Tools for analysing

Unit 5.1 The analysing process

and hardware
In this unit you will:
• learn about t he difference between data and
information
• see how t he analysing process can transform
data into information
• discover the role of hardware in the analysing
process.

Data and information

DATA

Collecting Ana lysi ng

Transmitting Storing
Organising Receiving Retrieving

Processing
/' Displaying

DATA and INFORMATION

Figure 5.1 Analysing as
an inform atio n process

Information Processes and Technology Preliminary

 In this course the words data and information appear almost everywhere. People often
give different (and confusing) meanings to both words. Some will even insist that the
two words mean basically the same thing. Data, as you have discovered, come in sev­
eral different forms - text, numbers, images, audio and video. Information also comes
in several different forms - text, numbers, images, audio and video. These two lists are
the same because physically there is no difference between data and information. If
one person is given a list of numbers they may call it 'data'. Another person given the
same list may call it 'information'. The difference is in how the two people see the
numbers in the list.
The real difference between data and information is a personal one - it depends
on how you see the data that have been presented to you . You may see a list of
numbers as something that makes no sense and has no meaning to you. The person
next to you may recognise the numbers as the winning Lotto results, something that
may mean a great deal to them. If you present someone with a large table of numbers,
containing row after row of figures , it will probably have no meaning of purpose to
them. In other words, it is just data. Present them with the same data in the form of a
graph, with different coloured lines or bars and it may be more meaningful and useful
to them. It becomes information.
Analys ing adds meaning and purpose to raw data. Many of the activities carried
~ ,t'l e process out by information systems that we commonly describe as processing are in fact ana­
f'TTl S d ata into lysing. Processing data does not create information. Processing a list of numbers by
- - e original multiplying them by 2 , fo r example, will not make them any more useful. To change
3 tered
data (such as a list of numbers) into information, the data must be given meaning or
purpose. This is the rol e of the analysing process. Analysing, unlike processing, does
not alter the original data. The analysing process may be as simple as adding labels or
descriptions to the data. Table 5.1 shows an example.

Monthly climate in Parra matta, NSW

Temperature ( DC) Rainfall (mm)
24 90 January 24 90

22 97 February 22 97

20 99 March 20 99

18 94 April 18 94

15 81 May 15 81

13 86 June 13 86

12 80 July 12 80

14 56 August 14 56

16 51 September 16 51

18 63 October 18 63

20 63 November 20 63

22 70 December 22 70

Tot a l 930

Average 17.8 77.5

Maxi m u m 24 99

Minimum 12 51

Chapt er 5: Tools for analysing

The anal ysing process can
use labellin g, calculations
or graphical processes.
In table 5. 1 the columns on the left contain numerical data. There is no meaning
or clear purpose to the numbers. To most people, these numbers represent data,
raw facts without any meaning. The same numbers are shown in the columns on
the right with labels that describe them. These simple labels give the numbers
meaning. The right side of the table represents information, the result of a very
simple analysis of the data.
Analysing can involve more complex operations, such as calculations. Table 5.1 also
shows the results of calculations on the data. The new calculation results, which have
been labelled 'Average', 'Maximum', 'Minimum' and 'Total', give more meaning to the
data. These calculations add to the information provided in the table but do not alter
its data. In figure 5.2, graphical analysis has been used on the raw data shown in table
5.1 to produce information in a different way.

Monthly climate in Parra matta, NSW

30 120
,... 1== Temperature I
....~ 25
r; ~,-
...... ....
- - Rainfall 100 ,......
E
,....
-
r-'
IP 20 r- 80 E
L­
....I!I::s
r-
,...., r-,.,.......
c-- :-- 60
15
L­
IP
10 -
..... I"'" r-
40
...iiic
Q.
I!I
E
IP 5 20 a:
I­
0 0
~-\ ,,~ e)
)v p>v ~'O
,?,V ",,10
vi)'
Figure 5.2 Information displayed in graphical form

Data analysis is used for
decision-making .
Another way of analysing data is to find patterns or trends in the data. In figure - __
some patterns in the data have been made much more obvious by using the height
the column graphs. For example, the coldest months in Parramatta are not the wett
months.
One of the main reasons for analysing data is to help make decisions. If the da­
analysis reveals certain trends or patterns, then that information can assist
decision-making process. In planning the Sydney Olympics, for example, a detail
data analysis of Sydney's past weather patterns revealed that September-October h
the best weat her conditions for holding a range of different sporting events. The de i ~
of the Olympic Stadium was influenced b an analysis of the wind patterns experienc .
in Homebush during those months.

Describe : provide characteristics and features (Note: describe does not mean 'explain')
Describe the role of the analysing process in informat ion systems. The purpose of
analysing is to transform collected data into information by giving the data meaning or
purpose . The original data are not altered and the information produced can be used as p:=­
of a decision-making process.

Hardware for analysing

A larg e amount of storage
space is needed for the
analysmg process .
The analysing process usually needs to access all the collected data. It must also be
to store data created dming the analysis, such as image data (for example, graphs
numerical data from calculations. Chapter 6 gives a detailed description of the var
storage devices available for information systems. In this chapter we will only 1
storage in terms of how it is used during the analysing process.

Information Processes and Technology Preliminary

 Most information systems have two types of storage - p rimary sto r age and secon ­
dary storage. Primary storage, such as RAM (Random Access Memory) and ROM
(Read Only Memory), is built into the computer system, for example on the motherboard
J lJ ••••
of a PC. It is fast, easily accessible and always available for instant use. Primary storage
ary storag e means
j.Jard storage devices is used for the software running in the computer and where data must be stored when
__ : m o an information being directly accessed by the system. The most common form of primary storage, RAM,
_ ~E I. is designed for temporary use only. As soon as the power is turned off the contents of
ndary storage RAM are erased. Secondary storage is more permanent. It provides space for data and
-~~ -5 storage devices
software that are not immediately needed by the information system. Hard disk drives,
=-.. to an information
CD drives and floppy disk drives are common examples of secondary storage.
The analysing process needs large amounts of both primary and secondary storage.
The software that performs the analysis must be in RAM together vvith the data that
are being directly analysed. Any data and software not immediately needed are held in
secondary storage. Any new data produced by the analysis, such as a graph, will be cre­
ated in RAM before being copied to a secondary storage device.
Most analysing relies on the information system performing a number of complex
operations using large quantities of data. The time taken to perform these operations
will depend on the speed and data processing abilities of the central processing unit (or
CPU). The speed of the analysing process can be improved ifthe CPU:
• has a wider data bus. The 'bus' consists of the wires that anow data to enter and
leave the CP . The bus size controls the number of data bytes that can enter and
leave the CPU in a single tep. A CPU \.vith a data bus that is 64 bits wide can move
8 bytes of data in or out in one operation.
• has a faster clock speed. A CPU that operates \.vith a clock speed of 2 GHz
speed is the (2 billion clock pu lses every second) will obey twice as many instructions in a second
tim ing signals
i' as a CPU with a clock speed of 1 GHz.
-~ e fe ry second by
• has a higher FLOP rating. A 'FLOP' (FLoating-point Operation) indicates how
- '-"'-"''''ic clock on the
~ therboard or in
many fl oating-point numbers (numbers that are used to represent decimals and
ne signals are very large or very sm all values) can be added togeth er in a second . It is considered
t: ntrol the to be a more reliable indicator of CPU speed than the clock speed.
~-~.., of t he CPU.
• is working in pa ra l7el with other CPUs . If the information system contains multiple
CPUs then it may be possible to d ivide the analysing process between them so that
each CPU gets a shorter list of ta ks to perform. I n cases where this has been done,
the savings in time and money have been enormous.
12

( ) ':,
6 S Clock speed

Multiple CPUs Data bus width

7 9 5

3 2
4 o 6
+ 1
8 6
Floating point operations

Figure 5.3 Features of the CPU that affect the analysing process

Chapter 5: Tools for analysing

 REMEMBER
1 Write the defimtions of data and informauon.
2 What is the purpose of the analysing process?
3 Why are primary and secondary storage important for the analysing
process?
THI NK
4 Would every analysis of data produce information? Explain.
S Why would a processor's FLOP rating give a better indication of its
analysing abilities than its clock speed?
RESPOND using describe ( page 108)
6 Describe the role of the CPU In the analysing process.
I NVESTIGATE
7 Research and report on the characteristics of the different CPUs that are
in common use.

Unit 5 .2 Analysing software

In this unit you will:

• see how data can be searched and sorted as part of
the analysing process
• learn about modelling, simulations and charts as
analysing tools
• see how fi le comparisons can be used to analyse da ti.

Searchi ng for patterns

A common analysing task is to search data for particular values or patterns. You do
when you search a telephone book for a particular name. Word processors, text ed .
and web browsers have tools for searching text data. Spreadsheet applications
tool for searching numerical data. Database management software can search a
base for both text and numerical data. However, when it comes to searching im _
audio and video data, the task is not as simple.

Searching text data

A search key is the set of
text characters that the
analysing process
attempts to find in the
collected data,
When searching text data, an information system will compare the text data
the search key. The system will check the collected data, text character b.
character, in an attempt to find the requested search key. When searchin
there are two types of data matching that can be used - exact matching and
card matching.

Information Process~s a.nd Technology Preliminary

 In an exact match, all the characters in the search key must be described before
the search begins. When the search is running, the same sequence of characters in
the search key must be present in the text data before the search could be called
successful. In figure 5, 4 an exact match search is being used to locate the sequence
of text characters 'manage' in a set of collected text data. The exact match search
would locate five places in the data containing the search key 'manage'. In some
cases the search key has been found as a complete word in the text data, in others
it is part of a larger word.

Exact match search keyword : ''"!naqe

Office ment:
Th e cu rren t r, Mrs Hea ley, has recently returned from
a m ent confere nce wh ere sh e presented a paper on
how t o an office staffed by part-time workers. Her
experiences in t hi s new area of m ent skill s were we ll

Figure 5.4 Using an exact match text search

"'card matches use the In wildcard matching, not all the characters in the search key have to be
bois ' 7' and ,* , to described before the search begins. You can replace individual characters or whole
;:'esent oth er
groups of characters in the search key with special 'placeholders'. These place­
holders are often called wildcard characters and are usually the characters '?' and
'*'. The '?' character is used to represent any single character in a particular pos­
ition . For example, the search key 'h?t' can be used to search for 'hot', 'hit', 'hat'
and any three characters where the first character is '11' and the last is 't'o In this
case '?' represents any single character at the second character position. The three
characters can be a complete word like 'hat' or they can be part of a larger word
like 'that'. The '*' wildcard character is used to represent zero or more additional
characters in the search key. It actually means 'match the entered text characters
plus any following characters up to the first space, punctuation, or non-displayable
character'. Non-displayable characters include the 'end-of-line' and 'end-of­
document' markers. For example, figure S.5 shows a search using the search key
'manage*'. This search would find five places in the data which match the search
key. Included in the matches is the word 'manage' because the wildcard character
also means 'no e}..ira characters' as well as any number of extra characters.

Wildcard search keyword :

Office
Th e current , Mrs Healey, has recently returned from
a conference w here she presented a pa per on
how to an off ice st affed by part-time workers. Her
experiences in t hi s new area of skill s were well
Figure 5.5 Using a wildcard match text search

Simple searches can be joined together by logical op erators to make a more

- al operator allows complicated search. In most database software applications the words AND and OR
m ore searches to are the logical operators. Figure 5.6 shows a database search that uses the AND
rnb ined, Logical
"!':ors use t he words
and OR operators to combine searches. In genera~, the logical operator OR adds
and OR to join more data to a combined search result by including all the data items found in
es together, each of the separate searches. The logical operator Al'ill reduc~s the quantity of
data in a combined search result by including only those items that are present in
all of the separate searches.

Chapter 5: fools for analysing

:, !- .. .
 Original data Search request Search result
Surname Age
Aung 14 'Surname' BEGINS WITH'S'
Bates
Beattie
15
15 A ND
'Age' GREATER THAN ' 13'
~ IL_~~_:~~_h_________~_!~1
Das 13
Haidar 16
Hussain 13
Jobs 14 ' Surname' BEGINS WITH'S ' Aung 14
Kipel 15 OR Bates 15
Nightingale 13 Beattie 15
'Age' GREATER THAN '13'
Safi 15 Haidar 16
Singh 14 Jobs 14
Solomona 13 Klpel 15
Safi 15
Singh 14
Solomona 13

Figure 5.6 Combining searches using the AND and the OR logical operators

When searching numerical Searching numerical data

data the numerical value
of the search key is
compared with the
collected data .
Most numerical data are stored in binary form and cannot be searched character by
character like text data. This means that wildcard searches are not possible with
numerical d ata. I nstead, the system must compare the exact numerical value of the
search key with the exact numerical value of every data item.

Image, audio and video
data searches are usuall y
based on search ing their
fil names or file
descriptions.
Searching image, audio and video data
Because there is a huge variety of different data organising methods for image, audio
and video data, there is no single effective way of searching any of these data types. The
most commonly used methods involve searching through their filel1ames or their text
descriptions. Th e people who build multimedia file libraries would also have to create
the file descriptions manually or use intelligent automated search software for the task.

A NEE DLE I N A HAYSTACK

If you have ever tried to locate a particular image on the Web then you will
probably know what a frustrating experience it can be. Most search engines
are designed to work with the tex t found in web pages, not the graphics. The
main disadvantage of searching for images is that you have to rely entirely
on how a person or a software application has described them. People­
supplied descriptions are the most accurate but are limited by the range of
keywords and categories they use. Nearly all web search engines use
automated software agents to locate and index new web pages. When they
find an image, they will attempt to classify it from information on the page,
the name of the image file, or where it is stored on the web server. For
example, you may be interested in locating images of cirrus clouds - the
thin wispy clouds found at high altitudes. When searching for the word
'cirrus ' using five image search engines, the results were :
• AltaVista at www.altavista.com (select the Images link first) - returned
719 hits, each with an image thumbnail (a small, low resolution copy of
the image). Only 83 were of cirrus clouds but many of these were identical
copies of the same image found on different web sites. Products (such as
cars and sailboats), pets and even people named 'cirrus' were also present
in the results. All the selected images contained the word 'cirrus ' in their
filename (e .g. 'cirrus01.gif') . AltaVista performs a search that only looks at
the filenames of the images it finds.

Information Processes and Technology Preliminary

 • Amazing Picture Machine at www.ncrtec.org/ picture.htm - returned only 2
hits, both were of cirrus clouds. No th umbnails were shown but the
information about each image described the type of image (GIF or JPEG),
its size in pixels and kilobytes and whether it was colour or black and
white. This search engine uses human librarians to find, classify and
describe the images so the hits will be more reliable, but there will be
fewer of them.
• HotBot at www.hotbot.com (tick the Image check box before clicking
Search) - returned 121 4 00 hits. No thumbnails were shown and the
descriptions supplied were summaries or the first few lines of text from
web pages that contained the images. Of the first 100 hits examined, only
9 dealt with cirrus clouds. HotBot looks for web pages that have the search
words in their title, descrip tion or tex t AND have an image (any image) on
the page . It does not check to see if the image relates to the search
words, so it could be an image of anything.
• Yahoo Picture Gallery - returned 16 hits, all were shown as thumbnails
and all contained cirrus clouds. Yahoo uses automated search agents to
search for and catalogue images on the Web, but people are used to check
the collected data and to resolve any problems. In addition, web page
designers can submit descriptions of their images to the search engine.
When selecting an image search engine to use, those with people-supplied
descriptions will usually give more reliable results. Those that provide
thumbnails are more useful because you do not have to download every
image to check if it is suitable.

Search results will vary depending on when the search is conducted. The
databases of most engines are constantly updated and impro ved, so past
performances are not alwa ys a good guide. Use the search engines listed
above, and other specialised engines that you may know of, to search for
particular images, video or audio files . Analyse (see the check box on page
114 for an example) the performances of your selected engines for the
different types of data in your searches.

Sorting data
A simple sorting operation can be a useful first step in transfor m ing collected data
rting pu t s data into a into information. Unlike a manual information system, the data stored in a computer­
' - order. based information system do not have to be set in a permanent order. Think of the
problems you would have using a telephone book if the names were not in alphabetical
order. However, the speed of m odern computer systems usually makes sorting a large
- text data can
~1'1 g quantity of data a relatively quick and simple task. The result of a sorting operation will
se unexpected resu lts. depend on the type of data being sorted. Text data, for example, will be sorted differ­
ently to numerical data. Table 5.2 gives a summary of the effect sorting has on text and
numerical data types.
As shown in table 5.2, the sort operation that usually causes the most problems and
confusion is sorting text data. Text characters are usually sorted character by character
according to th e ASCII value of each character. The first characters are compared, and
only if they are th e same will the second characters be compared, and so on until a dif­
ference is fo und. All upper case letters, which have lower ASCII val ues, will be placed
ahead of the lower case letters in an ascending (A to Z) sort. So 'XYZ' will come before
'abc' because X' has a lower ASCII value than 'a'. When alphabetical symbols are being
sorted, the differences between upper and lower case letters should be ignored to

Chapter 5: Tools for analysing

 prevent this problem and ensure that 'abc' will always be placed ahead of 'XYZ'. In text
data, numbers are treated like letters of the alphabet. They \I·rill be sorted into an order
according to the ASCII alue of each character. This can lead to numbers and dates
stored as text being placed into the wrong numerical or calendar order. For example,
the text characters ' 100' will be placed ahead of the text character '2' because '1' (the
first character of '100') has a lower ASCII value than '2 '.

Text A to Z: using the ASCII value of each individual character Z to A: using the ASCII
starting with the first character. ihis will result in some value of each individual
unexpected sort orders. For example, 'z' will be placed before 'a'. character starting with
Numbers are treated as text characters so '100' will be placed the first character.
before '2' and the date '14/10/2002' will be placed before
'2/5/1999'.

Numerical o to 9: using the numerical value of the entire data item, not its 9 to 0: using the
individual characters, 2 will be placed before 100, 0.9 will be numerical value of the
placed before 1.0 . entire data item.

The sorting of ima e, audio and video data is usually based on sorting th rr
filenam es, their text descriptions, or even their file sizes (for' example, the larg _.
images to the smallest) .

Demonstrate: show by exampl e

Demonstrate the effect of sorting text dat a representing dat es in the different
international shorthand formats . The three date formats shown in table 4.7 on page 10'"
place the numbers representing the day, month and year in different positions. If we take tr"
same list of dates organised in each of the three formats and sort them according to the rul t:
for sorting text data, then the res u lts will be those shown in table 5.3. The dates are USing
two-digit formats to make the sorting process more practical.

Unsorted and sorted dates in three international formats

12/05/98 98/05/12 05/12/98 01/12/02 01/01/31 01/31/01

07/03/86 86/03/07 03/07/86 07/03/02 01/10/26 03/07/02
11/03/02 02/03/11 03/11/02 07/03/86 02/03/07 03/07/86
07/03/02 02/03/07 03/07/02 11/03/0 2 02/03/11 03/ 11/ 02
12/05/97 97/05/12 05/ 12/ 97 12/ 05/97 02/12/01 05/12/97
26/10/01 01/ 10/ 26 10/26/01 12/05/98 86/03/ 07 05/ 12/98
31/01/01 01/01/31 01/31 / 01 26/ 10/01 97/ 05/12 10/ 26/ 01
01/ 12/02 02/ 01/ 12 12/ 01/02 31 /0 1/01 98/05/12 12/ 01/02

Analyse: identify components and the relationship between them; draw out and relate
imp licati on s
Analyse the results of this sorting operation. The results are significantly different for thE
three date formats. Of the three, the Swedish format is probably the most useful as all dates
in the same year are grouped together and sorted into their correct month and day order.
However, if only two digits are used for the year then dates from different centuries wil'l not bE
correctly sorted. The other two lists did not so rt any of the dates on their year unless two
dates had the same month and day. The sorted lists in both Australian and US formats had
dates from widely different years placed next to each other. The US format could be useful fo­
locating dates from particular months, regardless of the year.

Information Processes and Technology Preliminary

 Modelling and simulations

pojnt A computer model uses the analysing process to describe or represent another
- model is a description system, real or imaginary. The data collected about the system are analysed in a way
: c a system, process or that lets the computer build its model of the system. The model could be an image, a
: :ject. set of equations or even a sound or animation. For it to be useful, a model must be as
realistic as possible. Computer modelling helps us to understand systems or processes
\vithout always having to build them first.
Computer models are created because someone, such as a scientist, engineer, econ­
omist or accountant, needs to study or understand a system. Data, in the form of
measu rements, observations and ru les (or equations) are collected from the system
and built into the model.
~ .J..L A computer simulation is used to test the behaviour of a model by analysing how it
simulation uses a reacts to changes in its data and rules. A si mulation is able to predict how the system
_:",1 to predict the \vill react when it is placed under different conditions. It can be used as an experiment
•c a lour of a system or because you can alter the conditions and see what happens. This is something you
. -ess .
cannot always do in real life. Computer simulations include weath r prediction pro­
grams, transport simulators and applications in many scientific and business areas.
Mo t computer games are simulations.
Simulators are used in a \vide range of research and training areas. Simulations of the
economy allow you to alter economic conditions such as interest rates or inflation to
observe the results . A business can use a spreadsheet application to simulate the effect
of an increase in raw material costs or interest rates (see 'what-if analysis on page 116).
Engineers can use simulation software to predict the flight characteristics of a new air­
- ~ m ulations can be craft design or the road performance of a new car design, saving both money and time
Zl un a spreadsheet in development costs. Ever} commercial airline pilot and ship's captain \viII spend time
"""":;...., specialised trai ning and being assessed on simulators. Even military personnel \viII spend some time
" e is often used to
e faster ca lculations
training in battle simulators instead of with real troops and real ammunition.
<I er realism. While st andard spreadsheet applications can be used to run many simulations, the
realism demanded for training simulations means that specialised softwme and hard­
ware are often requi red. Specialised simulation programs are also designed to perform
thei r data analysis much faster than standard 'off the shelf software.
Figu re 5.7 shows Auran® Trainz®, a
model railroad simulator created by an Aus­
tralian computer gam developer. The pro­
gram allows you to create a railway layout,
complete with bridges, tunnels, points
(track switches) , scenery and working sig­
nals. It uses data and niles that describe :
• track ooditions such as gradients and
curves, the operation of points
• locomotive characteristics such as
weight, p ulli ng power, acceleration,
braking, maximum peed
• rolling stock (wagons and carriages) Figure 5.7 Aura n Trainz - a model
charactetistics such as weight, braking railroad Simulator, cheaper and
· .1 , quicker than building the real thing
and maXImu m speeus
• the effect of moving trains on the operations of signals and points
• the phy ics of moving a train, collisions and the movements of derailed locomotives
and rolling stock
• weather conditions and scenery.
The data and rules are analysed to predict the speed and performance of the locomotive
_ ~ 'lly as and its attached rolling stock along the constructed tracks. This is then translated into
a computer-generated anim tion. A user of this program is able to run simulations usi ng
a variety of locomotives, rolling stock, track routes and weather conditions. They can
also collect data of their own to create new locomotives, rolli ng stock and scenery.

Chapte r 5: Tools for analysing


- - --
fL 0 r I
'What-if' analysi s allows
a user to make temporary
alterations to data to
observe the effects on a
model .
The advantages of
charts and graphs
over tables are :
Im pact
• speed
simplicity.
The advantage of using simulation software instead of a real system is that the simu­
lation is usually cheaper and is almost certainly safer to run. However, a simulation is
only as good as the data that were collected to create the model and the analysis used
to control it. If your data and analysis are faulty, then the answers the simulation gives
will also be faulty. If your data and analysis are too simple, then the answers will also
be too simple.
Summarise: express, concisely, the relevant details
Summarise the adva ntages of computer-based m odels and simulations as analysing
tools. Computer- based models and simulations allow users to study the features and
behaviour of other systems without having to build or obtain these systems. They are safer to
use than real systems, they allow the systems to be tested in ways that may not be possible
on real systems and they can be much more easily altered .
-- ----------- --------
tWhat-if' analysis
One of the advantages of a spreadsheet application is its ability to quickly recalculate a
sheet full of equations whenever a single data item is altered. This feature is used for
'what-if" analysis in a wide variety of application areas. Figure 5.8 shows a simple
example using a loan repayment calculation . By altering the interest rate in the spread­
sheet, a user is able to see the effect of this on the monthly loan repayments. BecausE'
tbe spreadsh eet contains an tbe conected data and the equati.ons that analyse the data
the user can simply change any data value or any equation to observe the resulL
'What-if analysis asks the question 'what would happen if this is changed?' - it i_ (i.
simulation using a model that can have its data and rules (equations) altered.
~ MIClosofl El(cel - loan. xis ~~ EJ
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loa n Period (yrs)
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6 loan Amount I
$ 10,000.00 $8,000.00 $5,000.00 $4,000.00 I
7 Repayments (monthly) $ 324.44 $ 259 .56 $ 162.22 $ 129.78
IS Repayments (fortnightly) $ 149.74 $ 119.79 $ 74.87 $ 59 .90
Ig .
I~ ' ~ .. 1. 1 Sheet 1 I. Sheet2 I. Sheet3 I J~ I I i ll
I Otaw y ~ c;" , ~oShdpes .. " " D 0 ~ ... Ij] Ie-· ;! ,. A. • == ~ ~ II>
Ready I r--- i I r---INUM r---r r-
Figure 5.8 A loan repayment spreadsheet used for 'what-if' analysis
Charts and graphs
Charts and graphs are popular methods for analysing data. They can show relation­
ships, trends and comparisons at a glance and they are a much faster way to abso
information than a table full of figures. The advantages of charts and graphs as ~
method of analysing data are:
 • impact - the use of colours, symbols and fill patterns can draw attention to impor­
tant details in the data
• speed - the trends shown in a well-drawn chart or graph can be very obvious
• simplicity - almost anyone can understand a message displayed in a chart or graph,
where the same message would be lost in rows and columns of boring figures.
The selection of the type of chart or
graph to use for an analysis is important ­
51anc:lefd Types 1 CustOO'l Types I
the wrong type can easily lead to confusion.
Figure 5.9 shows the main chart types
found in Microsoft Excel. Each type has ~e.r
~Lne
several different variations. (JPIe

L XI' (5<att.,)

-~ Ice of whi ch chart In table 5.4, the data are described as -.. S.e3
~ ill depend on t he being 'continuous' or 'discrete'. These @ Do..\tln<JI
- data be ing terms refer to how the data were col­
!iJr RadH
~ SisfMe
sed. f' Bubbia
lected. 'Continuous' data refers to data
Ibi Slo<i<
which were collected or sampled repeat­
Clusttred Cc&mn. CompMes V¥.les o!CfOS~
edly. Examples include sound data col­ categories ,

lected and digitised by a microphone; the

Pre:)S a'Id Hold to !lew
S~1e
number of cars crossing an intersection
every hour throughout the day; or the Cane.! I I ~;d > I
monthly balance of payments figures for
Figure 5 .9 Chart groups available in
Australia throughout the yea r. Table 5.4 Microsoft Excel
recommends that the pie chart is the only
chart type that is not really suited for this type of data. 'Discrete' data refers to
one-off data or a snapshot of data taken at one particular position and/or time.
Examples include the votes for the political parties in the last election; the balance
of payments figures for May; and the total numbers of each type of vehicle cros­
sing an intersection. Table 5.4 recommends that bar, column and pie charts are
best for analysing discrete data.

Table 5.4 Features of the common chart types

~T TYPE DATA TYPE ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
Continuous or The most familiar of all types, Can become very crowded
discrete ideal for data comparisons when many data series are
plotted
Continuous or A familiar chart type, i.deal for Can become very crowded
discrete data comparisons, allows when many data series are
negative values to be easily plotted
shown
Conti nuous Simple format, easily handles Individual lines can become
multiple data series, ideal for 'lost' or hard to follow when
showing trends in data many series are plotted
Discrete Good for comparing data Small values are lost in the
values as percentages of the chart, can only plot a single
total data series
Co ntinuous or Ideal for plotting two Can be confusing when more
discrete unrelated data series in the than two data series are
same chart plotted

Table S.4 also uses the term 'data series'. This term means the number of com­
plete data sets, such as columns or rows of data, used to construct the chart or
graph. A single serie is a single column or row of data, such as the monthly bal­
an ce of payments figures for Australia throughout one year. Multiple series are
several columns and rows of data, such as the monthly balance of payments figures
for Australia during each year from 1990 to 2000. Table 5.5 represents a multiple
series showing the different types of vehicles crossing an intersection during every
hour throughout the day.

Chapter 5: Tools for analysing

Hour 12
beginning 7 am 8 am 9 am 10 am 11 am 1 pm 2 pm 3 pm 4 pm 5 pm 6 pm
~ n~n

Cars 275 322 157 102 112 132 127 105 124 251 276 14::

Vans 13 21 18 34 32 42 21 28 42 41 31 19

Trucks 7 15 16 21 18 21 19 16 13 21 7 4

Taxis 19 21 18 12 16 15 18 16 6 16 21 2

Buses 37 36 31 24 23 23 25 23 30 29 33 1:­

Motorcycles 12 18 11 7 10 6 8 12 18 12 19

From figure 5. 10 it is clear that some chart types have problems displaying the
shown in table 5.5. The 3D column ch art hides almost as much data as it shQ\\­
2D column chart looks cramped and crowded but it does display all the data.
chart separates each data series but lacks the 'solid colour' impact of the other .
also possible to lose lines where they are plotted ery close to each other.

~ M,c lOsolI Excel · costs.XLS

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0 24

1
2 300
3 250
4
250
5 200
6
7 200
8 150
9 150
10 100
11 100
12
13
50
.1!.
15
16 0
17 9 10 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
1!
18
19 300
20
21 250
22
23 200
24 150
25
26 100
27 j 50
28
29
30 0
31 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
32
Figure 5.10 Different types of charts used to analyse multiple series data

n' ormation Processes and Technology Preliminary

 Evaluate: make a judgement based on criteria; determine the value of
Evaluate the use of 3D charts as dat a analysing tools. Three-dimensional charts can be
useful for charting data containing multiple series. They allow the same data items from
different series to be shown side-by-side for direct comparisons . However, this advantage is
often outweighed by the fact that data values can be hidden behind larger (or taller) values
from another series . The 3D blocks of column charts can also create an overcrowded look
when many data series are plotted. 3D charts are probably best used with a small number of
data series , when the differences between the data values in different series are not too great
or when the series containing the smaller values can be placed in front . When used with a
single series of data , a 3D chart is unnecessary but is often selected as a decorative device.

Comparing files
sing the diffe rences One role of analysing is to check the results of a processing task by comparing the
:en data files works processed data with the original data. Often the easiest way to do this is to compare the
n fixed length flies . original data file with the processed data file to detect any changes that have been
made. This type of analysis works best on fixed length data files where the information
system can directly compare individual data values. A word-processed document, for
exam ple, will change its length and the sequence of text characters as tex.t is added,
altered or deleted. An analysis that compares the original and the altered documents
can easily find the positi on in the processed document where the fi rst alteration was
made. It would then h ave problems matching up the text characters in the two files
after that point to detect all the other changes.
The simplest file comparisons that can be made involve comparing file lengths (in
characters or bytes), file creation and modification dates and other file properties as
shown in figure 5.1 1 .

.. ,1·}lIPul ~-_
~---

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Rollout Ldptops xis Properties D~

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MS·DOS name: lJ>.PTOPS.XLS

Created: Friday. 190ctober2OO15:32;52PM
Mod/ied: Monday. 31 August 1998 2:19:50AM
Accessed: Sunday. 2 June 2002

Attributes: r ®:~-:-~ r Hgden

rAtgwe r ~e'll

OK Cancel I !:lDP'.;

Figure 5.11 File properties as a method of comparing files

Chapter 5: Tools for analysing

 An ident ifying ma rk

Every year the enterta inment and recording industries, amongst others, lose billior ~
of dollars in sales worldwide because of pirated and illegally cop ied images, mus :
and electronic book files. The trade in pirated data has proven very difficult to sto r:
Attempts to add copy protection features to data storage devices have always fali eG
becau se the pirates have eventually been able to overcome them or the consumer:
have refused to use them.
Recently, the focus has shifted to identifying pirated data files stored on t hE
Internet. Once an illegally copied me has been identified, the copyright owners arE
able to take legal action against the person or persons who placed it there or t h"
service provi der for storing the file on their system . The cou rt case that effective!
closed down Napster - for storing only a list of pirated MP3 music fil es on th eir
system - demonstrated how successful this approach can be . A number of syste m _
have been developed to identify pirated data files.

The digital waterm ark

This place s an invisible coded number inside an image file. The number is inserte c:
into the image by slightly altering the colours of some of the pixels . The alteratio n_
are in v isible to the vie wer and can only be detected by software specifically designee
to look for them. The coded number and copyright details are registered in a databaSE
Automated software agents search the Web for images and check them for t h=
digital wate rm ar k. When they find a marked image, an e-mail message is automat­
cally sen t to t he registered copyright owner with the details of the image and its
web page add ress . It is then up to the copyright owner to decide if the image is a­
illegal copy and w hat action to take.

c.e~tor ID - - - Watermark durab~~y --- --=-­

Jasc Watermark Demo

Eersonafize... larget output lPrint

Copyright in/ormation = ]
Copyright year(s): Watermark jjurabilit)/: [1"2""
~~ less visible more visible

Image auributesC j
r Restricted use less dllrable

r DOllotcopy I
r e,duIt content rv )ieri/)/
------
OK Cancel Help A!1out ..
~
For Help. press Fl Ilma!)e: 11 52 x 664 " 16 Milion· 2.8 MB~",
Fig ure 5.12 Adding a digital watermark to an image

Information Processes and Technology Preliminary

 It is possible to damage or even remove the digital watermark by reducing th e
image quality (for example changing the image size or the colour palette ) or by
extensi vely altering the image, but these solutions also reduce the value of an
image to the pirates. This system cannot be used for music files because it will alter
the sound quality.

The optical watermark

This is the simplest but also the most damaging. A very visibl e messag e, su ch as a
company name or logo, is placed on the image . The mark makes it very obvious
w here the image came from and can be very difficult or impra ctical to remove. A
disadvantage is that it reduces the appeal of an image to normal view ers as well as
the pirates .

,S.ize:

IA".I BI.ck ::J f12::J Copyright ~ ~

S.lipl : !r-
W- e~-
ern--'----:::J r AJjo kern

0~ l
r

: : : ::

I FA •
Textules

Cle"le ~s
r '{eclOt
r Selecti<ln r. floaling
---
Help

Figure 5.13 Adding an optical watermark to an image

The digital fingerprint
This is a newly developed system th at works for any type of data file . It is currently
being used very successfully w ith images, music and e lectronic book files. The
m ethod does not alter the data file in any way but simply records its vital character­
istics . Software analyses the data in a file to crea.te a unique digital fingerprint that
is stored in a database. The analysing process looks for features that make a file
different from all others. I n the ca se of an image, this could be colour balance and
the arrangement of different coloured regions in the image. For music it could be
loud ness, pitch and the sequence of sounds.
As with the digital watermark m ethod, automated software agents locate dat a
fi les on the Web and com pare t heir fingerprints with th.ose in the database t o detect
pirated files . Making minor alterations to the file or saving it in a different format
w ill not signi f icantly change its fingerprint. An image would need major alterat·ion s
to make a difference . A music file would need major changes to give it a different
so und and fingerprint . Altering music or im ages enough to escape detection would
defeat the purpose of copyi ng the m in the first place. The method even works on
files th at have been split up and stor ed on different sites across the Internet in an
att empt to escape detection .

Question
If, as some claim, the majority of illegal copying is by individuals download ing a
music fil e for their ow n use, then w ill such measures have an effe ct) Discuss .

Chapter 5: Tools for analysing


Unit 5.3
People -based data
ana lysis is usually
unreliable .
Information Processes and Technology Preliminary
REM EMBER
1 Name the two logical operators used to jam searches.
2 What is the main problem encountered when sorting text data?
3 What is the difference between a model and a simulation?
THI NK
4 Can wildcard searches be used on numerical data? Explain why or Vi:
not.
5 How could charts and graphs be misused as data analysin g tools?
6 Why would data collection be a vital process in the construction of a
model or simulation?
RESPO ND using summarise (page 11 6 ) and evaluate (page 119)
7 Summarise the features of the different chart types shown in figure __
that would make them useful as analysis tools.
8 Eva luate the use of a spreadsheet application as a simulation tool .
INVESTIGATE
9 How do automated intelligent search agen ts work ?
on-computer-based
analysi ng tools and
social issues
In t his unit you will:
• id entify some non-computer-based tools for a
data
• examine some of the social and ethical issu e~
affecti ng data analysis .
Manual analysing methods
Traditionally, data analysis has always been a manual process. The intr
computers has reduced our dependence on manual methods for organi in",
lysing data, but has not eliminated it. The telephone book is a good e:
manual organising and analysing tool.
Searching manual systems
Unlike computer-based systems, manual searching methods are limited by' .
characterL tics ofthe data and the general unreliability (compared to comp
human user. Locating a single \Nord in a 50-page document, for examp
simple task for a person to perform. People-based searches have a highe­
and the results depend a great deal on the person, their level of bored ­
number of distractions.
 Manual search systems are generally designed to provide as much assistance to the
user as possible. A card index system, for example, can be organised so that the data
cards:
• are in alphabetical order with each letter (or a small grou p of letters) stored in
separate drawers. The user can then go directly to the drawer that contains the cards
in the required data range
• use tabbed divider cards to separate different groups of cards. The user does not
have to start at the first card but can narrow the search to one section of the cards in
a drawer
• use colour codes for different types of data cards (such as wh ite for non-fi ction,
yellow for fiction, green for periodicals). This further reduces the number of cards
that have to be examined to find the required data.
These types of data organising methods make analysing tasks, such as search ing, much
quicker and less error-prone. Unfortunately, they also make the system ve ry inflexible.
It would be extremely difficult, for example, to reorganise the card system described so
that it could be quickly searched for data cards containing a particular date.
Mechanical devices can also be used to assist searching. The telephone Rolodex
(or Teledex) is a good example. The user moves a mechanical slider to the init ial
search letter and then lifts the lid to reveal cards containing all the entered names
beginning with that letter. This system wou ld be impractical for an entire tele­
phone book but has proven to be e:-..' tremely popular for small personal list ings,
even for people with a computer on their desk. The Kalamazoo card index system is
another example. The user pus hes rods through the tops of the cards in a drawer
and lifts them up. Every card has either a hole or a gap where the rod is pushed
through. Those wit h holes where the rod was inserted will be lifted up, while the
others will remain in the drawer. Pushing the rod through the cards at different
positions ",rill select cards containing different data.

Non-computer-based models and simulations

ASA, the United States Space Agency, has some of the most powerful and sophis­
ticated computer analysis systems on Earth - but they still rely heavily on non­
computer-based models and simulations, such as wi nd tunnels, fo r a great deal of
their design and testing work. In many areas of science and engineering, our know­
ledge of a system is not always good enough for us to build a reliable computer­
based model.
There have been many occasions
when a non-computer-based simulation
has been used to fix problems created by
a computer-based simulation. A recent
example is London's Millennium Bridge,
which was opened in mid-2000. The
bridge was built to carry pedestrians and
cyclists across the River Thames. Imme­
diately after the official opening it devel­
oped a very uncomfortable and unusual
'wobble' when in use. The wobble was
bad enough to make walking very diffi­
cult, so the authorities had to close the
bridge. The computer simulations used
in the design process had not predicted Figure 5.14 London 's Millennium Bridge
this problem. Laboratory simulations
using a model of a bridge section and real people to walk on it revealed that the slight
sideways force produced by a person's normal walking action was the cause. When
enough people used the bridge the effect of this small force was greatly magnified. The
same mechanical smulations were then used to test different ways of solving the
problem. Eventually the bridge was modified and reopened witho ut the wobble.

Chapter 5: Tools for analysing


Paper-based models are
common too ls for
ana lysing informa tion
systems .
Diary
Access to government
data for analysis is
covered by the Freedom
of Information Act.
Til e organ isation of
census data allows
detailed analysis to be
pel- formed while
preventing the
unauthori sed analysIs of
personal data .
Information Processes and Technology Preliminary
A model does not have to be a physical object or contain moving parts to be useful.
In the HSC part of this course you will be expected to analyse existing and proposed
information systems by creating paper-based models_ Figure 5. 15 shows an example­
and others can be found in chapters 1 and 11 of this book. Many of these models USt
special symbols to represent data, processes and other components.
(/
e
Appolntmeht
rei " /
Request
result
Fig ure 5 . 15 A paper-based model describing the operation of an appointment d :. ­
Social and ethical issues
Unauthorised analysis of data
The Freedom of Information Act allows individuals and organisations to obtain
from government departments. Previously, important social, economic and p L
data were never released, or people had to wait decades to get access to them. .
access to data collected by the government on our behalf is important to er
that any data analysis is reliable and independent of political bias. However, a _
deal of the collected data contains confidential and private details about
viduals and organisations. Access to this data for analysis could easily
unnecessary harm to those individual and organisations. For this reason, th e ~
some exemptions from the Act that are designed to prevent the misuse of date..
unauthorise d data analysis. For example, your HSC results cannot be giw ­
anyone other than yourself. The only exception to this is if you have appU
university admission, in which case the universities are given a copy for .
analysis. The data each school receives describing the HSC results of their stu .
is also protected to prevent misuse and unauthorised analysis. There ha e
cases where the unauthorised and incorrect analysis of HSC results by the
\\o.'S \\:o.,-w,.~<;!,. 'S\.\'>.<;!,.~\\.'-'S, ~'0w,.w,.\'>.\\.\.,-\.~~ '6.\\.<1 ~~~'0'0\~.
In 2001 the Australian Census was conducted. On the night of 7 Augn
every individual in the country was required to fill in a census form and
personal and confidential questions. The results of the 2001 census became
able for public access and use in August 2002. The data were released on
CD-ROMs using the CSV format (see table 4.2, page 76) to allow users to loa
directly into any spreadsheet or other analysis tool. While the contents of th
ROMs are very detailed, they do not allow individuals to be identified or have
data linked to them. It is possible to analyse the census data dealing with fan­
housing and income, for example, down to the level of local districts, but not
individual households .
Authorised analysis of the census data has practical and important uses. It a
reliable decisions to be made on where to provide social services and whert:
build new hospitals, schools and transport links. Unauthorised access and ana...
could misuse the data and violate individual privacy.

The incorrect ana lysis of
data wi ll often resu ll in
D or decision-ma king .
-he abil ity of information
One of the great advantages of using computer analysis is its ability to bring
- stems to li nk data from
together data from many different sou rces. This increases the quality and qu antity
fferent databases is a
of the information that can be produced by the analysing process. However, this
: eater threat to privacy
an the individual
a abases themselves.
Marketing companies can use the census data to target advertising campaigns to
particular districts based on, for example, average income figures. Social welfare
organisations and various government authorities can design and t arget assistance
programs based on community needs identified in the census. None of these organ­
isations can use the data to select individual households based on their actual
income, family size or any other factors .
Data incorrectly analysed
The analysing process is an important part of decision-making. By changing data into
information, trends and patterns are revealed and decisions can be made. If the
analysis is faulty, then the information the analysis provides will be faulty and poor
decisions will be made. Information personnel who design and use data analysis
systems have a responsibility to 'get it right'. The analysts, engineers and programmers
who create the systems are responsible for the reliability of their systems, but not for
how they are used. End users, the people who use the information produced, have a
responsibility to confirm the accuracy and reliability of the analysis results. End users
tend to place too much trust in information systems and often assume that the data are
correct and that the analysis is perfect. Managers and decision makers must never
assume that the information they are given is free of errors or bias. Where possible,
patterns and trends should be confirmed and conclusions should be checked before
final decisions are made.
Erosion of privacy from linking databases fo r
analysis
adva ntage comes with a price - an increased risk to privacy. Individually, separate
databases may not contain much material that could threaten your privacy. For
example, your health fund database will contain details of all your medical expenses
during your membership of the fund. The database at your bank will contain details
of your financial transactions, loans, savings and investments. Your health fund
records will not contain any data about your bank accounts, and your bank records
will contain nothing about your medical history. There will probably be no reason
for the two databases to ever be linked together. The Tax Office database will con­
t ain details about your employment and income history. Because membership of a
health fund can attract a tax rebate, it would also contain details about your health
fund membersh ip, bt t not your medical claims. Your bank is required to provide
the Tax Office with your account numbers, but not your fin ancial history. These
three databases are quite separate and cannot be linked except to confirm that you
have bank accounts that may be earning taxable interest and are a member of a
health fund that may entitle you to a tax rebate.
Consider the implications of an unethical organisation gaining access to your tax
records. The data stored there could be used to analyse your employment history
and income. From the tax database, they may also be able to access your records at
your health fund and your bank. From the analysis of this linked data, they may be
able to construct a profile of your financial position (for example, level of debt),
your state of health and your employment history. This profile could be used to
assess your fitness for a loan, an insurance policy or employment. This illegal
analysis could easily be conducted without your knowledge or consent. Because of
the way most information systems are linked together, it is even possible that it
could be conducted without the knowledge or consent of your bank, health fu nd
and the Tax Offic . Your privacy could easily be violated without anyone, least of aU
you, knowing about it.
Chapter 5: Tools for analysing
 REM EMBER
1 What is the fink between the analysis process and decision-making?
2 How can poor data analysis affect decision-making?
3 How does the linking together of databases effect privacy?
THIN K
4 What are some of the advantages of using a non-computer-based
simulation instead of a computer-based one?
5 In the Kalamazoo card system described on page 123, it is possible to
push two rods through the mdex cards at the same time. Would this be
the same as using a logical AND or a logical OR to join two searches
together? Explain.
6 If you were to conduct a personal Information survey that was to be
stored and analysed by computer, what steps would you need to take to
ensure the privacy of those people who have given you their personal
data?
RESPOND using summarise (page 116 )
7 Summarise the ways that unauthorised and incorrect analysis of data can
cause damage.
INVESTIGATE
8 Protecting data from accidental and deliberate damage as well as
unauthorised access has become an important part of any Information
system. Investigate and report on the ways that information systems can
be protected.

Information Processes and Technology Preliminary


analysing (p. 107)
clock speed (p. 109)
data (po 107)
information (p. 107)
logical operator (p. 111)
model (po 115)
MASTERY TEST
Multiple choice - select the best
answer for each question
1 Primary storage:
(a) Is used for the most important
data
(b) Is RAM and ROM
(c) stores software applications until
they are needed
Cd) consists of the disk drives buil t
Into your computer system
2 The analysing process:
Ca) alters data to make them more
useful
(b) always produces useful
8 Computer-based models and
information
simulations:
(c) requires fast computers and a lot
of data storage space
Cd) can be used to give data
meaning and a purpose
3 Searching and sorting are two
examples of:
Ca) processing data into Information
(b) 'what-if' analYSIS
(c) modellmg
to supervise the information
Cd) the analysing process
system
4 The clock speed of a computer­
9 An 'exact match' search;
based Information system:
Ca) will always find the data you are
(a) determines whether the system
will work to a set schedule
(b) can measure its analysing speed
(e) sets t he data and time stamp on
all saved data files
(d) can be increased by adding more
parallel CPUs
numerical data
5 Secondary storage:
10 One method of increasing the
(a) stores data and software that are
not being used
(b) allows data to be removed for
analysis
(c) Is used as an emergency backup
for the data analYSing process
(d) Is used to control the data
analysis process
primary storage (po 109)
search key (p. 110)
secondary storage (po 109)
simulation (p. 115)
sorting (po 113)
'what-if' analysis (po 116)
6 The analysing process can Involve :
Ca) labelling data
(b) calcu lations based on the original
data
ec) using graphical processes on
data
(d) all of the above
7 'What-If' analysis:
Ca) allows users to make predictions
(b) is used to create computer­
based models
(e) can only be performed with
spreadsheet applications
(d) needs speCialised information
technology to be reliable
(a) have completely replaced manual
modelling and Simulation
systems
(b) are only as good as the data
used to construct them
(c) require specialised hardware and
software applications
(d) need highly trained participants
looking for
(b) is used to search Image, audio
and video data
(c) allows the use of wildcard
characters in the search key
(d) can be used to search text and
quantity of data that can be
analysed by a computer-based
Information system is to:
(a) compress the data to reduce ItS
size
(b) add extra CPUs to the system
(c) increase the speed at which the
data are collected and organised
(d) reduce the data collection errors
Chapter 5: Tools (or analYSing
 Fill in the blanks
11 Information is that are meaningful or have a clear purpose.
12 Hard disk drives, CD drives and floppy disk drives are common examples of
_ _ _ _ _ storage .
13 Storage devices that are attached to an information system are often called
_ _ _ _ _ storage .
14 The central processing unit is also known as the _ _ _ __
15 Placing data values into a set order Is known as _ _ _ __
16 Spreadsheet applications are designed to analyse data .
17 The words AND and OR are called operators.
18 Making an alteration to a model or its data to observe the effects is known as

19 A sort that places data Items into a sequence with the last item placed first is
commonly known as a(n) order sort.
20 'Raw facts without any clear meaning or purpose' is a definition of _ _ _ __
Match the terms
21 COLUIVIN A - TERMS COLUMN B - MEANINGS
1 simulation A text characters used to locate data
2 primary storage B uses a special symbol to represent other
characters
3 logical operator C graphical display of numerical data
4 data D a descnption of a system
5 information E a single set of data values, usually a column
or a row
6 search key F produced by an analysis of data
7 data senes G used to combine two or more searches
8 chart H using a model to observe the effects of
altering the data
9 wildcard I read only memory
10 model J raw facts with no clear meaning or purpose

Written answer using the HSC key words

22 Describe how a word processor could be used as an analysis tool.

23 Summarise how information technology has improved the analysing process

24 Distinguish between modelling and simulation.

25 Explain how data analysis could lead to an invasion of personal privacy.

26 Contrast primary and secondary storage as used in the analysing process .

Information Processes and Technology Preliminary