a corrosion resistant vinyl ester lining
(Calgon, 2005). The level of corrosion in the proposed carbon capture adsorbers is not expected
to be as severe as this example. There is expected to be some residual water in the column hence
the same materials were selected to ensure an equipment lifetime of 50 years.
5.4. Pneumatic Conveyers
The specifications for the pneumatic conveyers in the capture plant are outlined in Table 22.
Table 22: Specifications for the Pneumatic Conveyers

Equipment Label B-101 B-102
Type Lime Conveyer to Hopper Conveyer to Intermediate Storage
Operation Lean Phase Conveying Lean Phase Conveying
3
Air Flowrate (m /h) 256 12,000
Air Velocity (m/s) 9.1 17.1
Pipe Diameter (m) 0.1 0.5
Material Mild Steel Mild Steel
Power 3.78 kW 120.8 kW
41
Figure 14: Pressure-Type Pneumatic Conveyor (Perry & Green, 1997)
Pneumatic conveyers have been designed for movement of lime and lime product through the
process. There are five primary components for a pneumatic conveyor. First is the solids feeding
device such as a screw conveyor or a rotary valve. There is a transfer pipeline and a receiver.
Next is a solid-air separator such as an air filter or a cyclone separator. Finally is either a positive
displacement blower at the collection point or a vacuum pump at the receiver (Walas, 1990). A
schematic of a pressure type pneumatic conveyor is presented in Figure 14.
The material specification decision was based on selection of materials already in common use
for pneumatic conveyer transfer pipelines. Mild steel was therefore selected. Also it represented
an economic option (Burnett et al., 1995).
5.5. Compressor
The design specifications for the dehumidification system compressor are outlined in Table 23.
Table 23: Specifications of Compressor

Equipment Label C-201
Power 4.0 MW
Efficiency 80%
Type/Drive Screw Compressor
Casing Material Mild Carbon Steel
Impeller Material Mild Carbon Steel
42
Figure 15: Screw Type Rotary Compressor (Arnold & Stewart, 1999)
A compressor was required in the conventional ammonia refrigeration system. The two common
types of compressors are the rotary positive displacement and the screw type compressor, as
shown in Figure 15. In the screw type compressor gas or liquid trapped in the successively sealed
cavities are transported from the inlet to the outlet. Screw type rotary compressors are available
for capacities up to 4,000 kW (Arnold & Stewart, 1999).
The selection of a compressor was based primarily on the capacity of the available compressors.
Screw compressors were selected due to their higher capacity and refrigeration loading compared
to positive displacement compressors. Furthermore screw compressors also can have a higher
efficiency and lower maintenance cost (Arnold & Stewart, 1999). According to corrosion charts
for anhydrous ammonia, mild steel is a suitable material for the construction of the screw
compressor (Sinnott, 2006).
5.6. Fabric Filter
The design specifications for the fabric filter have been outlined in Table 24.
Table 24: Specifications for the Fabric Filter

D-101
Area of Fabric (m2) 1494
Materials of Construction of Housing Carbon Steel with Bis-A Epoxy Lining
Materials of Construction of Fabric Teflon or Ryton
Method of Cleaning Shaking/Reverse Airflow Cleaning
43
Figure 16: Fabric Filter (Cheremisinoff, 2000)
A fabric filter was designed to separate the flue gas from the absorber reaction products. A fabric
filter as shown in Figure 16 consists of a number of flat or round bags in a large rectangular
housing. Dust-laden gas flows through an inlet diffuser designed to ensure even dust distribution
across the bags. The larger particles fall into a hopper below and can be removed by a solid-
handling device. The smaller particles rise up and are collected on the inside of the bags while
the cleaned gas passes through the filter. The main advantage of fabric filters over other solid-air
separators such as electrostatic precipitators, cyclones or scrubbers is the ability to maintain a
high efficiency across a large turndown ratio (Cheremisinoff, 2000).
5.6.1. Housing Material
The choice of housing material had to give consideration to potentially corrosive conditions.
Acid droplets formed in the absorber may be entrained in the flue gas presenting a potential
source of corrosion for the housing of the filter. The same combination of materials that were
utilised in the absorber was specified for the construction of the filter.
5.6.2. Fabric Material
There exists a variety of choices for fabric material. The decision was based on effective
operation and resistance to process conditions. Flue gas enters the filter at a temperature of about
75°C which is well within the recommended operating temperature of most filter bag material.
44
Conditions inside the filter are moderately acidic. However the presence of calcium sulphate and
sulphite provides a source of strong alkalis. Therefore Teflon (PTFE) and Ryton (Polyphenylene
Sulphide) were selected based on good resistance to alkalis (Klingspor & Vernon, 1988).
5.6.3. Cleaning Method
Fabric filters may be classified according to the employed cleaning method or the method by
which solid material is removed from the fabric surface. Fabric filters may be classified as
shakers, reverse air or pulse jet. The pressure drop across the filter increases as the fabric
becomes blocked by solid material. In order to prevent the fabric from tearing the cleaning
operation is activated when the differential pressure reaches a preset level. Reverse air cleaning
was selected because fabrics of Teflon and Ryton are too fragile to be mechanically shaken and
application of pulse jet cleaning to fabrics such as Teflon and Ryton would dislodge the bulk of
the dust reducing collection efficiency after the cleaning process (Wang et al., 2004).
5.7. Heat Exchangers
The design specifications for the three heat exchangers are provided in Table 25.
Table 25: Design Summary Data for Heat Exchangers

Equipment Label E-201 E-202 E-203/204
Role Flue Gas Cooling Evaporator Condenser
Type Shell and Tube Shell and Tube Shell and Tube
Front End Head Type Removable Cover (A) Removable Cover (A) Removable Cover (A)
Shell Type One Pass Shell (E) One Pass Shell (E) One Pass Shell (E)
Rear End Head Type Floating Head (W) Floating Head (W) Fixed Tube Sheet (M)
Duty (MW) 20.3 38.6 24.2
Heat Transfer Efficiency 80% 80% 80%
Materials CS & Alloy Laminate CS & Alloy Laminate CS & Alloy Laminate
Figure 17: Fixed Tube-sheet Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger (Walas, 1990)
45
The Tubular Exchanger Manufacturers Association (TEMA) designates every shell and tube heat
exchanger configuration by a three letter code. These letters describe the front and rear end head
type and shell type. A heat exchanger‟s tubes may be fixed or floating. In the fixed tube sheet
configuration, the tubes are sealed between flat perforated metal plates. In a floating head
configuration, the tube sheet is fixed relative to shell at one end while the other end is allowed to
„float‟. Fins may be attached to the external surfaces of the bare tubes to increase heat transfer
surface area improving the efficiency and reducing the overall dimension of the heat exchanger
(Cheremisinoff, 2000).
All four heat exchangers have been designed to process the flue gas on the shell side of the
exchanger. However on the tube side different specifications were required based on the
individual conditions. The presence of sulphur dioxide and likely acid precipitation had to be
considered when selecting a construction material. Therefore, laminated carbon steel was
specified as it provides the necessary resistance to corrosion and is relatively inexpensive
compared to stainless steel or a special alloy (Saccenti & Vincenzo, 2004). The preliminary heat
exchanger and condensers have seawater flowing through the tube side of the unit. The presence
of high chloride concentration required specification of super ferritic stainless steel (SS44660 or
SS4473 due to its excellent corrosion resistance and is cheaper cost compared to austenitic
stainless steels (Janikowski & Blessman, n.d.). The evaporator has ammonia flowing through the
tube side. Aluminium was recommended for this application as it is resistant to anhydrous
ammonia. Aluminium is also relatively cheap, lightweight and has a good thermal conductivity
(Arora, 2000).
46
5.8. Fans and Blowers
Table 26 lists the specifications for fans and blowers.
Table 26: Specifications of Fans and Blowers

Equipment Label F-101 F-102
Application Flue Gas to Absorber Baghouse Exhaust Fan
Duty 7.5 MW 6.4 MW
Efficiency 65% 65%
Type Centrifugal Centrifugal
Impeller Type Backward Curved Aerofoil Backward Curved Impeller
Casing Materials Carbon Steel Carbon Steel with NICROFER
Impeller Materials Carbon Steel SS 316
Equipment Label F-301 F-302
Application Flue Gas to Adsorbers Induced Draught Fan to Stack
Duty 359 kW 4.15 MW
Efficiency 60% 75%
Type Forced Draught Centrifugal Induced Draught Centrifugal
Impeller Type Backward Curved Impeller Backward Curved Impeller
Casing Materials Carbon Steel Carbon Steel
Impeller Materials Carbon Steel Carbon Steel
Figure 18: Centrifugal Fan/Blower with a Backward Curved Impeller (Perry & Green, 1997)
Fans were designed for movement of flue gas through the plant. The type of fan selected is
crucial for efficient plant operation along with selection of the most appropriate fan blade. Fans
may be classified as either axial flow or centrifugal flow type. Centrifugal fans or blowers draw
gases in the direction of the impeller shaft and discharged them in the radial direction towards
47
the casing as shown in Figure 18. The centrifugal type was selected for F-101 and F-102 because
of the ability to handle large volumes of gas at low pressures. A forced draught centrifugal
blower was selected for F-301 as these blowers are able to overcome the pressure drop across the
adsorption columns (USACE, 2007). An induced draught centrifugal fan was selected for F-302
as they are regularly used for stacks (Navy, 2003). Backward curved impellers were selected for
all units as they have a higher efficiency that most other blade types.
The material of construction was selected based on the expected process conditions in each fan.
Carbon steel was selected as the material of construction for both the impeller and casing of F-
101 as corrosive conditions are not expected. Carbon steel was specified for F-301 and F-302
because the flue gas is low in water vapour and corrosive pollutants. Laminated carbon steel was
used for the casing of F-102 as corrosive conditions are expected. The same material could not
be applied to the impeller of F-102 because of the difficulties in applying the laminate material to
a curved surface therefore stainless steel SS 316 was specified (Saccenti & Vincenzo, 2004).
5.9. Hoppers and Tanks
Table 27 lists the specifications of hoppers and tanks.
Table 27: Specifications of Hoppers and Tanks

Equipment Label H-101 H-102 T-101 T-102
Application Lime Day Intermediate Reaction Water Lime Storage
Hopper Product Recycle Storage
Height (m) 3.96 3.96 5 12
Diameter (m) 2.74 2.74 10.8 4.1
Capacity (m3) 12.4 12.4 553 168 (243 tonnes)
Cone Height (m) - - - 2.9
Cone Angle (o) 45 45 - 58
Shell Thickness (mm) 5 5 27 5
Material of Galvanized Iron Galvanized Iron Carbon A36 Steel Plate
Construction Steel
48
Figure 19: Lime Storage Tank (Tylden, n.d.)
Figure 20: Water Storage Tank (Walas, 1990)
Both hoppers and storage tanks were used in this design depending on the particular
requirements. Hoppers are to be distinguished from storage tanks because they are used for the
temporary storage or transport of dry material as shown in Figure 19. Storage tanks are generally
49
cylindrical and used for the storage of solids or liquids as shown in Figure 20. These tanks are
subject to the standards and specifications set by the American Petroleum Institute and the
American Water Works Association (Perry & Green, 1997).
There are two hoppers in the process including the day lime hopper (H-101) and the intermediate
storage hopper (H-102). The conditions in each hopper are similar, therefore identical hoppers
were specified. These hoppers may be purchased from dry bulk material handling equipment as
galvanised iron construction.
Both water storage tanks and lime storage tanks are required for the carbon capture plant. The
water tank has a large capacity and therefore is wider and shorter. The lime tank has a much
smaller capacity and therefore is narrower and taller. Water storage tanks are most commonly
constructed from carbon steel and can be purchased from BH Tank. Lime storage tanks may be
purchased from Tylden Equipment constructed from Grade 250 plate which is equivalent to
ASTM standard A36 plate.
5.10. Centrifugal Pumps
The pumps required in the carbon capture plant are outlined in Table 28.
Table 28: Specifications for Centrifugal Pumps

Equipment Label P-101 P-201 P-202 P-203
Application Water Cooling Water Cooling Ammonia
Water Recirculation
Power 2.55 kW 4.1 MW 11.0 MW 1.322 kW
Efficiency 60% 80 % 80 % 85%
Type/Drive Centrifugal Centrifugal Centrifugal Centrifugal
Casing Material Carbon Super Ferritic Super Ferritic Carbon Steel
Steel SS S44660 / SS S44660/
S44735 S44735
Impeller Material SS 316 Super Ferritic Super Ferritic Carbon Steel
SS S44660 / SS S44660 /
S44735 S44735
50
Figure 21: Centrifugal Pump (Karassik et al., 2001)
Centrifugal pumps were a primary specification in this design due to their ability to cope at high
capacity along with their high efficiency. A centrifugal pump is composed of an impeller rotating
on a shaft and a casing. Power is supplied to the shaft which rotates the impeller within the
casing. The rotation produces a reduction in pressure at the point of entrance to the impeller
which forces the liquid into the blades. The liquid is discharged at a higher velocity with this
velocity being converted to pressure head by a volute (Karassik et al., 2001).
5.10.1. P-101 and P-203
Pump type and material selection was considered for the water pump and ammonia recirculation
pump. Centrifugal pumps were selected for the water pump (P-101) and the ammonia
recirculation pump (P-203) as it can operate at high flow with a good efficiency. The water pump
is not expected to encounter any significant impurities or corrosive substances therefore the
casing and impeller are specified as carbon steel and SS 316 construction respectively (Sundyne,
2005). The ammonia recirculation pump is specified as carbon steel construction. This is the
most suitable and economical material for a pump in contact with ammonia (Sinnott, 2006).
5.10.2. P-201 and P-202
The design and material of construction had to be considered for both the cooling water pumps.
The ability to operate at high flow coupled with good efficiency meant that centrifugal type
pumps were selected. The material of construction had to be resistant to contact with sea water.
51
Therefore super ferritic stainless steel was chosen as it provides excellent corrosion resistance
and is more cost effective than austenitic stainless steels (Janikowski & Blessman, n.d.).
5.11. Reciprocating Vacuum Pumps
Design specifications for reciprocating vacuum pumps have been outlined in Table 29.
Table 29: Specifications for Reciprocating Vacuum Pumps

Equipment Label P-301
Application Vacuum
Power 1.12 MW
Efficiency 60%
Type/Drive Reciprocating
Casing/ Impeller Material SS 304
Figure 22: Duplex Direct-Acting Reciprocating Pump (Karassik et al., 2001)
52
Vacuum pumps are a unique piece of equipment with some novel operating principles.
Reciprocating vacuum pumps consist of a piston, plunger or diaphragm for displacing solid.
There is a chamber containing the gas, a suction check valve allowing flow from a suction pipe.
Furthermore there is a discharge check valve allowing flow from the chamber to the discharge
pipe and a seal between the displacing solid and the chamber. The vacuum pump operates by the
movement of the displacing solid out of the chamber which creates a lower pressure causing gas
to flow into the chamber. On reversal a higher pressure is created in the chamber. Gas in the
chamber then flows into the discharge pipe (Karassik et al., 2001).
Two types of vacuum pumps were considered the steam ejector and the dry vacuum pumps. One
type of vacuum pump is the steam jet ejector which use steam in a process to produce a vacuum.
However this method was found to have large energy requirements for steam production so was
rejected. There are two primary types of dry vacuum pumps including the reciprocating pump
and the rotary oil-sealed type. Rotary pumps can achieve low vacuums of less than 1 kPa. In this
case the required operating vacuum was 10 kPa. Therefore a reciprocating pump was best suited.
The primary consideration for material selection for the vacuum pump was the ability to resist
corrosion. Corrosion resistance is required due to the presence of water in the adsorbers which is
drawn out through the vacuum pumps. Stainless steel 304 was selected over stainless steel 316
for the impeller and casing as it is the most economical choice (Rezitech, 2010).
5.12. Stack
The stack specifications are listed in Table 30.
Table 30: Specifications for the Stack

Equipment Label S-301
Type Flue Gas Dispersion
Diameter (m) & Height (m) 2/ 60
Material of Construction of Flue & Shell Nickel Alloyed Carbon Steel
53
Figure 23: Stack (Perry & Green, 1997)
A stack is designed to discharge effluent gas. Consideration has to be given to a stack design that
provides appropriate dispersion of pollutants. A stack is shaped to induce gas movement through
it. To ensure the gas velocity is sufficiently high, the induced draft caused by the stack‟s
geometry is supplemented by a fan (Perry & Green, 1997).
The design and materials for the stack were analysed. The stack is made up of a shell which is
the structural component and the flue which is designed to carry effluent gases. Under normal
operating conditions the gas is low in pollutants however during a process excursion or capture
plant shutdown flue gases are bypassed directly to the stack. However conditions are not
expected to be excessively corrosive under either circumstance therefore nickel alloyed carbon
steel was chosen as the material of construction over carbon steel because of the high
maintenance cost in repainting carbon steel and the occupational work hazards in doing so
(Hertlein, 2003).
54
5.13. Screw Conveyors
Screw conveyor specifications are provided in Table 31.
Table 31: Specifications for the Screw Conveyors

Equipment Label In H-101 In H-102
Application Lime Day Hopper Intermediate Reaction Product Recycle
Screw Diameter (mm 228.6 228.6
Screw Length (m) 2.743 2.743
Power (kW) 10 10
Material of Construction of Flue Cast Iron Cast Iron
Figure 24: Screw Conveyor and Several Designs of Screws (Walas, 1990)
Screw conveyers are designed for movement of small volumes of material from hoppers the
design and construction materials were considered. A screw conveyor consists of a screw
mounted on a shaft which rotates in housing. It may be adapted to a wide range of applications
simply by changing the type of screw. Several materials of construction are available including
carbon steel, carbon steel with special coatings, stainless steel 304 or 316. Conditions in the
conveyors will be similar to the hoppers they are attached to, therefore carbon steel was chosen.
55
6. Raw Material and Product Storage
This process required only a limited number of raw materials that required storage prior to use.
The three raw materials were lime for the flue gas desulphurization system, process water also
for the flue gas desulphurization system and ammonia for the industrial refrigeration system. The
raw material requirements and the storage specifications have been discussed. The product is
compressed carbon dioxide, which is envisaged to be transferred by pipeline directly to the
required point of usage.
6.1 Lime Storage
The lime storage tank was designed to hold a 14 day supply of lime for the FGD system. This
storage was deemed appropriate to ensure redundancy in the event that there was an interruption
in the supply of material. The lime is stored in a large silo. From the silo it is pneumatically
conveyed to an intermediate day hopper and from here it is supplied to the process. The capacity
of the silo and the storage quantity are outlined in Table 32.
Table 32: Lime Storage Silo Specifications

Storage Purpose Storage Volume (m3) Stored Quantity (tonnes) Days of Storage
Lime Storage Silo 168 243 14
6.2 Process Water Storage
Process water is used in the operation of the FGD system. This tank is not technically a storage
tank, but acts more as a break tank to allow control of the water supplied to the process. The tank
was designed for a capacity of 12 hours of water storage. The tank specifications are in Table 33.
Table 33: Process Water Storage Tank Specifications

Storage Purpose Storage Volume (m3) Storage Allowance
Water Storage Tank 553 12 hours
56
6.3 Ammonia Storage
The ammonia used in the refrigeration system is charged directly to the system. This mitigates
the need for other storage locations on site, reducing the possibility of ammonia leakages. The
ammonia in the refrigeration system however, must be safely stored in the event of system
shutdown. Therefore, two tanks, vertical and horizontal ammonia tanks are designed in the
system to break pressure and act as a point of storage for all ammonia in the cooling lines. The
tank specifications are outlined in Table 34.
Table 34: Specifications for Ammonia Holding Tanks

Storage Purpose Storage Volume (m3) Storage Purpose Storage Volume (m3)
Horizontal 14.5 Vertical Ammonia 23
Ammonia Tank Tank
57
7. Utilities and Engineering Services
7.1 Electricity
The plant consumes significant quantities of electricity in operation. The fans and pumps, in
particular the cooling water pumps are significant contributors to the power consumption. The
power usage is outlined in Table 35. The power will be produced by the adjoining power plant.
Table 35: Capture Plant Electricity Consumption

Electricity (MW)
Consumption 86
Produced 86
Total Plant Production 240
Percentage of Plant Production 36 %
Consumed
7.2 Process Water
Process water was used in the flue gas desulphurization system. The process water will be mains
water. However, it is believed that it will be possible to recycle flue gas condensate to use as
process water. However, in the event that the condensate was found not to meet relevant
standards, which will only be determinable after system operation and testing, mains water will
be required. The process water consumption is outlined in Table 36.
Table 36: Process Water Requirements

Consumption (kL/day)
Process Water 524
7.3 Sea Water for Cooling
Cooling water was required for the flue gas heat exchanger and the condenser. The chosen
cooling water was sea water. The very large cooling loads required meant that sea water was the
most appropriate option due to its abundance. The seawater quantities required are outlined in
Table 37.
58
Table 37: Seawater Cooling Requirements

E-201 E-203/204
Sea Water Cooling (L/s) 490 2917
7.4 Compressed Air
Compressed air is a vital service for operation of the plant. Compressed air is used for all
pneumatic control devices and pneumatic conveying equipment. The air requirements for valves
and control systems were beyond the scope of this preliminary design. However the compressed
air requirements for the pneumatic conveyers were determined and are outlined in Table 38.
Table 38: Compressed Air Requirements

Unit B-101 B-102
Air Requirements (kg/s) 0.085 4.0
59
8. Plant Layout and Site Development
8.1 Scope
The plant layout and site development outlines the appropriate standards that must be adhered to
in the design and construction of the proposed carbon capture and storage plant. The primary
objectives and rationale for the proposed plant layout have been outlined. The layout design is
determined based on appropriate access for design and construction along with access for
operation and maintenance throughout the lifetime of the plant.
8.2 Relevant Australian Standards
The relevant standards outlined here are applicable to plant layout and operability, including
standards relevant to operability using hazardous substances. This is not a comprehensive list,
however the primary relevant standards are outlined.
AS/NZ 2022 This standard provides guidance to the appropriate storage and
handling procedures when using anhydrous ammonia. This is
specifically relevant to this plant as plant layout to enable safe
ammonia storage must be considered.
AS 2219 This standard outlines requirements for the materials of

construction of the elastomeric hoses used for transport anhydrous
ammonia. This is relevant to our plant in terms of transfer of new
ammonia to the system or to the storage facilities.
AS 1201 Standards for the design and construction of pressure vessels.
AS 1359 Standards for rotating electrical machinery, this will encompass all
fans and pumps.
60
AS 1657 Standards for fixed platforms, walkways, stairs and ladders, this
applies to all of this auxiliary equipment in the plant.
8.3 Codes
Relevant codes that must be adhered to are outlined. The codes and policies provide broad
frameworks that the plant must adhere to.
Building Code of Australia (BCA):

Purpose of the Code: “The goals of the BCA are to enable the achievement and
maintenance of acceptable standards of structural sufficiency, safety (including safety
from fire), health and amenity for the benefit of the community now and in the future”
(BCA, 2004).
Key Issues: The primary provisions from this document are related to acceptable access
and egress.
Environment Protection (Noise) Policy 2007:

Purpose of the Code: The primary purpose is the outline of relevant noise emissions
limits in decibels. There are limits on noise emission for most situations that must be
adhered to so as to comply with this act.
Key Issues: The plant layout should give consideration to location of plant to suppress
noise emissions or the addition of devices to reduce noise emissions.
Occupational Health, Safety and Welfare Act and Regulations for South Australia
Purpose of the Code: Provides guidance and expectation for the provision of a safe and
accessible work environment.
Key Issues: Specific to plant layout including access and egress for staff and the
provision of a safe and accessible plant.
61
Environment Protection Policy (Air Quality) 1994, South Australia

Purpose of the Code: The aim of this policy is to manage appropriately emissions from
industrial locations.
Key Issues: The layout of the plant needs to be considered to ensure that there are no
areas of concentrated emissions that can adversely affect air quality.
Dangerous Substances Act and Regulations for South Australia 2002

Purpose of the Code: Outlines storage and handling requirements, along with fees,
regulations and compliance information for storage and handling of dangerous materials.
Key Issues: This is specific to the storage and handling of ammonia at the plant.
8.4 Design Method
8.4.1 Site Selection
The design was for a carbon capture plant to be retrofitted to a 240 MW power station. It was
decided to locate the plant on a 240 MW coal fired power plant located in Australia. The size of
the power plant that the carbon capture system would be fitted to is relatively small. This reflects
the unknown nature of elements of the capture technology proposed in this design. It was
determined that it would be most appropriate to design for retrofitting to the Playford B power
station at Port Augusta, South Australia. Furthermore, there exists the possibility that captured
carbon dioxide could be used for enhanced oil recovery at Moomba in the state‟s north.
8.4.2 Topography and Climate
The proposed site next to the Playford B power station is flat and unused at the moment, thus it is
suitable for development. Other general climate information includes:
Table 39: Site Topography and Climate

o
Mean temperature range ( C) 9.8 – 28.4
Dominant wind direction North and South
62
8.4.3 General Design Methodology
The first factor that was considered in the layout of the plant was the space available at the
Playford B plant for the retrofitting of the capture plant. A section of land was chosen for the
development as shown in Figure 25. The overall dimension of the space is about 60 m by 200 m.
The three dimensional plant designs are superimposed, to scale, on this site in Figure 26. This
site was chosen as it is close to the plant and represents the only piece of land sizable enough for
construction of the capture plant. It is not ideal that the flue gas be required to travel from the
plant through the capture process and be returned to the existing stack. However, such
compromises will have to be made when retrofitting any carbon capture system to a power plant
due to the limits on available space.
Figure 25: Proposed Position for Carbon Capture Plant
63
Figure 26: Layout of Adsorption Plant on the Proposed Site
Secondary consideration was given to a logical flow of material through the plant where
possible. Therefore the flue gas desulphurization system is on the left in Figure 26. From there
the flue gas then moves to the right through the conventional refrigeration units, and finally into
the adsorber trains. The processed flue gas is sent back to the existing stack.
64
When designing the complete design layout careful consideration had to be given to appropriate
access and through the plant. All operating units were designed with appropriate space to ensure
ease of movement of people and equipment through the plant. Furthermore the flue gas outlet
and return pipes from the power plant were designed to be underground due to safety
considerations. Putting these pipes underground retains two direct routes of access and egress
from the plant.
8.4.3 Plant Accessibility
Access and egress to the plant formed a major component of plant accessibility and was a major
factor in determining the final plant layout. Insofar as access and egress should be provided to all
areas of the plant including raised equipment, access platforms and stairways.
General requirements for access allowances that were considered when determining the plant
layout are outlined in Table 40. The general equipment clearances outlined in Table 40 are
consistent with those recommended by Mobley (2001). The data for walkways and platforms
were obtained from (AS 1657, 1992).
Table 40: Design Clearances for Plant Layout

Item Description Allowance
General Equipment Access 0.85 m
Personnel 1.0 m
Manual Truck 1.6 m
Horizontal clearance for a 12 T crane 3 – 3.6 m
Horizontal Clearance for Equipment 0.90 m
Maintenance using hand trucks, scissor lifts etc.
Walkways and Vertical clearance above ladders and platforms 2.0 m
Platforms Platform width 0.60 m
The height of guard rails on walkways and 0.90 m
platforms
Width of steps 0.60 m
Minimum vertical headroom 2.0 m
Clearance around ladders and vessels 0.20 m
Height of ladder above which ladder cages are 6.0 m
required
65
The standards outlined in Table 40 were used when designing the plant layout in Figure 27.
Consideration was given to:
 Spacing between trains of adsorption vessels was set at two metres to allow for access to
the adsorber vessels for loading adsorbent or maintenance.
 Sufficient space around the perimeter of the adsorption vessels to permit access by cranes
was designed for. As the width of the layout is not excessive, all areas should be
accessible from either side of the plant.
 Walkways and platforms for access to the hoppers, flue gas desulphurization and heat
exchanger equipment were designed to conform to relevant values from in Table 40.
 The location of the ammonia refrigeration system was chosen to allow free access to this
equipment in the event that a hazardous situation such as a leak arises. Tall structures
were not to be placed in the dominant wind directions (northwards and southwards) of the
refrigeration system to allow the ammonia to disperse more quickly in the event of loss of
containment.
66
Figure 27: Complete Carbon Capture Plant Layout
67
Figure 28: Site Elevation Diagram for Capture Plant
68
Figure 29: Overhead View of Capture Plant
69
Figure 30: Flue Gas Desulphurisation System Detailing Layout and Access
70
Figure 31: Overhead View of Desulphurisation System Equipment
71
Figure 32: Desulphurisation System Layout Detailing System Access

72
Figure 33: Overhead View of Dehumidification System
73
Figure 34: Side View of Dehumidification Equipment Layout
74
Figure 35: Layout of Dehumidification Equipment
75
Figure 36: Overhead View of Layout of Adsorber Trains
76
Figure 37: Side View of Adsorber Train Layout
77
Figure 38: Layout of Adsorbers
78
9. Plant Operability and Safety Assessment
9.1 HAZOP
9.1.1 Introduction
The HAZOP study was completed to determine potential hazard and operability issues
associated with the design and operation of a carbon capture plant. The design consists of a
flue gas desulphurization process, conventional ammonia refrigeration process the trains of
adsorption beds and finally the flue gas induced draught fan and stack.
The HAZOP analysis was conducted in three sessions totalling 20 hours on September 28th
and 29th and October 1st. The attendance consisted of the complete design group.
9.1.2 Scope of HAZOP
The HAZOP analysed all three main sections of the plant, including the flue gas
desulphurization operation, the refrigeration process and the adsorber sections. The analysis
included consideration of:
 Node 1: Including Streams 1 and 2 along with F-101.

 Node 2: From T-101 to A-101 including P-101, Streams 3 and 4.
 Node 3: From T-102 to A-101 including B-101 and H-101 with Streams 5,6,7
 Node 4: From A-101 to D-101 including stream 8
 Node 5: From D-101 to A-101 including B-102 and H-102 and waste stream to
landfill
 Node 6: From D-101 to V-301 including E-201, E-202 and F-201
 Node 7: Cooling Water Line through E-201 including P-201
 Node 8: Including streams 17, 18 and E-202 and A-201 and P-203
 Node 9: From A-201 to A-202 including C-201 and E-203
 Node 10: Streams 22 and 23 from A-202 to A-201 including V-201
 Node 11: From F-301 to A-301 and A-301 including streams 24-29 & 34,35,37
 Node 12: F-301 recycle
79
 Node 13: Lines 30-33 including P-301

 Node 14: From Steam 36 including V-308 and V-310
9.1.3 Process Description
The carbon capture plant is designed to be retrofitted to a 240 MW power plant. The flue gas
desulphurisation and refrigeration systems remove sulphur dioxide and water respectively.
The flue gas is pre-treated in order to prevent fouling and deactivation of the adsorbent. The
adsorber system, containing zeolite 13X adsorbent, is designed to remove the carbon dioxide
as the flue gas passes through the bed.
A flue gas desulphurisation system was designed to remove sulphur dioxide from the flue
gas. The flue gas desulphurization process is a dry process using lime and water sprayers.
The flue gas is passed through an absorber where it contacts the lime and water. This results
in a reaction between the sulphur dioxide from the flue gas and the lime. Up to 98% of the
reaction product (unreacted lime and reacted material) is recycled, to maximize reagent
usage. Up to two percent of the reactant product mixture is removed from the cycle and
replaced with new lime. Sulphur dioxide must be removed so that the capacity of the
adsorbent is not reduced. The necessary concentration of sulphur dioxide is below 10-20
ppm.
The conventional refrigeration process is designed dehumidify the flue gas by cooling it. The
flue gas must have low moisture content before it enters the adsorbers. Otherwise, water will
compete with carbon dioxide for binding sites. This competition will reduce the removal
efficiency of carbon dioxide. The dehumidification process consists of a heat exchanger to
cool the flue gas. After this heat exchanger the flue gas enters an ammonia evaporator where
it is further cooled to the final output temperature, removing water at the same time. The
remainder of the process is involved with compression, cooling and throttling of the ammonia
for use in the evaporator.
The adsorption system is designed to remove the carbon dioxide from the flue gas. The
adsorber system consists of trains of two bed adsorber units. These adsorbers are packed with
zeolite 13X adsorbent. The two bed system enables one bed to be adsorbing whilst the other
80
bed is desorbing. The system consists of blowers to push the flue gas through the adsorbers.
Vacuum pumps are used create the vacuum necessary in the desorption step. The recovered
carbon dioxide passes through the vacuum pumps after which it is collected.
9.1.4 Methodology
The HAZOP process was undertaken with all design group members present. All took an
active role in coordinating the process or recording the discussion and outcomes.
A complete process diagram of each section of the plant was used. The diagram was divided
into nodes. As a node was completed it was highlighted as a way of tracking progress.
The minutes were all recorded directly into the minute documents outlined in the HAZOP
Appendix F. All members of the HAZOP team reviewed this document.
9.1.5 Discussion and Recommendations from HAZOP
The initial HAZOP of the flue gas desulphurisation system and the refrigeration system
allowed analysis of operational issues. Furthermore it enabled implementation of effective
controls and procedures to optimize system behaviour. The HAZOP information allowed
completion of the P&ID‟s for these sections of the plant. These are discussed under plant
wide control, with appropriate explanations. The HAZOP on the adsorber process was
completed on the P&ID, as the control methodology for this system was distinctly different
from standard control procedures that were familiar to the HAZOP team. This system is also
discussed in plant wide control with sufficient explanation for understanding of the operation
of this system.
Node 1: Considering Streams 1 and 2 including F-101
 Addition of a flow metre to measure flow rate and allow control of other absorber
inputs accordingly.
 Addition of fan speed control to allow operation at turn down.
81
 Addition of electrically controlled three way valve to allow bypass of the flue gas in
the event of system failure.
 Relief valve on absorber.
 Liquid level alarm in the absorber.
 Addition of check valves after pumps and fans to prevent reverse flow.
 Temperature measurement of flue gas after the inlet fan to optimize the water input to
the absorber system.
 Inspection of absorber to ensure that fouling is not an issue.
Node 2: From T-101 to A-101 including P-101, Streams 3 and 4
 Addition of level alarms to tanks to prevent overfilling the tank or running it dry.
 Block valve for isolation of the pump.
 Addition of pump control architecture
 Filter in tank to prevent ingress of foreign material into the process.
 Regular inspections of water atomizers to pick up clogging of nozzles.
Node 3: From T-102 to A-101 including B-101 and H-101 with Streams 5,6,7
 Maintenance and inspection of the pneumatic conveyers to prevent line clogging.

 Level alarms on tank and hopper to prevent overfilling the system or running it dry.
 Quality control procedures to ensure supply of correct lime material.
 Procurement of water tight lime storage silo, to ensure that there is not ingress of
water into the lime material.
Node 4: From A-101 to D-101 including stream 8
 Addition of pressure panels to fabric filter for pressure relief in the event of over-
pressurization.
 Addition of differential pressure metre across fabric filters to allow shutdown of
system in the event of ineffective operation of the fabric filter.
82
Node 5: From D-101 to A-101 including B-102 and H-102 and waste stream to landfill
 Settling of solids in pneumatic conveyer pipe. Need to ensure that procedures are in
place to prevent this, if this happens however there needs to be provision for taking
the system offline and blowing the pipes down if necessary.
 Pressure relief on pneumatic conveyers.
 In event of ineffective FGD operation flue gas should be bypassed.
Node 6: From D-101 to V-301 including E-201, E-202 and F-201
 Pump control linked to outlet temperature indicators after the heat exchangers to keep
the outlet temperature near the desired set point.
 Addition of relief valves on the shell side of the heat exchangers.
Node 7: Cooling Water Line through E-201 including P-201
 Selection of appropriate materials to prevent corrosion in the presence of sea water.

 Screens and filters in cooling water line to prevent ingress of organic matter and
particulates that could contribute to fouling.
 Pigging of sea water pipes.
 Regular inspections of heat exchanger tubes and mechanical cleaning as required.
Node 8: Including streams 17, 18 and E-202 and A-201 and P-203
 Selection of design materials which are compatible with ammonia.

 Addition of level indicators and alarms in the horizontal ammonia vessel.
 Appropriate painting and insulation of the horizontal ammonia vessel.
 Addition of a pressure relief valve on the horizontal ammonia vessel.
 Ensure ammonia tank is designed with an oil separator and drain to remove any oil
that ingresses through pump seals.
 Replacement of ammonia when the refrigeration efficiency reduces.
83
Node 9: From A-201 to A-202 including C-201 and E-203
 High temperature readings from the temperature indicators after all the heat
exchangers lead to shutdown of system and bypass of flue gas to prevent high
moisture flue gas fouling the adsorbers.
 Addition of a non-return valve to prevent backflow into the compressor.
 High level alarm in vertical ammonia tank.
Node 10: Streams 22 and 23 from A-202 to A-201 including V-201
 Stationary ammonia concentration alarms in case of an ammonia leakage.
Node 11: From F-301 to A-301 and A-301 including streams 24-29 & 34,35,37
 Addition of relief valves to adsorbers.

 Addition of check valves after fans and pumps.
 Control system designed to adjust cycle times in the event of process excursions.
 Differential pressure meters across adsorbers.
 Add screens at the inlet and outlet of the adsorbers to prevent adsorbent attrition.
Node 12: F-301 recycle
 Regular inspection and maintenance of valves to ensure this line can operate
appropriately if required.
Node 13: Lines 30-33 including P-301
 In the event of any excessive cycle time from any two bed unit, the control system
will shut down that set and inspections to determine the problem can be undertaken.
 Carbon dioxide monitors in the event of high concentration ammonia leakage.
 Addition of check valves after pumps to prevent reverse flow.
84
 Addition of interstage cooling in the vacuum pump to prevent excessive outlet

temperatures.
Node 14: From Steam 36 including V-308 and V-310
 Excessive cycle times will lead to system shut down to allow the problem to be
investigated.
Issues Applicable to all Lines
 Regular maintenance and inspection of all units, valves, pumps, fans and pipelines to
prevent loss of containment due to corrosion failures.
 Appropriate personal safety equipment supplied in the event of loss of containment of
hazardous materials.
 Familiarity with material safety data sheets for the hazardous materials. Along with
familiarity with appropriate evacuation and safety procedures.
 Appropriate valve and measurement equipment to minimize pressure loss through the
system.
Other Important Items
 Safe procedures for ammonia charging are crucial. These procedures were outlined
and HAZOPed and any major issues were corrected, as outlined in Appendix D.
9.1.6 Conclusions
A successful HAZOP study was conducted on the complete carbon capture plant. The
HAZOP study found that a variety of equipment specifications needed to be modified.
Furthermore appropriate valve and control instrumentation were added to provide a safer
level of design. Appropriate inspection procedures and material selections were discussed.
Issues identified in the HAZOP were actioned by different members of the HAZOP team.
85
9.2 Piping and Instrumentation Diagrams
9.2.1 Piping and Instrumentation Diagram of Flue Gas Desulphurization Plant
Figure 39: Flue Gas Desulphurization P&ID (Refer to plant wide control (8.3) for P&ID outline)
86
9.2.2 Piping and Instrumentation Diagram for Dehumidification System
Figure 40: Conventional Refrigeration System P&ID (Refer to plant wide control (8.3) for complete outline)
87
9.2.3 Piping and Instrumentation Diagram for Adsorbers
To Stack
L-306
S-301
L-305 F-302
YIC YIC
V-307 V-309
S
SV-307 305 SV-309 306
S S
L-307 SV-308 L-308 SV-310
B-303 B-304
V-308 V-310
L-311
D-301 D-302
PIT PIC PIT PIC
302 303
309 310
V-311 V-312
YIC E-301
307
S S
SV-313 SV-314
AIT
304
V-315 V-316
S S
PDSH AC-301 SV-311 SV-312 AC-302 PDSH

306 307
V-313 V-314
PDIC
L-303 L-304 PDIC AIC
308
311 312
C-301
PDSL
From Evaporator 301 PDSH ASLH
L-301 F-301
E-202 305 308
V-301
L-312 V-304
V-302 To CO2
L-309 P-301 L-310
EOR/ECMBR
V-306 V-317
S B-301
SV-301
B-302
YIC S
SV-304
S
301 SV-302
A-301 YIC
S
SV-306
V-303
S
YIC
SV-303 303
302 YIC
V-305
S
A-302 SV-305 304
L-302
Figure 41: Adsorption System P&ID (Refer to plant wide control (8.3) for complete outline)
88
9.3 Plant Wide Control
Plant wide control gives consideration to the necessary control instrumentation and design
that will facilitate safe and efficient operation of the carbon capture plant. In this case piping
and instrumentation diagrams were completed for all three primary sections of the plant. A
complete outline of the instrumentation and the control architecture is provided in Appendix
sections F.3.1 through F.3.3. The complex nature of the adsorption process control is due to
the cyclic nature of the process and has merited a more comprehensive discussion.
9.3.1 Flue Gas Desulphurization and Refrigeration System P&ID’s
9.3.1.1 Check Valves
Check valves were installed after all rotating machinery. The check valves are added to
prevent reverse flow back into rotating machinery. Reverse flow can adversely affect
equipment operation. This check valve also prevents reverse flow of fluid back through the
rotating equipment in the event of an unexpected shutdown.
9.3.1.2 Pressure Relief Valves
The pressure relief valves can be seen on A-101, A-201 and A-202. The primary purpose of
these valves is to relieve pressure in the event that there is over pressurisation of the vessel.
This prevents complete failure of the vessel.
9.3.1.3 Block Valves
The block valves are designed to provide isolation in the event of deviations from desired
plant operation. These are electronic block valves connected to a programmable logic
controller. Each valve has indicators including ZSC, which indicates that the valve is closed,
ZZ which indicates the valve is in operation (either opening or closing) and ZSO which
indicates that the valve is open. For each of these instances the valve will show as a different
colour on the PLC. The only exception is the three-way bypass valve which has ZSO as open
to the normal position and ZSC which indicates that the valve is in bypass position.
89
The valve functionality is outlined by the symbols at the top of each P&ID. For the valves the
functionality includes the valve position, Auto/Open/Close. This allows an operator to
remotely control the valve from the PLC. If the valve is in automatic mode it will operate as
directed by the PLC. Or the operator can set the valve open or closed if maintenance or other
investigations are required.
The valves V-100 to V-102 are block valves designed to isolate the system and bypass the
flue gas in the event of excursions from desired plant operation. These valves will shut and
the flue gas bypassed in the event that the plant is driven to shutdown as a result of problems
in plant operation. In the dehumidification system the block valves are V-207, V-209, V-210
and V-213. These were strategically placed, so that in the event the plant was required to
enter a shutdown mode all the ammonia would be safely isolated in the ammonia storage
vessels.
9.3.1.4 Flow Meters
Flow meters are present on all the inlet lines to the flue gas desulphurisation process. These
flow metres allow the water and lime flows to be altered in the event of changes in inlet flue
gas flow rate. The control architecture consists of a flow element (FE) along with a flow
transmitter (FT), which transmits the readings, to the PLC. There is a flow alarm (FAL) that
will operate on the PLC in the event of low or high flow. Finally, the flow indicator (FQI)
gives a flow reading to the PLC, and keeps a count of the total flow that has passed through
that flow meter.
The major functionality is the flow alarm (FAL). This flow alarm indicates the presence of
low or high flow. In the event of an extended period of undesirable operation without
operator intervention this system would be appropriately interlock with the rest of the capture
plant control. The PLC would drive the plant to shutdown to prevent equipment damage.
9.3.1.5 Pumps and Compressor Control
All pumps in the system have a control setup on them that is connected to the PLC interface.
The system is set up with an indicator labelled NZ, which in this instance refers to normal
90
rotation speed of the pump. This feeds to one of two other indicators. One will indicate the
pump is running as normal (RG). The other readout indicates whether the pump is in fault
(Fu). The final interface shown on the pumps is when the operator wishes to instruct the
pump to run (R). In such an instance the operator will instruct the PLC to start the pump up
and the appropriate signal is sent to the pump for it to start-up. From there it provides
feedback, through the previously discussed interfaces as to its operating state. (The 4-20 mA
line indicates the amperage that the controller operates with).
The pump functionality is outlined by the symbols at the top of each piping and
instrumentation diagram. For pumps the functionality includes the pump discharge pressure.
This is measured and controlled to prevent damage to the pump. The other functionality is the
Auto/On/Off which allows an operator to remotely control the pump from the PLC if
required.
9.3.1.6 Level Control
All tanks and hoppers were instrumented with level control. This includes a level indicator
along with high-high and low-low level alarms. These alarms are designed to prevent the
tanks and hoppers being run dry or overflowing. In the event of continued high level alarm,
the system would be designed to shut down any valves or pneumatic conveyers feeding the
hopper or tank. In the event of a persistent low-low level alarm, the system would be shut
down and the flue gas bypassed to prevent damage to the system. The primary functionality is
level indicators (LI), high-high level alarms (LSHH) and low-low level alarms (LSLL). In
absorber, only a high level alarm was fitted to indicate the presence of liquid build up in the
absorber.
9.3.1.7 Differential Pressure Control
A differential pressure indicator was installed across the fabric filter. This allows the operator
to determine if there are operating issues with the fabric filter. Due to the sensitive nature of
the downstream system, a high differential pressure measurement would be designed to
actuate the three way bypass valve and bypass all flue gas. If this did not occur it is highly
likely that the downstream system would be irreversibly damaged.
91
9.3.1.8 Temperature Indicators
Temperature indicators are installed after the heat exchanger (A-201) and the evaporator (E-
202). These are designed to provide the operator with an indication of output temperature
from the system. These temperature indicators will be connected to the variable speed cooling
water pumps to modify the flowrate in an effort to keep the flue gas outlet temperature near
the desired set point. In the event of the flue gas exceeding a maximum temperature limit the
flue gas would be bypassed and the adsorbers isolated preventing moisture from damaging
the adsorbent.
92
9.3.1.9 Flue Gas and Refrigeration Valve Specifications
Figure 42: Flue Gas and Refrigeration Unit Valve Specifications

Valve Valve Type Valve Body Material Valve Seat Material Fail Position
V-100 Gate Valve Carbon Steel Fluoro-Elastomer Viton Fail Closed
V-101 Gate Valve Carbon Steel Fluoro-Elastomer Viton Fail to Bypass Position
V-102 Gate Valve Carbon Steel Fluoro-Elastomer Viton Fail Closed
V-103 Ball Valve Carbon Steel Ethylene Propylene Fail Closed
V-104 Lift Check Valve (Piston Type) Carbon Steel Fluoro-Elastomer Viton Fail Closed
V-105 Lift Check Valve (Piston Type) Carbon Steel Fluoro-Elastomer Viton Fail Closed
V-106 Lift Check Valve (Piston Type) Alloy 20 (Super SS) Ethylene Propylene Fail Open
V-109 Pressure Relief Valve Safety Relief Valve (SRV) Spring Loaded
V-110 Gate Valve Alloy 20 (Super SS) Ethylene Propylene Fail Open
V-202 Lift Check Valve (Piston Type) Super Ferritic SS (S44660) Ethylene Propylene Fail Open
V-204 Gate Valve Super Ferritic SS (S44660) Ethylene Propylene Fail Open
V-207 Lift Check Valve (Piston Type) Carbon Steel Chloroprene Neoprene Fail Closed
V-208 Gate Valve Carbon Steel Chloroprene Neoprene Fail Closed
V-213 Lift Check Valve (Piston Type) Carbon Steel Chloroprene Neoprene Fail Open
V-301-316 Butterfly Valves Carbon Steel Fluoro-Elastomer Viton Fail Open
V-317 Lift Check Valve (Piston Type) Carbon Steel Fluoro-Elastomer Viton Fail Open
93
9.3.2 Adsorption
9.3.2.1 Adsorption Process Outline
Flue gas from the power station has been treated to remove of sulphur dioxide and water. The
control system relates to the processing of the flue gas for the capture of a high purity carbon
dioxide. Another objective is to keep the flue gas flowrate about constant while controlling
the cycle times for the adsorption, purge, and pressure equalization and evacuation steps.
The VSA system consists of a 25 long parallel train of 2 beds each. The process comprises of
8 steps but only 4 are unique because half of the cycle is performed on the first bed and the
other half is repeated with the second bed. The cycle was adopted from (Todd et al., 2001)
and modified to suit the objectives of this project. The original cycle and modified cycle is
shown in Figure 43 and Figure 44 and the steps are as follows:
1. A pressurisation step first pressurises the adsorber back to the operating pressure.
2. An adsorption step during which flue gas is introduced into either bed that provides
selective adsorption of CO2 for the recovery of a high purity CO2 product.
3. A purge step during which the effluent gas (mainly N2 and O2) from the bed which
had undergone adsorption and therefore is saturated with CO2 is used to purge the
other bed. This step was modified to only have a fraction of the effluent gas used as
purge gas after the sensitivity analysis outlined in section 4.4. The inlet valve was also
left open to increase adsorber utilisation.
4. A pressure equalization (PE) step during which the pressure in the train of beds are
brought to a similar pressure level.
5. An evacuation step during which CO2 enriched gas is withdrawn from the train of
beds.
94
Figure 43: Eight Step VSA Cycle with Typical Cycle Times at an Experimental Scale (Todd
et al., 2001)
Figure 44: Modified Eight Step VSA Cycle Design for Carbon Capture Project
95
The vacuum swing adsorption system is controlled by sensing the concentration of carbon
dioxide in the flue gas as it passes through a train of beds during the adsorption step. When a
predetermined low level of carbon dioxide is detected the adsorption step is terminated.
During the purge step, the composition of purge gas is measured and when a predetermined
low level of carbon dioxide is detected the purge step is terminated. During the pressure
equalization step the differential pressure is measured. When a predetermined low differential
pressure is detected the pressure equalization step is terminated. During the evacuation step,
the level of pressure in the bed is measured. When the predetermined sub-atmospheric
pressure level is detected the evacuation is terminated and the sequence of steps repeated. A
detailed outline of the control architecture operation for each step is outlined in F.3.1 through
F.3.3.
The P&ID was prepared according to the ISA-5.1-1984 (R1992) standard, formerly
ANSI/ISA-5.1-1984 (R1992), for instrumentation symbols and identification. The items in
red were added after the HAZOP was completed. Items included differential pressure sensors,
a check valve and a carbon dioxide alarm.
9.3.2.2 Adsorption Control System Outline
Flue gas is supplied to the process through main flue gas feed valve V-301 along pipeline L-
301 to blower F-301 before being discharged into pipeline L-302. The flowrate of flue gas is
controlled by the opening and closing of valve V-301 by YIC 301. YIC 301 sends signals to
the valve through control valve interface (type A) A-301. The flue gas in pipeline L-302 is
delivered to the first adsorption column AC-301 along pipeline L-303 and to the second
adsorption column AC-302 along pipeline L-304.
During the adsorption step, a gas mixture of mainly N2 and O2 is discharged from columns
AC-301 and AC-302. It is fed through pipeline L-305 to induced-draught fan F-302 along
pipelines L-307 and L-308 respectively. The discharge from the fan is released to the
atmosphere through stack S-301 along pipeline L-306.
During the evacuation step, vacuum pump P-301 creates a vacuum in either the first or
second column. CO2 from the first column flows through pipeline L-303 or pipeline L-304 in
96
the case of the second column, then through a common pipeline L-309 to pump P-301.
Pipeline L-310 transports the CO2 to a location where it may be used for EOR or ECBMR.
During the purge step effluent gas from the column, which has been pressurized to slightly
above atmospheric pressure in the adsorption step, is used to purge the other column along
pipelines L-307 and L-308 and common effluent discharge pipeline L-311.
Flue gas through blower F-301 may at predetermined times be recycled through pipeline L-
312. When the purge and pressure equalization steps are performed, the main air feed valve
V-301 is shut and feed does not enter either column. Blower F-301 cannot be left to idle
without processing any flue gas therefore blower recycle valve V-302 controlled by YIC 302
through control valve interface (type A) A-302 is opened. Table 41 and Table 42 show a
cycle chart indicating the scheduling of the valves and of the beds respectively.
Table 41: Valve Positions for a VSA Cycle (O for open and C for close; highlighting used to
indicate change in valve position after completion of step)
First column Valves Second
A-301 column
A-302
Process steps 301 302 303 304 305 306 307 308 309 310 Process steps
Adsorption O C O C C O C C C C Evacuation
(feed)
Adsorption O C O C C O O C C C Evacuation
(feed +
effluent)
Provide purge O C O C C O O O C O Receive purge
Provide C O C C C C C O C O Receive
pressure pressure
equalisation equalisation
Evacuation O C C O O C C C C C Adsorption
(feed)
Evacuation O C C O O C C C O C Adsorption
(feed +
effluent)
Receive purge O C C O O C C O O O Provide purge
Receive C O C C C C C O C O Provide
pressure pressure
equalisation equalisation
97
Table 42: Cycle for a 2 Bed VSA Process

Step 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
AC- Feed Feed & Provide Provide Evacuate Receive Receive
301 Effluent purge PE purge PE
AC- Evacuate Receive Receive Feed Feed & Provide Provide
302 purge PE Effluent purge PE
98
9.4 Startup Procedures
9.4.1 Introduction
The startup and shutdown of a continuous processing plant be it for maintenance or in an

emergency are the most important periods during operation. The startup and shutdown
procedures of each section of the plant were considered. For the dehumidification system,
emphasis was placed on the heat exchangers because they are the most complex unit
operation in the system. For the adsorption system, detailed procedures are outlined in
Appendix F.3.3.
9.4.2 Flue Gas Desulphurization
Startup Shutdown
Supply flue gas Lower aqueous

and dry lime to 1 lime and increase 1
CFB absorber dry lime
Mixture of flue gas Wait for absorber Shutoff or bypass

and solids > 90C
No
to heat up 3 flue gas 2
Yes
Shutoff lime, water
Mixture of flue gas
and solids > 90C
No Lower Ca:S ratio 5 and all other 3
equipment
4
Yes
Add aqueous lime

and lower dry lime 6
Water flowrate is
adjusted so that
mixture of flue gas 7
and solids = 75C
Figure 45: Flow Chart for the Startup and Shutdown of the Adsorption System
99
The startup operation has been recorded to last between 4 and 6 hours. For sulphur dioxide to
be removed from the flue gas, the temperature of the flue gas and solids mixture must be no
more than 50°C above the dew point of water vapour (Unsupported source type (Patent)
for source Gra87.). Lime in the dry form is initially charged so that the flue gas does not
have to supply additional energy to heat up the reactant. A drop in temperature below the dew
point is then avoided and sulphur dioxide removal can continue. The mixture entering the
absorber is allowed to warm up to more than 90°C. As a last resort the calcium to sulphur
ratio (Ca:S) is lowered as this will deviate from the optimum value of 1.2 (Ollero et al.,
2001). While maintaining the same Ca:S ratio, lime in an aqueous phase (5 to 30 wt%) is
added in place of the dry lime. Water is injected into the absorber and the flowrate is adjusted
to control the temperature of the mixture leaving the absorber. A temperature of 75°C ensures
that an optimum adiabatic saturation temperature (AST) of 10°C is met (Ollero et al., 2001).
The shutdown procedure is straightforward and is shown in the flowchart above.
The reason for using lime in two phases is to avoid having to add a different reactant. If the
power plant changes from burning high-grade coal to low-grade coal, the sulphur dioxide
content of the flue gas will be significantly greater. In this instance a different reactant such
as sodium hydroxide or sodium carbonate is used in combination with the aqueous lime
which forms a water soluble sulphite slate with sulphur dioxide. This would have
environmental issues with regards to its disposal. Instead lime can be added in two phases,
the amounts of which can be changed accordingly
9.4.2 Dehumidication (Refrigeration System)
Appropriate procedures must be applied to the start-up and shut-down of heat exchangers.
Non-compliance can cause water hammer leading to leaks and damage to this and adjacent
equipment. Conditions causing water hammer include hydraulic and thermal shocks. When a
valve on a pipeline is suddenly opened or closed, a shockwave may form. The momentum of
the fluid carries it back and forth along the pipeline until the energy is dissipated. The
solution is to gradually open or close the valve or to install water hammer arrestors. In
thermal shocks, steam or ammonia bubbles may become trapped in pools of condensate in the
pipelines. Because the condensate temperature is below the saturation temperature, these
bubbles will collapse. The surrounding condensate rushes into this space creating a vacuum
100
and the sudden reduction in pressure is accompanied by a significant drop in temperature

(Branan, 2005). A solution is to install a condensate controller which automatically separates
off the condensate from the steam/gaseous ammonia and air that enters the controller inlet
(Figure 46). The latter two components are diverted to a purge line at a controlled rate so that
a predetermined pressure differential is maintained.
Figure 46: Condensate Controller (Arimes, 1994)
Table 43: Start-up and Shut-down Procedures for Heat Exchangers (Cheremisinoff, 2000)
Unit Fluid Location and Relative Temperature Start-up Shut-down
Operation Shell Side Tube Side Procedure Procedure
Fluid Temperature Fluid Temperature
Fixed Tubesheet
Condenser Gaseous Hot Seawater Cold 1) Start hot 3) Shut down
E-203 ammonia ammonia cold seawater
2) Slowly start gradually
cold 4) Shut down
seawater hot ammonia
Floating Head
Evaporator Flue gas Hot Liquid Cold 1) Start cold 3) Shut down
E-202 ammonia ammonia hot flue gas
2) Gradually 4) Shut down
start hot flue cold
gas ammonia
Flue gas Flue gas Hot Seawater Cold 1) Start cold 3) Shut down
cooling seawater hot flue gas
E-201 2) Gradually 4) Shut down
start hot flue cold seawater
gas
101
9.4.3 Adsorption System
The start-up procedures for the most complex area of the plant were considered, this was the
adsorption section.. Detailed startup procedures are outlined in F.3.3.
Startup Shutdown
Close valves
Fixed/automatic V-301, V-303 and
mode for PLC 1 V-305 and shutoff 1
blower F-301
Close
Set purge timer Either column
(wait) 2 2 > 101.3 kPa
No corresponding
valve V-304/V-306
Yes
Either column Open valves
3 > 95 kPa
No
V-303 and V-305 4
Yes
Shutoff pump
Wait for
5 P-301 4
pressurisation
Start pump P-301 Open valves

and fan F-301 and V-308 and V-310,
F-302 6 and close valves 5
V-307 and V-309
Initialisation of
switch interface 7 Wait for pressure 6
(type E) E-301 equalisation
Open valves
V-301, V-303 and
V-307, and close 8 Open valves
valve V-302 V-307 and V-309 7
(wait)
Close switch 3 of
interface E-301 9 Shutoff fan F-302 8
Close valves
V-301, V-303 and 10
V-307
Figure 47: Flow Chart for the Startup and Shutdown of the Adsorption System
102
10. Environmental Impact and Sustainability Assessment
10.1 Environmental Analysis Introduction
The proposed carbon capturing unit to be fitted to the Port Augusta coal fired power station
will prevent 1.02 million tonnes per year of carbon dioxide being emitted to the atmosphere.
Carbon dioxide emitted to the atmosphere from the combustion of fuels is known to
contribute to the enhanced greenhouse effect, also known as global warming. Technology
preventing carbon dioxide from being emitted to the atmosphere by the power generation
sector must be adopted globally in order to prevent the adverse impacts that global warming
is likely to have on the planet. A summary of the Environmental Impact and Sustainability
Assessment (EISA) is provided here, the complete EISA is available in Appendix G.
10.2 Raw Materials and Recycling
Raw material conservation and effective recycling increases the overall performance of the
project from the perspective of sustainability. The consumption of raw materials excluding
water is listed in Table 44. The list of recycled components is outlined in Table 45
Table 44: Raw Material Consumption

Raw Material (excluding Total Consumption of Raw Specific Consumption of
water) Material (tonnes/year) Raw Material (kg/kgproduct)
Lime Ca(OH2) 6250 0.184
Ammonia NH3 2.80 3.87
Zeolite 13X 334 0.0535
Table 45: Recycled Components

Recycled Materials Total Consumption of Recycled Specific Consumption of
Material (tonnes/year) Recycled Material (kg/kgproduct)
Calcium hydroxide 36080 0.00578
Ammonia 1076544 172
103
10.3 Water Consumption
Water consumption and recycle rates for both fresh and salt water are provided in Table 46.
Table 46: Water Summary

Mains Water Consumed (GL/year) 0.00221
Specific Consumption of Mains Water (L/kgproduct) 0.354
Rain Water Collected and Used (GL/year) 0
Specific Rain Water Consumption (L/kgproduct) 0
Wastewater Recycled (GL/year) 0.157
Wastewater Recycled (L/ kgproduct) 0.0251
10.4 Energy Requirements
The energy requirements of the proposed project are summarised in Table 47. The proposed
project is expected to require 36% of the total electricity produced by the existing power
plant.
Table 47: Energy Requirements

Total Consumption of each Fossil Fuel (GJ/year) 0
Specific Consumption of all Fossil Fuels (kJ/kgproduct) 0
Total Consumption of Purchased Electricity (MWh/year) 743040
Specific Consumption of Purchased Electricity (kWh/kgproduct) 119
10.5 Emissions to Air
Preliminary studies indicate that all emissions to atmosphere comply with the South
Australian Environmental Protection (Air Quality) Policy 1994. The environmental burden as
a result of emissions to atmosphere is listed in Table 48.
Table 48 Environmental Burden caused by Emissions to Atmosphere

Atmospheric Acidification Burden (tonne/year of SO2 equivalent) 7085
Global Warming Burden Emissions (tonne/year of CO2 equivalent) 1089168
Human Health Burden (tonne/year of benzene equivalent) 4.57
Ozone Depletion (tonne/year of CFC-11 equivalent) 0
Photochemical Ozone Burden (tonne/year of ethylene equivalent) 302
104
10.6 Emissions to Water
Preliminary studies indicate that discharges to the marine environment will comply with the
South Australian Environmental Protection (Water Quality) Policy 2003. The waste water
environmental burden is listed in Table 49.
Table 49: Environmental Burden caused by Wastewater Emissions

Aquatic Acidification Added (tonne/year of H+ ions equivalent) 0
Aquatic Oxygen Demand Added (tonne/year of O2 equivalent) 0
Eco-toxicity to Aquatic Life for Metals (tonne/year of Cu equivalent) 0.0111
Eutrophication added to Aquatic Systems (tonne/year of phosphate equivalent) 0
10.7 Emissions to Land
The waste materials from the proposed carbon capture process are provided in Table 50.
Table 50: Emissions to Land

Total Non-Hazardous Waste to Land (tonne/year) 334
Total Hazardous Solid Waste to Land (FGD waste) (tonne/year) 12243
10.8 Noise
Continuous noise should be less than 70dB (both at night and during the day) to comply with
the South Australian Environmental Protection (Noise) Policy 2007.
10.9 Socioeconomic Impact
The company operating the proposed site must continue to ensure that the concerns of the
local community and legal responsibilities are continually addressed in order for the project
to be accepted by the wider community. The project is likely to socially benefit the
community by increasing employment opportunity thereby creating wealth in the local
community.
The social impact on the wider community if the planned development is given approval is
likely to be higher energy costs for South Australians as the company seeks to reimburse
105
itself for the considerable outlay of capital required for the project. However, the project is
expected to be welcomed by the wider community as the general opinion amongst consumers
of energy is the need for the industry to pursue avenues which would minimise mankind‟s
effects on the planet. The project would likely serve as an example in the energy industry and
result in more similar projects being undertaken.
106
11. Economic Evaluation
11.1 Introduction
A preliminary estimate otherwise known as a budget authorisation estimate or feasibility

estimate was performed. It was based on sufficient data to permit the estimate to be budgeted.
Detailed layout drawings, P&IDs and PFD had already been constructed at this stage. A
preliminary estimate has a probable accuracy of ± 10 – 20 % (Peters & Timmerhaus, 2003).
Firstly, a summary of purchased equipment-delivered costs is shown in Table 53, Table 54
and Table 55 of which the calculations can be found in Appendix H.1. Secondly the total
capital investment was calculated from purchased equipment-delivered. Next, total product
cost was calculated. Finally, a number of profitability measures were calculated to analyse
the economic feasibility of the proposed project.
11.2 Methodology
The following procedure was used to calculate the total capital investment of the carbon
dioxide adsorption unit as well as the upstream flue gas desulphurisation and dehumidifier
units.
1. Find cost of equipment of the required capacity or specifications.
2. Scale up for capacity if necessary using the specified exponent (Appendix H.1)
according to:
n
Capacity of equipment A 11.1
Cost of equipment A Cost of equipment B
Capacity of equipment B
3. If the cost is from some time in the past, calculate the equivalent cost at the present
time using the appropriate cost index according to the equation below. Where possible
these cost estimates should be replaced by tender prices for construction and/or
vendor quotes for equipment.
107
Index value at present time 11.2

Present cost riginal cost
Index value at time original cost was obtained
4. As the cost estimates obtained were in USD, these were converted to AUD using the
historical exchange rate.
5. Estimate total capital investment by percentage of delivered equipment cost using

Table 51.
Table 51: Ratio Factors for Estimating Capital Investment Items based on Delivered-
Equipment Cost (Peters & Timmerhaus, 2003)
Scaling up for capacity using the method outlined in Step 2 generally was not used. This was
because the capacities encountered usually fell outside of the range which the exponents
could be applied. Cost estimates were instead extrapolated from the cost graphs themselves.
The most common cost indexes are the Marshall and Swift (formerly known Marshall and
Stevens) all-industry and process-industry equipment indexes. The Engineering News-Record
108
construction index, the Nelson-Farrar refinery construction index and the Chemical
Engineering plant cost index. The Marshall and Swift process-industry equipment index was
chosen. While the Chemical Engineering plant cost index is also recommended, most cost
estimates found were benchmarked to the Marshall and Swift index. The Engineering News-
Record construction index relative to time has increased much more rapidly than the
aforementioned indexes because it does not include a productivity factor. Similar behaviour
was seen for the Nelson-Farrar refinery construction index (Peters & Timmerhaus, 2003).
The most current Marshall and Swift index was for the 1st quarter of 2010. This is shown in
Table 52. A number of other cost indexes are also shown because a range of references were
consulted. These references either used a particular value of the Marshall and Swift index or a
particular year as the benchmark for their cost estimates. The average USD-AUD historical
exchange rate from 1 January 2010 to 31 March 2010 was 1 USD is equivalent to 1.106606
AUD (Anon., 2010).
Table 52: Marshall and Swift Installed Equipment Index (Anon, 2010)
Year Process industry
NA 238.8 (Popper, 1970)
NA 1000 (Perry & Green, 1997)
1959 234.9
1965 244.9
1967 262.9
1968 273.1
1990 (Jan) 924
1995 1027.5
2010 (1st quarter) 1448.3
Estimating by percentage of delivered equipment cost is commonly used for preliminary

estimates. This method has been reported as yielding definitive estimate-like accuracies
(Peters & Timmerhaus, 2003). The project processes mostly gas and liquids and the only
solids involved are in the removal of sulphur dioxide in the flue gas desulphurisation unit.
Therefore the plant is best classified as a fluid-processing plant.
109
Table 53: Summary of Capital Cost of Equipment

Equipment Identification Quantity Specifications Value Units Description Cost
No. (AUD)
CFB Absorber A-101 1 Diameter 5.292 m Carbon steel 257,785
Length of shell 26.46 m
Length of skirt 3.048 m
Pneumatic Conveyor B-101 1 Mass flowrate 676.1 kg/hr Automatic 33,702
Pneumatic Conveyor B-102 1 Mass flowrate 34,548 kg/hr Automatic 369,914
Fabric Filter D-101 1 Volumetric 981,787 m3/hr Average where one estimate 1,079,67
flowrate has an electric motor shaker 7
Flue Gas Fan F-101 2 Volumetric 1,160,37 m3/hr Centrifugal fan with 138,762
Induced Draught Fan F-302 flowrate 4 backward curved impellers
Baghouse Exhaust Fan F-102 1 Volumetric 990,104 m3/hr Centrifugal fan with 60,708
flowrate backward curved impellers
Lime Day Holding H-101 2 Volume 12.4 m3 - 1,320
Intermediate Storage Hoppers H-102
Water Pump P-101 1 Power 2.551 kW Centrifugal pump and iron 3,469
casing
Water Storage Tank T-101 1 Volume 553 m3 Carbon steel and vertical 107,383
orientation
Lime Storage Silo T-102 1 Volume 168 m3 - 13,204
Low Pressure Ammonia A-201 1 Height 5.5 m Carbon steel, 250 psi and 26,408
Receiver Tank Diameter 1.83 m horizontal orientation
High Pressure Ammonia Break A-202 1 Height 4.88 m Carbon steel, 250 psi and 49,883
Tank Diameter 2.46 m vertical orientation
Ammonia Compressor C-201 2 Volumetric flow 22,338 m3/hr Screw compressor 520,356
110
Table 54: Summary of Capital Cost of Equipment (continued)

No. (AUD)
Flue Gas Heat E-201 1 Pressure 0.1774 MPa(a) Finned tube, carbon steel housing 887,063
Exchanger Area 4,324 m2 and stainless steel 316 tubes, and
Tube length 7.5 m 1¼ in square pitch
Tube diameter 25.4 mm(nominal)
Heat exchanger E-202 1 Pressure 0.3559 MPa(a) Finned tube, carbon steel housing 733,702
(evaporator) Area 8,274 m2 and tubes, and 1¼ in square pitch
Tube length 10 m
Heat exchanger E-203/204 1 Pressure 1.17 MPa(a) Fixed tube-sheet, carbon steel 287,544
(condenser) Area 1,087 m2 housing, stainless steel 316 tubes
Tube length 6.1 m and 1 in square pitch
E-201 Cooling P-201 1 Power 4,063 kW Centrifugal pump and iron casing 69,381
Water Pump
E-203 Cooling P-202/203 1 Power 13,747 kW Centrifugal pump and iron casing 104,071
Water Pump
Ammonia P-204 2 Power 0.97 kW Centrifugal pump and iron casing 5,699
Recirculation
Pump
Adsorption AC-301 50 Diameter 4 m Carbon steel 1,756,795
Columns Length of shell 4 m
Length of skirt 0.8 m
Blower F-301 25 Volumetric flow 25,776 m3/hr Centrifugal blower 4,336,303
111
Table 55: Summary of Capital Cost of Equipment (continued)

No. (AUD)
3
Vacuum Pumps P-301 25 Volumetric 139,675 m /hr Reciprocating 151,770,594
flowrate pump and
stainless steel
304
Stack S-301 1 Height 60 m Carbon steel 57,047
Diameter 2 m
Screw Conveyors on H-101 and H-102 NA 2 Length 2.743 m - 15,610
Diameter 228.6 m
Air Compressor NA 1 Volumetric 1,420 m3/hr - 164,780
flowrate
Total 162.9M
112
11.3 Capital Cost Estimation
The percentages in Table 51 for a fluid processing plant were used to calculate the fixed and total
capital investment shown in Table 56 and
Table 57. Cost depends on plant location. Therefore adjustment of equipment cost through the
US-AUD historical exchange rate is not adequate. Australia has a location factor of 1.04 relative
to the US which has a factor of 1.0 (Perry & Green, 1997). The location factor was used because
the cost of equipment was denominated in USD.
The cost of purchased equipment-delivered was calculated to be $162.9 M and the total capital
investment was calculated to be $962.4 M. The largest cost contributors were the vacuum pumps
at $151.8 M. These were priced accurately taking into account that a reciprocating pump and
stainless steel 304 materials were required. Many of the unit operations could not be priced
accurately because of the inability to find cost graphs for the specialized materials and linings.
However this is justified by the preliminary estimate accuracy of ± 10 – 20 % and the cost of the
unit operations being a small contributor to purchase equipment-delivered.
Table 56: Fixed and Total Capital Investment of Fluid Processing Plant
Item % Value (AU $M)
Direct Costs
Purchased equipment-delivered (including fabricated equipment 100 162.9
and process machinery as well as pumps and compressors)
Purchased-equipment installation 47 76.5
Instrumentation and controls (installed) 18 29.3
Piping (installed) 66 107.5
Electrical (installed) 11 17.9
Buildings (including services) 18 29.3
113
Table 57: Fixed and Total Capital Investment of Fluid Processing Plant (continued)
Item % Value (AU $M)
Yard improvements 10 16.3
Service facilities (installed) 70 114.0
Land (if purchase is required) 6 9.8
Total direct plant cost 346 563.5
Indirect costs
Engineering and supervision 33 53.7
Construction expenses 41 66.8
Total indirect costs 74 120.5
Total direct and indirect plant costs 420 684.0
Contractor's fee (about 5% of direct and indirect plant costs) 21 34.2
Contingency (about 10% of direct and indirect plant costs) 42 68.4
Fixed capital investment (FCI) 483 786.6
Working capital (about 15% of total capital investment) 85 138.8
Total capital investment (TCI) 568 925.4
Location factor for Australia 1.04

FCI 502 818.0
TCI 591 962.4
114
11.4 Product Cost Estimation
A method similar to the percentage of purchased-equipment-delivered was used to estimate the

total product cost. The percentages indicated in Table 58 are an average of the ranges
encountered in typical chemical plants (Peters & Timmerhaus, 2003). As a preliminary estimate
this method is acceptable. However because of the wide variations in different types of plants,
more accurate data was used where possible. Cost was calculated on an annual basis where a
production year of 330 days a year was assumed. The average USD-AUD historical exchange
rate from 1 September 2010 to 1 October 2010 was 1 USD: 0.935905 AUD (Anon., 2010) which
was used to convert the vendor quotes.
Table 58: Estimation of Total Product Cost

Item % % of relevant cost item Value (AU $M)
Direct costs
Raw material - 0.5
Operating labor 15 total product cost 73.5
Direct supervisory 17.5 operating labor 12.9
and clerical labor
Utilities - 106.9
Maintain and repair 6 FCI 49.1
Operating supplies 15 maintenance and repairs 7.4
Laboratory charges 15 operating labor 11.0
Patents and royalties 3 total product cost 14.7
Total 275.9
Fixed charges
Depreciation - - 16.4
115
Table 59: Estimation of Total Product Cost (continued)

Item % % of relevant cost item Value (AU $M)
Local taxes 2.5 FCI 20.5
Insurance 0.7 FCI 5.7
Rent 10 Land 1.0
Total 43.6
Overhead, packing 60 operating labor, supervision, and maintenance 73.5
and storage
Total manufacturing 393.0
cost
General expenses
Administrative cost 15 operating labor, supervision, and maintenance 18.4
Distribution and 11 total product cost 53.9
selling costs
Research and 5 total product cost 24.5
development costs
Total 96.7
Total product cost 489.7
11.4.1 Raw Materials
The only two raw materials used are lime for the absorption of sulphur dioxide and Zeolite 13X
for the adsorption of carbon dioxide. Raw material costs are usually in the range of 10 to 50 % of
the total product cost but in this case are less than 1 %. This is a result of the project being a
treatment plant as compared to a production process. The cost of lime and Zeolite 13X were
calculated to be about $180,000 and $513,000 respectively as shown in Appendix F.2.1. The cost
of lime was based on a flowrate of 5,355 tonnes per year actually consumed as determined from
the overall mass balances. Because of the inability to determine the design lifetime of the
adsorbent, a 50 year lifetime equal to the project lifetime was assumed. The cost of Zeolite 13X
116
was based on the amount of adsorbent required to fill 50 columns to a height and diameter of
four metres.
Freight or transportation charges were included in the raw material cost. Lime is purchased in
polyethylene lined woven bags with a net weight of 25 kg requiring a minimum order of five
tonnes (Anon., 2010). The advantage of purchasing in relatively small shipments is that smaller
storage facilities and inventory are required. Zeolite 13X is purchased in drums with a minimum
order of two tonnes (Anon., 2010). Storage is not a concern as the required amount is purchased
and the columns are filled.
11.4.2 Utilities
Utilities consist of purchased electricity, seawater and ammonia. A breakdown of the costs is
shown in Table 60. Electricity was the largest cost contributor to utilities as it is used to power
conveyors, compressors, fans and pumps. Seawater was used for cooling. Ammonia was used for
refrigeration and the cost was calculated on the basis of energy removed. Process water is used to
humidify flue gas in the flue gas desulphurisation unit however water removed in the
dehumidification and adsorption units are recycled for this purpose. Process water does not have
to be purchased resulting in a savings of about $73,000 as outlined in Appendix H.2.2.
Table 60: Cost of Utilities

Unit cost (Jan 1990) Value Cost
6
(×10 ) (AU $M)
Purchased electricity 0.0825/kWh 681.3 97.5
Seawater for cooling 0.13/1,000gal 26.3 5.921
Ammonia for refrigeration to 34°F 2/ton.day or 288,000 Btu removed 0.9865 3.422
Total 106.9M
117
11.4.3 Depreciation
The depreciation of the plant over the 50 year design lifetime could have been calculated as the
sum of the depreciations of each individual unit operation in Table 53, Table 54 and Table 55.
However each piece of equipment would have a different salvage value and useful life. Because
of the complexity involved, depreciation was calculated for the plant as a whole. The straight
line method was used assuming zero salvage value.
11.4.4 Plant Construction
A vacuum swing adsorption system has yet to be built on such a large industrial scale hence the
construction time for a pressure swing adsorption system was used. A pressure swing adsorption
system for hydrogen recovery or air separation has a typical construction time of about 2 years
(Ho et al., 2008). Previous capital cost estimates for pressure swing adsorption systems in
Australia used 7% as the appropriate discount rate (Ho et al., 2008). Working capital after
adjustment of location factor was calculated to be $144.4M which must be available to pay
salaries, keep raw materials and products on hand, and handle other special items requiring a
direct cash outlay. Working capital is kept on hand continuously and drawn from or added to
throughout the project life. It is usually recovered at the end of the project life and its present
value was included in the NPV calculations.
11.5 Profitability
On the 20th of January 2010, Green Party leader Bob Brown proposed an immediate carbon tax
rate of twenty three dollars per tonne of carbon dioxide released to the atmosphere (Carbon
Positive, 2010). For a recovery of 90% of the carbon dioxide present in the flue gas, cost savings
from not paying the tax is a pseudo revenue stream. The company tax rate is 30% and the total
product cost was calculated to be $489.7. Then carbon tax savings and net loss after tax were
calculated as $22.72 M and $320.1 M respectively.
118
Cash flow each year is negative because the total product cost far exceeds the revenue stream.
This may be explained by the high purchased equipment cost of $162.9 M as well as the high
cost of utilities at $106.9 M.
The only meaningful measures of profitability are percentage profit, rate of return and net
present value. The breakeven carbon tax rate is the rate at which net present value is equal to 0.
Because of the negative annual cash flows, the payback period measure and the internal rate of
return will result in meaningless results.
Table 61: Profitability Measures

Items Value
Percentage profit -65.36 %
Rate of return -33.26 %
Net present value -$4.9B
Breakeven carbon tax rate $502 / tonne CO2
From the negative annual cash flows, percentage profit, rate of return and net present value it can
be concluded that the project is grossly unprofitable and therefore should not be undertaken. The
large magnitude of the net present value may be explained by the net loss (after tax) of $320.1M
for 50 years. In practice when such a large loss is made, the plant would be shut down to cut
losses. The longer the plant continues operation, the more negative net present value would be.
The breakeven carbon tax rate is more than 21 times the estimated rate of twenty three dollars
per tonne of carbon dioxide. This is also compared to a cost of forty dollars per tonne of carbon
dioxide realised in other processes already operating. This further supports the economic
unfeasibility of the project.
11.6 Economic Assumptions
119
Assumptions were made only when necessary and reasonable. These were made either to
simplify the calculations, when information was not available or when no other accurate method
of calculation was available. Assumptions included:
 Standard types and material specifications of process equipment such as tanks, hoppers
and fans were used where costing could not be found.
 Costs were brought forward to 2010 (1st quarter). Variation in price from one year to
another is sufficiently accounted for through the Marshall and Swift index.
 Company policies have a direct effect on costs but were ignored in these calculations.
 Demand for CO2 is sufficient to absorb all the recovered CO2 so that the plant can operate
under an operating time schedule which gives the maximum rate of production.
 Purchased equipment has a replacement life equal to the project life of 50 years giving
rise to conservative results.
 It was assumed that the discount rate of 7 % and carbon tax of $23/tn of CO2 remain
constant over the 50 year project life, the plant takes 2 years to construct and working
capital is recovered at the end of the project.
 Plant is subject to a South Australian company tax rate of 30%.
 The plant was funded entirely through shareholder capital therefore not incurring any
ongoing interest expenses.
 Straight line method and zero salvage value were used to calculate depreciation.
120
12. Conclusions and Recommendations
The proceeding conclusions and recommendations were drawn after completion of a preliminary
design for a carbon dioxide capture plant.
 A design of a carbon dioxide capture plant using vacuum swing adsorption was
successfully completed. The design was retrofitted to an existing 240 MW coal fired
power station and capable of processing 300 Nm3/s of flue gas, reducing the carbon
dioxide emissions of the power plant by 1.02 million tonnes per year (or 78 % of the
carbon dioxide produced).
 The Playford B coal fired power station at Port Augusta, South Australia was selected to
be retrofitted based on its marginal viability as a result of its poor current environmental
performance. This site also offered sufficient land (approximately 60 m x 200 m) for
installation of the carbon dioxide capture plant.
 Carbon dioxide was to be removed by vacuum swing adsorption due to a perceived lower
energy penalty.
 Zeolite 13X was chosen as a carbon dioxide selective adsorbent. Pre-treatment of the flue
gas by a flue gas desulphurisation system and dehumidification unit was required in order
to prevent a reduction in capacity and selectivity of the adsorbent.
 The flue gas desulphurisation system was selected to be a dry lime process, whilst the
dehumidification system was a conventional refrigeration process. These processes were
suitable for the design and constituted the most energy efficient options.
 A two-bed, eight step VSA process was proposed. 50 adsorbers were required, each
adsorber being 4 m in diameter and 4 m in height.
121
 Adsorber beds were optimised with consideration given to bed height, waste to feed ratio,
adsorption and desorption times, and purge time. The recovery and purity was improved
to 78 % and 49 % from 63 % and 48 %, respectively.
 Limited research data and simulation difficulties necessitate a pilot plant investigation to
validate the performance of the adsorbers under “real” flue gas conditions.
 The energy consumed by the capture process was 80 MW which constituted 33 % of the
total power output of the Playford B station, thereby reducing the efficiency of the power
station from 40 % to 27 %. The dehumidification system was the most energy intensive
process.
 The preliminary design conforms to all current South Australian Legislation regarding
emissions to land, air and water.
 A formal HAZOP was conducted on the preliminary design indentifying key areas for
control implementation and process modification ensuring safe plant operation.
 The vacuum swing adsorption process was deemed to be economically unviable. Based
on a design lifetime of 50 years with an assumed tax rate of 30 %, the net present value of
the process was found to be -$4.9 billion.
 For the plant to break even, a tax of $502 per tonne would have to be imposed on carbon
dioxide emissions, well above the recently proposed carbon tax of $23 per tonne in
Australia.
122

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CHEM ENG 4014 Plant Design Group 1/2010

3.13.5 Vessels ............................................................................................................... 27

5.13. Screw Conveyors ................................................................................................... 55

9.3.1 Flue Gas Desulphurization and Refrigeration System P&ID‟s ......................... 89

Figure 1: Process Block Diagram .............................................................................................. 8

Figure 31: Overhead View of Desulphurisation System Equipment ....................................... 71

Table 1: Process Flow Diagram Equipment Summary ............................................................ 13

Table 13: Pneumatic Conveyer Design Specifications ............................................................ 28

Table 45: Recycled Components ........................................................................................... 103

2. Review of Established Technology and Process Selection

2.2 Adsorbent Selection

2.3 Flue Gas Desulphurisation System

2.4 Dehumidification System

An absorption technique using a dehydrating solution involves the use of glycol. To

In absorption refrigeration, instead of mechanical compression, heat is used to regenerate the

Mainly for O2/N2

Vacuum Adsorbents Silica gel

CO2 separation Post-combustion High energy penalty

High energy penalty

Absorption Dry carbonate New Topic

MEA being the

3.2 Block Diagram

Solids to landfill Condensate

Figure 1: Process Block Diagram

3.3 Process Description

The desulphurisation process is followed by a flue gas dehumidification process. The

3.4 Process Design

3.4.1 Software Packages

3.4.3 Fluctuations in Flue Gas Properties

3.5 Post Combustion CO2 Capture Process Flow Diagram

T-102 c.w return., 30oC, 1750 m3/h

C-201/202 E-203/204 V-201

For CO2 EOR/ECMBR

Figure 2: Post Combustion Carbon Dioxide Capture System Flow Diagram

3.6 Unit Summary

Table 1: Process Flow Diagram Equipment Summary

Table 2: Adsorber System Valve Summary Information

3.7 Flue Gas Desulphurization Process Flow Diagram

102.9 kPa 101.4 kPa 117.4 kPa

Figure 3: Process Flow Diagram for Desulphurization System

3.8 Desulphurization Stream Summary Table

Table 3: Stream Summary Table for Desulphurization Process

Table 4: Stream Summary Table for Desulphurization (Continued)

3.9 Dehumidification Process Flow Diagram

c.w. Return, 30oC, 1750 m3/h 117.1 kPa

c.w., 20oC, 1750 m3/h Condensate, 38.9 m3/h

c.w., 20oC, 10500 m3/h

P-202/20311.0 M.W. mechanical shaft power

3.10 Dehumidification Stream Summary Tables

Table 5: Dehumidification Stream Summary Table

Table 6: Desulphurisation Stream Summary Table (Continued)

3.11 Adsorber Process Flow Diagram

AC-301 (A) AC-302 (B)

3.12 Adsorption Stream Summary Tables

Table 7: Adsorption Stream Summary Tables

Conditions for Step 3: Purging A/Receive Purge B

Conditions for Step 5: Depressurization in A/Pressurization in B

Conditions for Step 7: Receive Purging in A/Purging in B

3.13 Equipment Design Summary Tables

3.13.1 Heat Exchangers

Table 8: Design Summary Data for Heat Exchangers

3.13.2 Pumps and Compressors

Table 9: Equipment Design Specifications for Pumps