STUDY AND ANALYSIS OF DISK BRAKE SYSTEM

Abstract
The current tendencies in automotive industry need intensive investigation in problems of
interaction of active safety systems with brake system equipment. At the same time, the
opportunities to decrease the power take-off of single components, disc brake systems. Disc
brakes sometimes spelled as "disk" brakes, use a flat, disk-shaped metal rotor that spins with the
wheel. When the brakes are applied, a caliper squeezes the brake pads against the disc (just as
you would stop a spinning disc by squeezing it between your fingers), slowing the wheel.

The disc brake used in the automobile is divided into two parts: a rotating axis symmetrical disc,
and the stationary pads. The hydraulic brake is an arrangement of braking mechanism which uses
brake fluid, typically containing ethylene glycol, to transfer pressure from the controlling unit,
which is usually near the operator of the vehicle, to the actual brake mechanism, which is usually
at or near the wheel of the vehicle.

In this project a model of disk brake is generated using CATIA and geometric views are
created in drawing module. The analysis of the disk brake is done by using Ansys with three
different materials. Static analysis is done by applying loads and boundary conditions. The result
is compared and tabulated below and the stresses acting on the body are also shown.

INTRODUCTION

The frictional heat, which is generated on the interface of the disc and pads, can cause high
temperature during the braking process. Hence the automobiles generally use disc brakes on the
front wheels and drum brakes on the rear wheels. The disc brakes have good stopping
performance and are usually safer and more efficient than drum brakes.

The four-wheel disc brakes are more popular, swapping drums on all but the most basic
vehicles. Many two wheel automobiles design uses a drum brake for the rear wheel. Brake
technology began in the '60s as a serious attempt to provide adequate braking for performance
cars has ended in an industry where brakes range from supremely adequate to downright
phenomenal.

One of the first steps taken to improve braking came in the early '70s when manufacturers, on a
widespread scale, switched from drum to disc brakes. Since the majority of a vehicle's stopping
power is contained in the front wheels, only the front brakes were upgraded to disc during much
of this period. Since then, many manufacturers have adopted four-wheel disc brakes on their
high-end and performance models as well as their low-line economy cars.
HISTORY OF DISK BRAKE

Ever since the invention of the wheel, if there has been "go" there has been a need for
"wheel." As the level of technology of human transportation has increased, the mechanical
devices used to slow down and stop vehicles has also become more complex. In this report I will
discuss the history of vehicular braking technology and possible future developments.

Before there was a "horse-less carriage" wagons, and other animal drawn vehicles relied on the
animal power to both accelerate and decelerate the vehicle. Eventually there was the
development of supplemental braking systems consisting of a hand lever to push a wooden
friction pad directly against the metal tread of the wheels. In wet conditions these crude brakes
would lose any effectiveness.

The early years of automotive development were an interesting time for the designing engineers,
"a period of innovation when there was no established practice and virtually all ideas were new
ones and worth trying. Quite rapidly, however, the design of many components stabilized in
concept and so it was with brakes; the majority of vehicles soon adopted drum brakes, each
consisting of two shoes which could be expanded inside a drum."

In this chaotic era is the first record of the disk brake. Dr. F.W. Lanchester patented a design for
a disk brake in 1902 in England. It was incorporated into the Lanchester car produced between
1906 through 1914. These early disk brakes were not as effective at stopping as the
contemporary drum brakes of that time and were soon forgotten. Another important development
occurred in the 1920’s when drum brakes were used at all four wheels instead of a single brake
to halt only the back axle and wheels such as on the Ford model T. The disk brake was again
utilized during World War II in the landing gear of aircraft. The aircraft disk brake system was
adapted for use in automotive applications, first in racing in 1952, then in production
automobiles in 1956. United States auto manufacturers did not start to incorporate disk brakes in
lower priced non-high-performance cars until the late 1960’s.

HOW BRAKES WORK

We all know that pushing down on the brake pedal

slows a bike to a stop. But how does this happen?
How does your bike transmit the force from your
leg to its wheels? How does it multiply the force so
that it is enough to stop something as big as a bike?
MODEL OF DISK BREAK

BRAKE BASICS

When you depress your brake pedal, your bike transmits the force from your foot to its
brakes through a fluid. Since the actual brakes require a much greater force than you could apply
with your leg, your bike must also multiply the force of your foot. It does this in two ways:

 Mechanical advantage (leverage)

 Hydraulic force multiplication

The brakes transmit the force to the tires using friction, and the tires transmit that force to the
road using friction also. Before we begin our discussion on the components of the brake system,
let's cover these three principles:

 Leverage
 Hydraulics
 Friction
LEVERAGE

The pedal is designed in such a way that it can multiply the force from your leg several
times before any force is even transmitted to the brake fluid.

In the figure above, a force F is being applied to the left end of the lever. The left end of the lever
is twice as long (2X) as the right end (X). Therefore, on the right end of the lever a force of 2F is
available, but it acts through half of the distance (Y) that the left end moves (2Y). Changing the
relative lengths of the left and right ends of the lever changes the multipliers.

HYDRAULIC SYSTEMS
The basic idea behind any hydraulic system is very simple: Force applied at one point is
transmitted to another point using an incompressible fluid, almost always an oil of some sort.
Most brake systems also multiply the force in the process

FRICTION
Friction is a measure of how hard it is to slide one object over another. Take a look at the
figure below. Both of the blocks are made from the same material, but one is heavier. I think we
all know which one will be harder for the bulldozer to push.

Friction force versus weight

To understand why this is, let's take a close look at one of the blocks and the table:

Even though the blocks look smooth to the naked eye, they are actually quite rough at the
microscopic level. When you set the block down on the table, the little peaks and valleys get
squished together, and some of them may actually weld together. The weight of the heavier
block causes it to squish together more, so it is even harder to slide.

Different materials have different microscopic structures; for instance, it is harder to slide rubber
against rubber than it is to slide steel against steel.

The type of material determines the coefficient of friction, the ratio of the force required to slide
the block to the block's weight. If the coefficient were 1.0 in our example, then it would take 100
pounds of force to slide the 100-pound (45 kg) block, or 400 pounds (180 kg) of force to slide
the 400-pound block. If the coefficient were 0.1, then it would take 10 pounds of force to slide to
the 100-pound block or 40 pounds of force to slide the 400-pound block.

So the amount of force it takes to move a given block is proportional to that block's weight. The
more weight, the more force required. This concept applies for devices like brakes and clutches,
where a pad is pressed against a spinning disc. The more force that presses on the pad, the
greater the stopping force.

A SIMPLE BRAKE SYSTEM

The distance from the pedal to the pivot is four times the distance from the cylinder to the pivot,
so the force at the pedal will be increased by a factor of four before it is transmitted to the
cylinder.

The diameter of the brake cylinder is three times the diameter of the pedal cylinder. This further
multiplies the force by nine. All together this system increases the force of your foot by a factor
of 36. If you put 10 pounds of force on the pedal, 360 pounds (162 kg) will be generated at the
wheel squeezing the brake pads.
There are a couple of problems with this simple system. What if we have a leak? If it is a slow
leak, eventually there will not be enough fluid left to fill the brake cylinder, and the brakes will
not function. If it is a major leak, then the first time you apply the brakes all of the fluid will
squirt out the leak and you will have complete brake failure.

TYPES OF BRAKES

 DRUM BRAKES
 DISC BRAKES (CALLIPER BRAKES)

DRUM BRAKES:

The drum brake has two brake shoes and a piston. When you hit the brake pedal, the piston
pushes the brake shoes against the drum This is where it gets a little more complicated. as the
brake shoes contact the drum, there is a kind of wedging action, which has the effect of pressing
the shoes into the drum with more force. The extra braking force provided by the wedging action
allows drum brakes to use a smaller piston than disc brakes. But, because of the wedging action,
the shoes must be pulled away from the drum when the brakes are released. This is the reason for
some of the springs. Other springs help hold the brake shoes in place and return the adjuster arm
after it actuates.

DISK BRAKE BASICS:

The disk brake has a metal disk instead of a drum. It has a flat shoe, or pad, located
on each side of the disk. To slow or stop the bike, these two flat shoes are forced tightly against
the rotating disk, or rotor. Fluid pressure from the master cylinder forces the pistons to move in.
This action pushes the friction pads of the shoes tightly against the disk. The friction between the
shoes and the disk slows and stops the disk.

TYPES OF DISK BRAKES

There are three types of disk brakes:

 FLOATING CALIPER DISK BRAKES

 FIXED CALIPER DISK BRAKES
 SLIDING CALIPER DISK CALIPER

MAIN PARTS:
 The main components of a disc brake are:

BRAKE PAD

 The brake pads

 The caliper, which
contains a piston
 The rotor, which is
mounted to the hub

CALIPER AND ROTOR

WORKING OF DISC BRAKES

FLOATING-CALIPER DISK BRAKES

The caliper is the part that holds the brake shoes on each side of the disk. In the floating-caliper
brake, two steel guide pins are threaded into the steering-knuckle adapter. The caliper floats on
four rubber bushings which fit on the inner and outer ends of the two guide pins. The bushings
allow the caliper to swing in or out slightly when the brakes are applied

When the brakes are applied, the brake fluid flows to the cylinder in the caliper and
pushes the piston out. The piston then forces the shoe against the disk. At the same time, the
pressure in the cylinder causes the caliper to pivot inward. This movement brings the other shoe
into tight contact with the disk. As a result, the two shoes “pinch” the disk tightly to produce the
braking action

STAGES OF WORKING
FIXED-CALIPER DISK BRAKE

This brake usually has four pistons, two on each side of the disk. The reason for the name fixed-
caliper is that the caliper is bolted solidly to the steering knuckle. When the brakes are applied,
the caliper cannot move. The four pistons are forced out of their caliper bores to push the inner
and outer brake shoes in against the disk. Some brakes of this type have used only two pistons,
one on each side of the disk

SLIDING-CALIPER DISK BRAKE

The sliding-caliper disk brake is similar to the floating-caliper disk brake. The difference
is that sliding-caliper is suspended from rubber bushings on bolts. This permits the caliper to
slide on the bolts when the brakes are applied.

Proper function of the brake depends on (1) the rotor must be straight and smooth, (2) the
caliper mechanism must be properly aligned with the rotor, (3) the pads must be positioned
correctly, (4) there must be enough "pad" left, and (5) the lever mechanism must push the pads
tightly against the rotor, with "lever" to spare.

Most modern bikes have disc brakes on the front wheels, and some have disc brakes on all four
wheels. This is the part of the brake system that does the actual work of stopping the bike

The most common type of disc brake on modern bikes is the single-piston floating caliper. In this
article, we will learn all about this type of disc brake design

SELF ADJUSTMENT OF DISK BRAKES:

Disk brakes are self-adjusting. Each piston has a seal on it to prevent fluid leakage. When
the brakes are applied, the piston moves toward the disk. This distorts the piston seal. When the
brakes are released, the seal relaxes and returns to its original position. This pulls the piston away
from the disk. As the brake’s linings wear, the piston over travels and takes a new position in
relation to the seal. This action provides self-adjustment of disk brakes.

EMERGENCY BRAKES

In bikes with disc brakes on all four wheels, an emergency brake has to be actuated by a separate
mechanism than the primary brakes in case of a total primary brake failure. Most bikes use a
cable to actuate the emergency brake.

Some bikes with four-wheel disc brakes have a separate drum brake integrated into the hub of
the rear wheels. This drum brake is only for the emergency brake system, and it is actuated only
by the cable; it has no hydraulics.
BRAKES FADE

Vehicle braking system fade, or brake fade, is the reduction in stopping power that can occur
after repeated or sustained application of the brakes, especially in high load or high speed
conditions. Brake fade can be a factor in any vehicle that utilizes a friction braking system
including automobiles, trucks, motorcycles, airplanes, and even bicycles.

Brake fade is caused by a buildup of heat in the braking surfaces and the subsequent changes and
reactions in the brake system components and can be experienced with both drum brakes and
disc brakes. Loss of stopping power, or fade, can be caused by friction fade, mechanical fade, or
fluid fade. Brake fade can be significantly reduced by appropriate equipment and materials
design and selection, as well as good cooling.

Brake fade occurs most often during high performance driving or when going down a long, steep
hill. Owing to their configuration fade is more prevalent in drum brakes. Disc brakes are much
more resistant to brake fade and have come to be a standard feature in front brakes for most
vehicles.

BRAKE MODIFICATION TO REDUCE FADE

High performance brake components provide enhanced stopping power by improving friction
while reducing brake fade. Improved friction is provided by lining materials that have a higher
coefficient of friction than standard brake pads, while brake fade is reduced through the use of
more expensive binding resins with a higher melting point, along with slotted, drilled, or dimpled
discs/rotors that reduce the gaseous boundary layer, in addition to providing enhanced heat
dissipation. Heat buildup in brakes can be further addressed by body modifications that direct
cold air to the brakes.

The "gaseous boundary layer" is a hot rod mechanics explanation for failing self servo effect of
drum brakes because it felt like a brick under the brake pedal when it occurred. To counter this
effect, brake shoes were drilled and slotted to vent gas. In spite of that, drum brakes were
abandoned for their self-servo effect. Disks do not have that because application force is applied
at right angles to the resulting braking force. There is no interaction.
Drum brake fade can be reduced and overall performance enhanced somewhat by an old "hot
rodder" technique of drum drilling. A bikeefully chosen pattern of holes is drilled through the
drum working section; drum rotation centrifugally pumps a small amount air through the shoe to
drum gap, removing heat; fade caused by water-wet brakes is reduced since the water is
centrifugally driven out; and some brake-material dust exits the holes. There are performance
brake shops that will make the necessary modifications safely.

PROBLEMS IN DISK BRAKE

In the course of brake operation, frictional heat is dissipated mostly into pads and a disk, and an
occasional uneven temperature distribution on the components could induce severe thermo
elastic distortion of the disk. The thermal distortion of a

normally flat surface into a highly deformed state called thermoelastic transition. It sometimes
occurs in a sequence of stable continuously related states s

operating conditions change. At other times, however, the stable evolution behavior of the
sliding system crosses a threshold whereupon a sudden change of

contact conditions occurs as the result of instability. This invokes a feedback loop that comprises
the localized elevation of frictional heating, the resultant localized bulging, a localized pressure
increases as the result of bulging, and further elevation of frictional heating as the result of the
pressure increase. When this process leads to an accelerated change of contact pressure
distribution, the unexpected hot roughness of thermal distortion may grow unstably under some

conditions, resulting in local hot spots and leaving thermal cracks on the disk. This is known as
thermo elastic instability (TEI). The thermo elastic instability

phenomenon occurs more easily as the rotating speed of the disk increases. This region where the
contact load is concentrated reaches very high temperatures, which cause deterioration in braking
performance. Moreover, in the course of their presence on the disk, the passage of thermally
distorted hot spots moving under the brake pads causes low-frequency brake vibration.

DISK BRAKE VENTS

A moving bike has a certain amount of kinetic energy, and the brakes have to remove this energy
from the bike in order to stop it. How do the brakes do this? Each time you stop your bike, your
brakes convert the kinetic energy to heat generated by the friction between the pads and the disc.
Most bike disc brakes are vented.

Brake fade caused by overheating brake fluid (often called Pedal Fade) can also be reduced
through the use of thermal barriers that are placed between the brake pad and the brake caliper
piston, these reduce the transfer of heat from the pad to the caliper and in turn hydraulic brake
fluid. Some high-performance racing calipers already include such brake heat shields made from
titanium or ceramic materials. However, it is also possible to purchase aftermarket titanium
brake heat shields that will fit your existing brake system to provide protection from brake heat.
These inserts are precision cut to cover as much of the pad as possible. These Titanium Brake
shims are an easy to install, low cost solution that are popular with racers and track day
enthusiasts.

Another technique employed to prevent brake fade is the incorporation of fade stop brake
coolers. Like titanium heat shields the brake coolers are designed to slide between the brake pad
backing plate and the caliper piston. They are constructed from a high thermal conductivity, high
yield strength metal composite which conducts the heat from the interface to a heat sink which is
external to the caliper and in the airflow. They have been shown to decrease caliper piston
temperatures by over twenty percent and to also significantly decrease the time needed to cool
down. Unlike titanium heat shields, however, the brake coolers actually transfer the heat to the
surrounding environment and thus keep the pads cooler.

ADVANTAGES OF DISC BRAKES OVER DRUM BRAKES

As with almost any artifact of technology, drum brakes and disk brakes both have advantages
and disadvantages. Drum brakes still have the edge in cheaper cost and lower complexity. This is
why most bikes built today use disk brakes in front but drum brakes in the back wheels, four
wheel disks being an extra cost option or shouted as a high performance feature. Since the
weight shift of a decelerating bike puts most of the load on the front wheels, the usage of disk
brakes on only the front wheels is accepted manufacturing practice.

Drum brakes had another advantage compared to early disk brake systems. The geometry of the
brake shoes inside the drums can be designed for a mechanical self-boosting action. The rotation
of the brake drum will push a leading shoe brake pad into pressing harder against the drum. Early
disk brake systems required an outside mechanical brake booster such as a vacuum assist or
hydraulic pump to generate the pressure for primitive friction materials to apply the necessary
braking force.

All friction braking technology uses the process of converting the kinetic energy of a vehicle’s
forward motion into thermal energy: heat. The enemy of all braking systems is excessive heat.
Drums are inferior to disks in dissipating excessive heat:
"The common automotive drum brake consists essentially of two shoes which may be expanded
against the inner cylindrical surface of a drum.

The greater part of heat generated when a brake is applied has to pass through the drum to its
outer surface in order to be dissipated to atmosphere, and at the same time (the drum is) subject
to quite severe stresses due to the distortion induced by the opposed shoes acting inside the open
ended drum.

The conventional disk brake, on the other hand, consists essentially of a flat disk on either side of
which are friction pads; equal and opposite forces may be applied to these pads to press their
working surfaces into contact with the braking path of the disks. The heat produced by the
conversion of energy is dissipated directly from the surfaces at which it is generated and the
deflection of the braking path of the disk is very small so that the stressing of the material is not
so severe as with the drum."

The result of overheated brakes is brake fade...the same amount of force at the pedal no longer
provides the same amount of stopping power. The high heat decreases the relative coefficient of
friction between the friction material and the drum or disk. Drum brakes also suffer another
setback when overheating: The inside radii of the drum expands, the brake shoe outside radii no
longer matches, and the actual contact surface is decreased.

Another advantage of disk brakes over drum brakes is that of weight. There are two different
areas where minimizing weight is important. The first is unsprung weight. This is the total
amount of weight of all the moving components of a bike between the road and the suspension
mounting points on the bike’s frame.
Auto designs have gone to such lengths to reduce unsprung weight that some, such as the E-type
Jaguar, moved the rear brakes inboard, next to the differential, connected to the drive shafts
instead of on the rear wheel hubs. The second "weighty" factor is more of an issue on
motorcycles: gyroscopic weight. The heavier the wheel unit, the more gyroscopic resistance to
changing direction. Thus the bike’s steering would be higher effort with heavier drum brakes
than with lighter disks. Modern race bike disk brakes have hollow internal vents, cross drilling
and other weight saving and cooling features.

Most early brake drums and disks were made out of cast iron. Current OEM motorcycle disk
brakes are usually stainless steel for corrosion resistance, but after-market racing component
brake disks are still made from cast iron for the improved friction qualities. Other exotic
materials have been used in racing applications. Bikebon fiber composite disks gripped by
bikebon fiber pads were common in formula one motorcycles and bikes in the early 1990’s, but
were outlawed by the respective racing sanctioning organizations due to sometimes spectacular
failure. The bikebon/bikebon brakes also only worked properly at the very high temperatures of
racing conditions and would not get hot enough to work in street applications.

A recent Ducati concept show bike uses brake disks of selenium, developed by the Russian
aerospace industry(3), which claim to have the friction coefficient of cast iron with the light
weight of bike on fiber.

Another area of development of the disk brake is the architecture of the brake caliper. Early
designs had a rigidly mounted caliper gripping with opposed hydraulic pistons pushing the brake
pads against a disk mounted securely to the wheel hub. Later developments included a single
piston caliper floating on slider pins. This system had improved, more even pad wear. Most
modern automobiles and my 1982 Kawasaki motorcycle uses this type caliper. Current design
paradigm for motorcycle brakes have up to six pistons, opposed to grip both sides of a thin, large
radius disk that is "floating" on pins to provide a small amount of lateral movement; two disks
per front wheel.

Improvements in control have been made available with the application of Anti-Lock
Brake technology. Wheel sensors convey rotation speed of each wheel to a computer that senses
when any of them are locked up or in a skid, and modulates individual wheel brake hydraulic
pressure to avoid wheel skidding and loss of vehicular control.

The use of exotic materials for additional weight savings would be likely for the future of motor
vehicle braking. Disks mounted to the wheel’s rim gripped by an internally located caliper is not
necessarily a new design (Porsche, 1963) (4) but could be a futuristic looking option for
motorcycle wheels. Electric vehicles of the future will likely utilize regenerative braking, the
electric motors become generators to convert kinetic energy back to electricity to recharge the
batteries. As production vehicles become increasingly quicker, the need for "whoa" will always
accompany the "go."
Why are disk brakes more efficient

Flat brake disk (axial brake) under high pressure versus round brake drum (radial brake) during
braking

Full friction surface of the brake pad on the plane brake disk.

No loss of brake power due to overheating or partial contact from brake drum parts expansion.

Disk brakes can withstand higher loads and its efficiency is maintained considerably longer even
under the highest stresses

Higher residual brake force after repeating braking

Brake disks can withstand extremely high temperatures

Full contact of brake pads achieve maximum effect

No verification of brake pads. Dangerous fading or slipping is almost completely eliminated

Why do disk brakes have a better braking behavior?

 Driver friendly braking behavior. Sensitive braking in all situations and better
 Sensitive brake application and better brake feeling
 Uniform braking from small fluctuations in brake forces
 Retardation values retained even under heavy stresses
 Minimal "pulling to one side" due to uneven brake forces
 Disk brake axial arrangement permits a simple and compact design
 Linear characteristics lead to an even progression of brake force
 Basic design principle makes for higher efficiency
 Low hysteresis is particularly suitable to ABS control cycles

Why do disk brakes have higher safety reserves?

 Minimal braking effect from high temperatures and extreme driving requirements
Minimal heat fading
 No brake disk distortion from extreme heat due to internal ventilation with directional
stability and large power reserve under high stress
 The decisive safety aspects of the disk brake design are shorter braking distances
 High power and safety reserves for emergencies
 Constant braking power under high stresses
  Shortened braking distance under emergency braking with considerably improved
directional stability

LIMITATIONS

 Braking systems fails if there is leakage in the brake lines

 The brake shoes are liable to get ruined if the brake fluid leakes out

TESTING OF DISK BRAKES

The individual components are subjected to extensive test on the test bed. The optimum
arrangement of components on the axle beam, operational reliability and convincing
performance are requirements that must be met prior series production.

Today, all MAN city, inter-city buses and coaches utilize the MAN disk brake system on all
wheels with ABS. The disk brake system is used with and without retarders

Brake performance is tested on the test track and in racing to ensure their practice. Only after
these extensive tests can the disk brake be cleared for production .

The brake disks are subjected to the highest stresses from contact pressure. The broad brake
disks with radial cavities made of heat resistant special gray cast iron, are still operational in
temperatures in excess of 1380 degrees F

Introduction To CAD/CAM/CAE

The Modern world of design, development, manufacturing so on, in which we have

stepped can’t be imagined without interference of computer. The usage of computer is such that,
they have become an integral part of these fields. In the world market now the competition in not
only cost factor but also quality, consistency, availability, packing, stocking, delivery etc. So are
the requirements forcing industries to adopt modern technique rather than local forcing the
industries to adapt better techniques like CAD / CAM / CAE, etc.

The Possible basic way to industries is to have high quality products at low costs is by
using the computer Aided Engineering (CAE), Computer Aided Design (CAD) And Computer
Aided Manufacturing (CAM) set up. Further many tools is been introduced to simplify & serve
the requirement CATIA, PRO-E, UG are some among many.This penetration of technique
concern has helped the manufacturers to:

 Increase productivity
  Shortening the lead-time
 Minimizing the prototyping expenses
 Improving Quality
 Designing better products

CAD: Computer Aided Designing (Technology to create, Modify, Analyze or Optimize the
design using computer.

CAE: Computer Aided Engineering (Technology to analyze, Simulate or Study behaviour of the
cad model generated using computer.

CAM: Computer Aided Manufacturing (Technology to Plan, manage or control the operation in
manufacturing using computer.

Need for CAD, CAE & CAM :

The usage of CAD CAE & CAM have changed the over look of the industries and
developed healthy & standard competition , as could achieve target in lean time and ultimately
the product reaches market in estimated time with better quality and consistency . In general
view, it has lead to fast approach and creative thinking.

ADVANTAGES:

 Cut off of the designing time

 Cut off of the editing time
 Cut off of the manufacturing time
 High & controlled quality
 Reduction of process cost.
 Consistency
 Maintenance of Universal accessing data

DRAWBACKS:

 Requires skilled operators

 Initial setting & assumption consumes time
 Setting cost is more
 Over heads are high and
 Applicable if production is high
Introduction to CATIA

CATIA is a robust application that enables you to create rich and complex designs. The goals of
the CATIA course are to teach you how to build parts and assemblies in CATIA, and how to
make simple drawings of those parts and assemblies. This course focuses on the fundamental
skills and concepts that enable you to create a solid foundation for your designs

What is CATIA.

CATIA is mechanical design software. It is a feature-based, parametric solid modeling design

tool that takes advantage of the easy-to-learn Windows graphical user interface. You can create
fully associative 3-D solid models with or without constraints while utilizing automatic or user-
defined relations to capture design intent. To further clarify this definition, the italic terms above
will be further defined:

Feature-based

Like an assembly is made up of a number of individual parts, a CATIA document is made up of

individual elements. These elements are called features. When creating a document, you can add
features such as pads, pockets, holes, ribs, fillets, chamfers, and drafts. As the features are
created, they are applied directly to the work piece.

Features can be classified as sketched-based or dress-up:

Sketched-based features are based on a 2D sketch. Generally, the sketch is transformed into a 3D
solid by extruding, rotating, sweeping, or lofting.

Dress-up features are features that are created directly on the solid model. Fillets and chamfers
are examples of this type of feature.

Parametric

The dimensions and relations used to create a feature are stored in the model. This enables you to
capture design intent, and to easily make changes to the model through these parameters.

Driving dimensions are the dimensions used when creating a feature. They include the
dimensions associated with the sketch geometry, as well as those associated with the feature
itself. Consider, for example, a cylindrical pad. The diameter of the pad is controlled by the
diameter of the sketched circle, and the height of the pad is controlled by the depth to which the
circle is extruded.

Concentricity.

This type of information is typically communicated on drawings using feature control symbols.
By capturing this information in the sketch, CATIA enables you to fully capture your design
intent up front.

Solid Modeling:

A solid model is the most complete type of geometric model used in CAD systems. It contains
all the wireframe and surface geometry necessary to fully describe the edges and faces of the
model. In addition to geometric information, solid models also convey their topology‖, which
relates the geometry together. For example, topology might include identifying which faces
(surfaces) meet at which edges (curves). This intelligence makes adding features easier. For
example, if a model requires a fillet, you simply select an edge and specify a radius to create it.

Fully Associative:

A CATIA model is fully associative with the drawings and parts or assemblies that reference it.
Changes to the model are automatically reflected in the associated drawings, parts, and/or
assemblies. Likewise, changes in the context of the drawing or assembly are reflected back in the
model.

Constraints:

Geometric constraints (such as parallel, perpendicular, horizontal, vertical, concentric, and

coincident) establish relationships between features in your model by fixing their positions with
respect to one another. In addition, equations can be used to establish mathematical relationships
between parameters. By using constraints and equations, you can guarantee that design concepts
such as through holes and equal radii are captured and maintained.

Drawing steps in CATIA

Step one

Step two
Step three
Step four

Step five

Step six
Step seven

Step eight
Step nine

Step ten
Step eleven

Final model
Introduction to ANSYS

Introduction:

This Tutorial will use a readymade file to speed up the learning process for the student. This file
is provided in Parasolid format. The intention of this tutorial is to get the student to run a straight
forward simulation. By the end of this tutorial a check list for the required procedure can be
formulated by the student. ANSYS as a software is made to be user-friendly and simplified as
much as possible with lots of interface options to keep the user as much as possible from the
hectic side of programming and debugging process.

Why is it that such a simple model is used?

During this tutorial a simple geometry is used, the objective of that is that the student masters the
steps to get to run a simple simulation, once that’s done the student can model any kind of
geometry, he sees necessary for his studied case.

INTRODUCTION TO FEA
Finite Element Analysis (FEA) was first developed in 1943 by R. Courant, who utilized the Ritz
method of numerical analysis and minimization of variational calculus to obtain approximate
solutions to vibration systems. Shortly thereafter, a paper published in 1956 by M. J. Turner, R.
W. Clough, H. C. Martin, and L. J. Topp established a broader definition of numerical analysis.
The paper centered on the "stiffness and deflection of complex structures".

By the early 70's, FEA was limited to expensive mainframe computers generally owned by the
aeronautics, automotive, defense, and nuclear industries. Since the rapid decline in the cost of
computers and the phenomenal increase in computing power, FEA has been developed to an
incredible precision. Present day supercomputers are now able to produce accurate results for all
kinds of parameters.

FEA consists of a computer model of a material or design that is stressed and analyzed for
specific results. It is used in new product design, and existing product refinement. A company is
able to verify a proposed design will be able to perform to the client's specifications prior to
manufacturing or construction. Modifying an existing product or structure is utilized to qualify
the product or structure for a new service condition. In case of structural failure, FEA may be
used to help determine the design modifications to meet the new condition.

There are generally two types of analysis that are used in industry: 2-D modeling, and 3-D
modeling. While 2-D modeling conserves simplicity and allows the analysis to be run on a
relatively normal computer, it tends to yield less accurate results. 3-D modeling, however,
produces more accurate results while sacrificing the ability to run on all but the fastest computers
effectively. Within each of these modeling schemes, the programmer can insert numerous
algorithms (functions) which may make the system behave linearly or non-linearly. Linear
systems are far less complex and generally do not take into account plastic deformation. Non-
linear systems do account for plastic deformation, and many also are capable of testing a material
all the way to fracture.

FEA uses a complex system of points called nodes which make a grid called a mesh. This mesh
is programmed to contain the material and structural properties which define how the structure
will react to certain loading conditions. Nodes are assigned at a certain density throughout the
material depending on the anticipated stress levels of a particular area. Regions which will
receive large amounts of stress usually have a higher node density than those which experience
little or no stress. Points of interest may consist of: fracture point of previously tested material,
fillets, corners, complex detail, and high stress areas. The mesh acts like a spider web in that
from each node, there extends a mesh element to each of the adjacent nodes. This web of vectors
is what carries the material properties to the object, creating many elements.

A wide range of objective functions (variables within the system) are available for minimization
or maximization:

Mass, volume, temperature

Strain energy, stress strain

Force, displacement, velocity, acceleration

Synthetic (User defined)

There are multiple loading conditions which may be applied to a system. Some examples are
shown:

Point, pressure, thermal, gravity, and centrifugal static loads

Thermal loads from solution of heat transfer analysis

Enforced displacements

Heat flux and convection

Point, pressure and gravity dynamic loads

Each FEA program may come with an element library, or one is constructed over time. Some
sample elements are:

Rod elements

Beam elements

Plate/Shell/Composite elements

Shear panel

Solid elements

Spring elements

Mass elements

Rigid elements

Viscous damping elements

Many FEA programs also are equipped with the capability to use multiple materials within the
structure such as:

Isotropic, identical throughout

Orthotropic, identical at 90 degrees

General anisotropic, different throughout

6.1 Types of Engineering Analysis

Structural analysis consists of linear and non-linear models. Linear models use simple
parameters and assume that the material is not plastically deformed. Non-linear models consist of
stressing the material past its elastic capabilities. The stresses in the material then vary with the
amount of deformation as in.

Vibrational analysis is used to test a material against random vibrations, shock, and impact. Each
of these incidences may act on the natural vibrational frequency of the material which, in turn,
may cause resonance and subsequent failure.

Fatigue analysis helps designers to predict the life of a material or structure by showing the
effects of cyclic loading on the specimen. Such analysis can show the areas where crack
propagation is most likely to occur. Failure due to fatigue may also show the damage tolerance
of the material.

Heat Transfer analysis models the conductivity or thermal fluid dynamics of the material or
structure. This may consist of a steady-state or transient transfer. Steady-state transfer refers to
constant thermo properties in the material that yield linear heat diffusion.

Results of Finite Element Analysis

FEA has become a solution to the task of predicting failure due to unknown stresses by showing
problem areas in a material and allowing designers to see all of the theoretical stresses within.
This method of product design and testing is far superior to the manufacturing costs which would
accrue if each sample was actually built and tested. In practice, a finite element analysis usually
consists of three principal steps:

Preprocessing:

The user constructs a model of the part to be analyzed in which the geometry is divided into a
number of discrete sub regions, or elements," connected at discrete points called nodes." Certain
of these nodes will have fixed displacements, and others will have prescribed loads. These
models can be extremely time consuming to prepare, and commercial codes vie with one another
to have the most user-friendly graphical “preprocessor" to assist in this rather tedious chore.
Some of these preprocessors can overlay a mesh on a preexisting CAD file, so that finite element
analysis can be done conveniently as part of the computerized drafting-and-design process.

Analysis:

The dataset prepared by the preprocessor is used as input to the finite element

code itself, which constructs and solves a system of linear or nonlinear algebraic equations
Kijuj = fi

(where u and f are the displacements and externally applied forces at the nodal points)

The formation of the K matrix is dependent on the type of problem being attacked, and this
module will outline the approach for truss and linear elastic stress analyses. Commercial codes
may have very large element libraries, with elements appropriate to a wide range of problem
types. One of FEA's principal advantages is that many problem types can be addressed with the
same code, merely by specifying the appropriate element types from the library.