Notes for course EE1.

1 Circuit Analysis 2006-07

TOPIC 6 – NODAL ANALYSIS
OBJECTIVES
1) To develop Nodal Analysis of Circuits without Voltage Sources
2) To develop Nodal Analysis by Inspection
3) To develop Nodal Analysis of Circuits with Voltage Sources

1 INTRODUCTION
The circuit analysis methods we have introduced so far rely on intuition; we need to recognise
series circuits, parallel circuits and subcircuits that can be transformed in order to simplify the
circuit such that an unknown voltage or current can be determined.
Nodal analysis is quite different in that it is a systematic method that can be applied in a systematic
way to any circuit containing certain types of elements; it is the method employed by computer
circuit analysis programs such as SPICE.

2 NODAL ANALYSIS OF CIRCUITS WITHOUT VOLTAGE SOURCES

2.1 Nodes, Node Voltages and Element Voltages
Consider a circuit having a reasonable level of complexity:

It is complicated enough that we need an algorithmic method of analysis.

We will use it as motivation for our explanation of the nodal method.
Though it has only resistors and current sources, the algorithm we develop for solving it will be
applicable to circuits with voltage sources as well.
We have labelled all the elements of our circuit with numeric values. We have also labelled them
with literal values because we want to show how each element enters into the analysis.
As you might expect from the name, nodal analysis concentrates on the circuit nodes.
Remember that the nodes are the connected islands of conductor (including element leads) that
remain when we erase the bodies of all the circuit elements.
The nodes of our example circuit are shown below:

Identifying and counting the nodes is an important part of nodal analysis.

 Topic 6 – Nodal Analysis

There are N = 4 nodes in our circuit.

We have labelled them 0 through 3 in the figure (rather than 1 through 4).
The reference node is usually assigned the index 0 (this convention applies to SPICE).
Now look at the following:

We show the circuit nodes, but we have also added a voltmeter measuring the voltage at node 3
relative to the voltage of the reference node 0.
We call this node voltage v3; its positive reference (the plus sign) is assumed to be at node 3; its
negative reference (the minus sign) is assumed to be at the reference node, node 0.
We will not show these reference signs explicitly in the future, but will assume tacitly that each of
the non-reference nodes carries a plus reference sign.
We now show the complete set of node voltages relative to reference node 0:

Note that we show the ground reference as a ground symbol on the circuit diagram indicating that
the node to which it is connected is the reference for all other node voltages.
To see why the node voltages are so important, consider the following circuit:

We show the nodes and only two of the resistor elements.

The resistor labelled Rc is called a grounded element because one of its leads is connected to the
reference node, or ground.
The other resistor, Rb, does not have this property. Both of its leads are connected to non-reference
nodes; hence, it is called a floating element, or non-grounded element.
Let us focus on the resistors Rb and Rc in more detail:

2
 Topic 6 – Nodal Analysis

The element voltage of the grounded resistor vRc is the same as the node voltage v2 at the non-
reference node to which it is connected.
The only other way we could define this element voltage would be to reverse its polarity – in which
case it would be the negative of the non-reference node voltage, –v2.
Consider now the floating resistor with element voltage vRb:

This element voltage is the difference of two node voltages: v1 – v2.

The only alternative would be to reverse the polarities defining the element voltage, in which case
the element voltage would be equal to v2 – v1.
From this discussion, we can draw the following important conclusion: each and every element
voltage in the circuit is completely determined by the node voltages; in fact, each is either a node
voltage, the negative of a node voltage, or the difference of two node voltages.
Thus, if we are able to find the node voltages, we will then be able to compute all element voltages.
2.2 Setting-up nodal analysis
It should be clear that if there are N nodes in a circuit there will be N – 1 node voltages: ie those at
the N – 1 non-reference nodes with respect to the voltage at the reference node.
We therefore need N – 1 independent equations in order to compute them.
KVL only allows us to determine the element voltages from the node voltages.
So we must turn to KCL for these equations. It seems logical to write one KCL equation at each of
the N – 1 non-reference nodes.
Consider an arbitrary node whose voltage is vi and to which are connected some resistors and
current sources:

The resistors and current sources connected to node i are also connected to other nodes j, m, k and l.
The reference direction for the resistor currents is in principle an arbitrary choice.
However, choosing these references to be pointed away from node i, as shown, results in an
equation that is in a systematic form, reducing the chance of making errors.
We can express these resistor currents in terms of element voltages using Ohm's law and then
express the element voltages in terms of the node voltages.
This allows us to write a KCL equation in the following form:

3
 Topic 6 – Nodal Analysis

∑ iresistors = ∑ icurrent sources

away from node towards node
vijv
+ im = is1 − is2
Ra Rb
vi − v j v − vm
+ i = is1 − is2
Ra Rb
If we do this for each of the N – 1 non-reference nodes, we will obtain N – 1 equations whose
unknown variables are the N – 1 node voltages.
We can develop a hydraulic analogy for the situation described by the above KCL equation:

The two constant flow rate water pumps are analogous to the i-sources and the pipes carrying water
away from the central hill (analogous to node i) to the other hilltops (analogous to nodes j and m)
are analogous to the resistors. The heights hi, hj and hm are analogous to the node voltages, vi, vj
and vm.
We now have enough mathematical background to solve the circuit.
We choose the ground reference as before to be at the bottom node and assign unknown node
voltages v1, v2, and v3 to the other nodes:
The circuit "prepared for nodal analysis" is as follows:

Remember that the six ground symbols all refer to the single node chosen as reference, ie node 0.
The portion of the circuit pertaining to the equation at node 1 is as follows:

4
 Topic 6 – Nodal Analysis

The KCL equation is:

∑ iresistors = ∑ icurrent sources

away from node towards node
v1 v1 − v2
+ = is1 − is2
Ra Rb
Note that the voltage v3 on the far terminal of current source is2 does not affect the current at node 1
since the connection from node 3 to node 1 is through an independent current source and a current
source has arbitrary voltage. On the other hand the voltage v2 on the far terminal of Rb, node 2,
does affect the current at node 1, as we can see from the KCL equation.
The partial circuit concerning node 2 is as follows:

The KCL equation for node 2 is:

v2 v2 − v1 v2 − v3
+ + = −is4
Rc Rb Rd
At this node, only one current source is attached so there is only one current term.
The partial circuit for node 3 is as follows:

The KCL equation for node 3 is:

v3 v3 − v2
+ = is2 + is3
Re Rd

5
 Topic 6 – Nodal Analysis

We can see that the current in the floating, or non-grounded, resistor Rd appears in the equations for
each of the two nodes to which it is connected (nodes 2 and 3); these currents are equal in
magnitude but of opposite sign. Currents in the grounded resistors appear just once, in the KCL
equation for the node to which they are connected.
2.3 Tidying-up the KCL Equations
We can re-write our nodal equations as a linear function of unknown voltages:
⎛ 1 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞
v1 ⎜ + ⎟ + v2 ⎜ − ⎟ + v3 ( 0 ) = is1 − is2
⎝ Ra Rb ⎠ ⎝ Rb ⎠
⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 1 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞
v1 ⎜ − ⎟ + v2 ⎜ + + + v ⎜⎝ − R ⎟⎠ = −is4
⎝ Rb Rc Rd ⎟⎠
3
⎝ Rb ⎠ d
⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 1⎞
v1 ( 0 ) + v2 ⎜ − ⎟ + v3 ⎜ + ⎟ = is2 + is3
⎝ Rd ⎠ ⎝ Rd Re ⎠
Consider the general set of 3 equations in the same three variables:
y11v1 + y12 v2 + y13v3 = i1
y21v1 + y22 v2 + y23v3 = i2
y31v1 + y32 v2 + y33v3 = i3
This looks a bit of a mess. Much of the problem is because the unknown variables v1, v2 and v3 are
repeated on each line; by putting them as a heading above each column in a tabular format, we need
only write them once:
×v1 ×v2 ×v3 const
y11 y12 y13 = i1
y21 y22 y23 = i2
y31 y32 y33 = i3
The row of unknown voltages can be rotated through 90° to form a column and then be placed by
the side of the set of coefficient terms:
⎡ y11 y12 y13 ⎤ ⎡ v1 ⎤ ⎡ i1 ⎤
⎢y y22 y23 ⎥⎥ ⎢⎢ v2 ⎥⎥ = ⎢⎢i2 ⎥⎥
⎢ 21
⎢⎣ y31 y32 y33 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ v3 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ i3 ⎥⎦
It is understood that v1 is the variable for the first column of coefficients, v2, for the second column,
and so on.
The unknown voltages, the source currents and the coefficients depending on the resistor values
have each been put in square brackets to show that they belong together.
The notation we have used is called matrix form. The matrix is a powerful concept which underlies
many computational methods and computer algorithms where large matrices may be treated as
single variables.
Matrix algebra defines the rules for operations on matrices, such as addition and subtraction.
We will not use matrix algebra in the Circuit Analysis course, as it has not been covered in the
Mathematics course; we just use the matrix format as a convenient way of writing the equations in
tidy systematic form.

6
 Topic 6 – Nodal Analysis

The set of equations for our example circuit may now be expressed in matrix form:
⎡ 1 1 1 ⎤
⎢ + − 0 ⎥
⎢ Ra Rb Rb ⎥ ⎡ v1 ⎤ ⎡ is1 − is2 ⎤
⎢ 1 1 1 1 1 ⎥⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ − + + − ⎥ ⎢ v2 ⎥ = ⎢ −is4 ⎥
⎢ Rb Rb Rc Rd Rd ⎥
⎢⎣ v3 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣is2 + is3 ⎥⎦
⎢ 1 1 1 ⎥
⎢ 0 − + ⎥
⎣ Rd Rd Re ⎦
Finally, we can substitute the component values:
Ra = 4 Ω, Rb = 2 Ω, Rc = 2 Ω, Rd = 3 Ω, Re = 2 Ω. is1 = 11 A, is2 = 4 A, is3 = 3 A, is4 = 4 A.
⎡1 1 1 ⎤
⎢4 + 2 2
− 0 ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎡ v1 ⎤ ⎡11 − 4 ⎤
1 ⎥⎢ ⎥ ⎢
⎢ −1 v2 = −4 ⎥⎥
1 1 1
+ + −
⎢ 2 2 2 3 3 ⎥⎢ ⎥ ⎢
⎢ ⎢ v ⎥ ⎢ 4 + 3 ⎥⎦
⎢ 0 1 1 1 ⎥⎥ ⎣ 3 ⎦ ⎣
− +
⎢⎣ 3 3 2 ⎥⎦
We then obtain:
⎡ 3 1 ⎤
⎢ 4 − 0 ⎥
2
⎢ ⎥ ⎡ v1 ⎤ ⎡ 7 ⎤
⎢− 1 4 1⎥⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
− ⎢ v2 ⎥ = ⎢ −4 ⎥
⎢ 2 3 3⎥
⎢ ⎢v ⎥ ⎢ 7 ⎥
⎢ 0 1 5 ⎥⎥ ⎣ 3 ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
−
⎢⎣ 3 6 ⎥⎦
Notice that each diagonal term in position (i, i) is the sum of the conductances connected to node i.

Notice also that each off-diagonal term in position (i, j) is the negative of the conductance
connecting nodes i and j; the conductance connecting nodes j and i is precisely the same, which
means that the coefficient matrix is symmetric.
These observations make it possible to write the matrix equations straight down without performing
the KCL analysis. This is called by-inspection analysis; we will look at this later.
For any equation that is true, we can multiply both sides by the same factor and it is still true; let us
multiply the three rows by common denominators 4, 6 and 6, respectively:

7
 Topic 6 – Nodal Analysis

⎡ 3 −2 0 ⎤ ⎡ v1 ⎤ ⎡ 28 ⎤
⎢ −3 8 −2 ⎥ ⎢ v ⎥ = ⎢ −24 ⎥
⎢ ⎥⎢ 2⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ 0 −2 5 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ v3 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 42 ⎥⎦
We now have three tidied-up equations in three unknowns.
The equations may be solved by a variety of methods, including use of a calculator.
We will consider the method of Gaussian elimination later.
The solution is: v1 = 12 V, v2 = 4 V, and v3 = 10 V.
Notice that the last operation of scaling can destroy the symmetry property of the matrix.

3 ANOTHER EXAMPLE OF NODAL ANALYSIS

Find the current i for the following circuit using nodal analysis:

Solution
There are N = 3 nodes; thus, we expect to have to write N – 1 = 2 KCL nodal equations.
We select the reference to be the bottom node and assign voltages to the other nodes:

Now let's write one KCL equation at the nodes where v1 and v2 are defined.
The partial circuit pertaining to node 1 is as follows:

The KCL equation for node 1 is:

v1 v1 − v2
+ = −1
4 3
The partial circuit pertaining to node 2 and its KCL equation is:

8
 Topic 6 – Nodal Analysis

v2 v2 − v1
+ =8
6 3
The matrix form for our example circuit is:
⎡1 1 1 ⎤
⎢4 + 3 −
3 ⎥ ⎡ v1 ⎤ ⎡ −1⎤
⎢ ⎥ =
⎢ −1 1 1 ⎥ ⎢⎣ v2 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 8 ⎥⎦
+
⎢⎣ 3 6 3 ⎥⎦
We carry out the additions:
⎡ 7 1⎤
⎢ 12 − 3 ⎥ ⎡ v1 ⎤ ⎡ −1⎤
⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ = ⎢ ⎥
⎢ − 1 1 ⎥ ⎣ v2 ⎦ ⎣ 8 ⎦
⎢⎣ 3 2 ⎥⎦
And scale the two rows by common denominators 12 and 6, respectively:
⎡ 7 −4 ⎤ ⎡ v1 ⎤ ⎡ −12 ⎤
⎢ −2 3 ⎥ ⎢ v ⎥ = ⎢ 48 ⎥
⎣ ⎦⎣ 2⎦ ⎣ ⎦
We now consider solving the equations produced by nodal analysis for this example with two
variables (v1 and v2) and the previous example with three variables (v1, v2 and v3):
⎡ 3 −2 0 ⎤ ⎡ v1 ⎤ ⎡ 28 ⎤
⎡ 7 −4 ⎤ ⎡ v1 ⎤ ⎡ −12 ⎤ ⎢ −3 8 −2 ⎥ ⎢ v ⎥ = ⎢ −24 ⎥
⎢ −2 3 ⎥ ⎢ v ⎥ = ⎢ 48 ⎥ ⎢ ⎥⎢ 2⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎣ ⎦⎣ 2⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎢⎣ 0 −2 5 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ v3 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 42 ⎥⎦

4 CONVENTIONAL METHOD OF SOLUTION FOR SIMULTANEOUS EQUATIONS

A popular method of solving a set of simultaneous equations is using the substitution method. We
illustrate this for the 3-variable case. Instead of using numerical coefficients of v1, v2 and v3, we
use variables, a, b, c, e.t.c. to make clearer what is happening:
⎡a b c ⎤ ⎡ v1 ⎤ ⎡ x ⎤
⎢d e f ⎥⎥ ⎢⎢ v2 ⎥⎥ = ⎢⎢ y ⎥⎥
⎢
⎢⎣ g h i ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ v3 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ z ⎥⎦
Let us write out the equations in full:
av1 + bv2 + cv3 = x
dv1 + ev2 + fv3 = y
gv1 + hv2 + iv3 = z
We use the 3rd equation to express v3 in terms of v1 and v2:
1 g h 1
v3 = ( z − gv1 − hv2 ) = − v1 − v2 + z
i i i i
Now substitute this into the 1st and 2nd equation:

9
 Topic 6 – Nodal Analysis

cg ch c
av1 + bv2 − v1 − v2 + z = x
i i i
fg fh f
dv1 + ev2 − v1 − v2 + z = y
i i i
Group like terms:
⎛ cg ⎞ ⎛ ch ⎞ cz
⎜⎝ a − ⎟⎠ v1 + ⎜⎝ b − ⎟⎠ v2 = x −
i i i
⎛ fg ⎞ ⎛ fh ⎞ fz
⎜⎝ d − ⎟⎠ v1 + ⎜⎝ e − ⎟⎠ v2 = y −
i i i
We have reduced the 3-variable set to a 2-variable set and can repeat the process:
( a ') v1 + (b ') v2 = x '
( d ') v1 + ( e') v2 = y'
where
cg
a' = a − e.t.c.
i
We can now eliminate v2 using a similar procedure to obtain:
⎛ b 'd ' ⎞ b ' y'
⎜⎝ a '− ⎟⎠ v1 = x '−
e' e'
or,
( a '') v1 = x ''
where,
b 'd '
a '' = a '− e.t.c.
e'
Hence,
a '' ⎛ b ' y' ⎞ ⎛ b 'd ' ⎞
v1 = = ⎜ x '− ⎟ ⎜⎝ a '− ⎟
x '' ⎝ e' ⎠ e' ⎠
Having found v1, v2 and v3 may be found by back substitution:
This method is correct but clumsy and repetitive. A better way is to scale the equations.
We first scale the 3rd equation by 1/i to get unity for the coefficient of v3:
av1 + bv2 + cv3 = x
dv1 + ev2 + fv3 = y
g h z
v1 + v2 + v3 =
i i i
We then scale the new 3rd equation by c and subtract it from the 1st equation:

10
 Topic 6 – Nodal Analysis

⎛ cg ⎞ ⎛ ch ⎞ cz
⎜⎝ a − ⎟⎠ v1 + ⎜⎝ b − ⎟⎠ v2 + ( 0 ) v3 = x −
i i i
dv1 + ev2 + fv3 = y
g h z
v1 + v2 + v3 =
i i i
We then scale the 3rd equation by f and subtract it from the 2nd equation:
⎛ cg ⎞ ⎛ ch ⎞ cz
⎜⎝ a − ⎟⎠ v1 + ⎜⎝ b − ⎟⎠ v2 + ( 0 ) v3 = x −
i i i
⎛ fg ⎞ ⎛ fh ⎞ fz
⎜⎝ d − ⎟⎠ v1 + ⎜⎝ e − ⎟⎠ v2 + ( 0 ) v3 = y −
i i i
This leads to the same set of equations that we obtained by substitution.
But the process of scaling equations and subtracting them from other equations is much more
efficient than the substitution method.
We notice that in the final equations, c and f occur three times (c in the 1st equation and f in the 2nd
equation), g, h and z each occur twice (in the 1st, 2nd and 3rd terms in each equation.
Also, each of the terms a, b, x, d, e and y in the original coefficient set are modified in a similar
way, by subtraction of a term of the form (p × q)/r.
This suggests that there might be a very straightforward and systematic way of obtaining the
solution and we now present this.

5 GAUSSIAN ELIMINATION
Consider the reduced 2-variable set we obtained above:
⎛ cg ⎞ ⎛ ch ⎞ cz
av1 + bv2 + cv3 = x ⎜⎝ a − ⎟⎠ v1 + ⎜⎝ b − ⎟⎠ v2 = x −
i i i
dv1 + ev2 + fv3 = y
⎛ fg ⎞ ⎛ fh ⎞ fz
gv1 + hv2 + iv3 = z ⎜⎝ d − ⎟⎠ v1 + ⎜⎝ e − ⎟⎠ v2 = y −
i i i
Consider also the original 3-variable equation set in matrix notation:
⎡a b c ⎤ ⎡ v1 ⎤ ⎡ x ⎤
⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢d e f ⎥ ⎢ v2 ⎥ = ⎢ y ⎥
⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ g h i ⎦⎥ ⎣ v3 ⎦ ⎣ z ⎦

We have divided off the 3rd row and the 3rd column that we need to eliminate by using partition
lines. We have put the diagonal element for the 3rd row and column that we need to eliminate in a
box to show that it is special; we call it the pivot.
Notice that if we just remove the 3rd row and column, the variables that remain (a, b, x, d, e, y)
appear also in the same position in the reduced 2-varaible equation set.
However, each one has a subtracted term of the form (p × q)/r.
There is a very simple way of finding the elements p, q and r in the correction terms.
Consider the original element a. Its subtracted correction term is (c × g)/i

11
 Topic 6 – Nodal Analysis

So r in the correction term (the denominator) is simply the pivot and this applies to all correction
terms.
The numerator elements in the correction term (p and q) for a are c and g; these are simply the
element in the 3rd column that is aligned with a and the element in the 3rd row that is aligned with a.
It may be helpful to call the element that is modified (a in this case) as the target element.
It can be seen that the above rule applies to all six element correction terms. Therefore the
correction terms may be written down straight from the original matrix of coefficients.
The same process may be used to reduce the 2-variable set of equations obtained to obtain the final
solution for v1 and hence the other variables. It applies to an initial matrix with any number of
variables.
In general terms, the basic correction operation may be represented as follows:
b×c
a b a− 0
→ d
c d 0 0
where b represents an element in the column that is to be eliminated, c represents an element in the
row that is to be eliminated and element d is the pivot.
When the target element is to the right of the pivot (as it is for target elements x and y in the above
example), we have:
a×d
a b 0 b−
→ c
c d 0 0
We now consider the two examples above. We pay careful attention to the layout of the solution.
Example with 2 variables
⎡ 7 −4 ⎤ ⎡ v1 ⎤ ⎡ −12 ⎤
⎢ −2 3 ⎥ ⎢ v ⎥ = ⎢ 48 ⎥
⎣ ⎦⎣ 2⎦ ⎣ ⎦
We use a table type of format, identify row 2 and column as those that are to be eliminated and
indicate the pivot:
v1 v2 const v1 v2 const
7 −4 −12 →
7−
( −4 ) × ( −2 ) 0 −12 −
( −4 ) × 48
−2 3 48 3 3
v1 v2 const
→ 13 156
0
3 3
Hence:
156 3 156
v1 = = = 12 V
13 3 13
We can substitute v1 into either of the original equations:
1 1 72
v2 = ( 48 + 2V1 ) = ( 48 + 24 ) = = 24 V
3 3 3
12
 Topic 6 – Nodal Analysis

We were asked for branch current i in the original circuit:

In order to obtain a branch current, we need to express the branch voltage in terms of the node
voltages and then use Ohm's law.
v −v 12 − 24
i= 1 2 = = −4 A
3 3
Example with 3 variables
Now consider the 3-variable equation set from the first example:
⎡ 3 −2 0 ⎤ ⎡ v1 ⎤ ⎡ 28 ⎤
⎢ −3 8 −2 ⎥ ⎢ v ⎥ = ⎢ −24 ⎥
⎢ ⎥⎢ 2⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ 0 −2 5 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ v3 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 42 ⎥⎦
We first eliminate row and column 3; the element 5 is the pivot; since there are zeros in column 3
and in row 3, we only have two products to consider, namely (–2) × (–2) and (–2) × (42). We use
the tabular layout:
v1 v2 v3 const v1 v2 v3 const v1 v2 const v1 v2 const
3 −2 0 28 3 −2 0 28 3 −2 28 → 3 −2 28
−3 8 −2 −24 → 4 84 → 36 36 −15 36 −36
−3 8 − 0 −24 + −3 −
0 −2 5 42 5 5 5 5

Finally, we have scaled row 2 by 5 to tidy it up.

We now eliminate row and column 2; the element 36 is the pivot; there are two products to
consider, namely (–2) × (–15) and (–2) × (–36):
v1 v2 const v1 v2 const v1 v2 const
3 −2 28 → 30 72 → 13
3− 0 28 − 0 26
−15 36 −36 36 36 6

Hence:
26
v1 = = 12 V
13 6
We can then use one of the equations after the first elimination to obtain v2:
1 1 8
v2 = ( 3V1 − 28 ) = ( 3 × 12 − 28 ) = = 4 V
2 2 2
Finally, we can use any of the original equations to obtain v3:
1 1 50
v3 = ( 42 + 2V2 ) = ( 42 + 2 × 4 ) = = 10 V
5 5 5

13
 Topic 6 – Nodal Analysis

6 INDEPENDENCE AND SOLVABILITY

In general the process we have described leads to a set of equations which can be solved to yield the
nodal equations. We might ask under what conditions can it be guaranteed that the equations are
soluble. The answer is that the equations are soluble provided that when the network is de-
activated, by replacing every current source by an open-circuit, then every node should have a path
to the reference node through one or more resistors. Let us consider a couple of examples:
Consider our first example circuit:

We show the de-activated circuit alongside the circuit itself. It can be seen that the de-activated
circuit satisfies our criterion since every node has a resistive path to the reference node. Hence the
equations will have a valid solution for any element values.
Consider now the following circuit and its de-activated version:

In the de-activated circuit, nodes 2 and 3 do not have a path to the reference node. This circuit can
still be described by KCL equations for its 3 nodes; however, the equations will not be soluble
because they are not linearly independent.
But our knowledge of circuit analysis reveals immediately that there are problems with this circuit.
Firstly, we have two independent current sources in series, which is an invalid sub-circuit.
Secondly, since the voltage of a current source is arbitrary, it is obvious that the sub-circuit
comprising Rb and its two nodes has voltages that cannot be defined with respect to the reference
node. Hence, this is an unsatisfactory circuit that no student of Imperial College would design!
For sensible circuits the criterion for a valid solution is satisfied and node voltages can be
determined.

7 NODAL ANALYSIS BY INSPECTION

7.1 General
We will derive the by-inspection method of nodal analysis starting from the traditional one we have
already studied.
Consider the following circuit:

14
 Topic 6 – Nodal Analysis

1/7 Ω

9 mA

v1 1Ω v2 v3 1/5 Ω v4

1/3 Ω
8 mA 1/2 Ω 1/4 Ω 1/6 Ω 10 mA

Nodal analysis always begins with choice of reference node and labelling of the remaining nodes,
v1, v2, ... vn.
We can write KCL equations at the four nodes:
1
( v1 − v2 ) = 8
1
1 1 1 1
( v2 − v1 ) + ( v2 ) + ( v2 − v3 ) + ( v2 − v4 ) = 9
1 12 13 17
1 1 1
( v3 − v2 ) + ( v3 ) + ( v3 − v4 ) = −9
13 14 15
1 1 1
( v4 − v3 ) + ( v4 ) + ( v4 − v2 ) = 10
15 16 17
We tidy up the equations:
v1 − v2 = 8
v2 − v1 + 2v2 + 3( v2 − v3 ) + 7 ( v2 − v4 ) = 9
3( v3 − v2 ) + 4 ( v3 ) + 5 ( v3 − v4 ) = −9
5 ( v4 − v3 ) + 6 ( v4 ) + 7 ( v4 − v2 ) = 10
We put it in matrix form:
⎡1 −1 0 0 ⎤ ⎡ v1 ⎤ ⎡ 8 ⎤
⎢ −1 13 −3 −7 ⎥ ⎢ v2 ⎥ ⎢ 9 ⎥
⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ = ⎢ ⎥
⎢0 −3 12 −5 ⎥ ⎢ v3 ⎥ ⎢ −9 ⎥
⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎣0 −7 −5 18 ⎦ ⎣ v4 ⎦ ⎣10 ⎦
Now consider defining the resistor values using conductances (in Siemens) rather than resistances:
7S

9 mA

v1 1S v2 v3 5S v4

3S
8 mA 2S 4S 6S 10 mA

Using an i = Gv formulation, we can write the nodal equations directly:

15
 Topic 6 – Nodal Analysis

v1 − v2 = 8
v2 − v1 + 2v2 + 3( v2 − v3 ) + 7 ( v2 − v4 ) = 9
3( v3 − v2 ) + 4 ( v3 ) + 5 ( v3 − v4 ) = −9
5 ( v4 − v3 ) + 6 ( v4 ) + 7 ( v4 − v2 ) = 10
Consider again the tidied-up equations:
⎡1 −1 0 0 ⎤ ⎡ v1 ⎤ ⎡ 8 ⎤
⎢ −1 13 −3 −7 ⎥ ⎢ v2 ⎥ ⎢ 9 ⎥
⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ = ⎢ ⎥
⎢0 −3 12 −5 ⎥ ⎢ v3 ⎥ ⎢ −9 ⎥
⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎣0 −7 −5 18 ⎦ ⎣ v4 ⎦ ⎣10 ⎦
Deriving the nodal equations is much easier when we use conductances rather than resistances.
We now present two methods for writing these equations directly.
7.2 Node-based method
In this method we ask, for each node in the circuit, "What element or elements is the node
connected to?". We then introduce corresponding elements into the matrix.
Consider a particular node, say node 2, and its equation (the second one).
The second equation sums the currents in all elements at node 2.
For each resistor gx connected to node 2, there must be a term gx(v2 – vy) in the second equation,
where vy is the other node that gx is connected to.
As a result, the coefficient of v2 in the second equation must equal the sum of the conductances of
all the resistors connected to node 2.
Hence, each diagonal element in the matrix is the sum of the conductances of the resistors
connected to the corresponding node:
Node 1: y11 = 1
Node 2: y22 = 1 + 2 + 3 + 7 = 13
Node 3: y33 = 3 + 4 + 5 = 12
Node 4: y44 = 5 + 6 + 7 = 18
Consider now a floating element, e.g. resistor of conductance 3 S connected between nodes 2 and 3.
The current 3(v2 – v3) will flow at node 2 and current 3(v3 – v2) will flow at node 3. Hence the
second equation will have a –3v3 term and the third equation will have a –3v2 term. Hence the 3 S
resistor connected between nodes 2 and 3 introduces into the matrix elements –3 in the y23 and y32
positions.
In general, a resistor of conductance g connected between nodes i and j leads to elements yij = yji =
–g in the off-diagonal positions, e.g. The 5 S resistor between nodes 3 and 4 leads to y34 = –5 and
y43 = –5.
It follows from the above that for a circuit consisting of resistors and current sources:
1) The diagonal elements are always positive and equal to the sum of the conductances
of all resistors that are connected to the corresponding node.
2) The off-diagonal elements are always negative; off-diagonal element yij is given by
the negative of the conductance connected between nodes i and j in the circuit. If no

16
 Topic 6 – Nodal Analysis

resistor is connected between nodes i and j, the entry in the matrix is zero, e.g. in the
above example there are no elements connected between nodes 1 and 3 or between 1
and 4.
3) The admittance matrix is symmetrical.
4) The RHS of the nodal equation set is given by the sum of the currents in the current
source incident at each node.
To re-enforce the idea of by-inspection analysis, we repeat the above analysis but using literal
instead of numeric element descriptions:
g7

is2

v1 g1 v2 v3 g5 v4

g3
is1 g2 g4 g6 is3

g1 ( v1 − v2 ) = is1
g1 ( v2 − v1 ) + g2 v2 + g3 ( v2 − v3 ) + g7 ( v2 − v4 ) = is2
g3 ( v3 − v2 ) + g4 ( v3 ) + g5 ( v3 − v4 ) = −is2
g5 ( v4 − v3 ) + g6 ( v4 ) + g7 ( v4 − v2 ) = is3
Consider again the tidied-up equations:
⎡ g1 −g1 0 0 ⎤ ⎡ v1 ⎤ ⎡ is1 ⎤
⎢ −g g1 + g2 + g3 + g7 −g3 −g7 ⎥ ⎢v ⎥ ⎢ i ⎥
⎢ 1 ⎥ ⎢ 2 ⎥ = ⎢ s2 ⎥
⎢ 0 −g3 g3 + g4 + g5 −g5 ⎥ ⎢ v3 ⎥ ⎢ −is2 ⎥
⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎣ 0 −g7 −g5 g5 + g6 + g7 ⎦ ⎣ v4 ⎦ ⎣ is3 ⎦
This analysis confirms the four points made above.
So by looking at the resistors connected to each node, the resistors that link node to node and the
current sources connected at each node, we can write down the nodal equations by inspection.
We now present an alternative way of writing the nodal equations by inspection.
7.3 Element-based method
In this method we consider each element in the circuit separately in turn, describe it as a separate
element and hence build up the complete matrix.
Consider a grounded resistor of conductance g connected to node i.
vi
i = gvi

17
 Topic 6 – Nodal Analysis

The voltage at the node is vi.

The current at the node is g × vi.
This current flows at node i so entry g goes in row i of the matrix.
The current is proportional to vi so the entry goes in column i.
It follows that the entry is +g and it is on the diagonal in position i.
Hence the contribution of the grounded resistor to the admittance matrix is as follows:
i
⎡ ⎤
⎢
i⎢ g ⎥
⎥
⎢⎣ ⎥⎦
Consider now a non-grounded resistor of conductance g connected between nodes i and j.
i = g(vj – v i)
g
vi vj
i = g(vi – v j)

The resistor is connected to nodes with node voltages vi and vj.

The current in the resistor at the node i is g × (vi – vj).
Hence there are entries +g and –g in row i; the +g element is in column i (on the diagonal); the
element –g is in column j.
The current in the resistor at the node j is g × (vj – vi).
Hence there are entries +g and –g in row j; the +g element is in column j (on the diagonal); the
element –g is in column i.
Hence the contribution of the non-grounded resistor to the admittance matrix is as follows:
i j
⎡ ⎤
i ⎢ g −g ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢  ⎥
⎢ ⎥
j⎢ −g g ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎥⎦
Using these element stamps, we can introduce the resistors into the circuit one at a time.
g7

is2

v1 g1 v2 v3 g5 v4

g3
is1 g2 g4 g6 is3

18
 Topic 6 – Nodal Analysis

We start with g1 connected between nodes 1 and 2:

⎡ g1 −g1 0 0 ⎤ ⎡ v1 ⎤ ⎡ 0 ⎤
⎢ −g g1 0 0 ⎥ ⎢ v2 ⎥ ⎢ 0 ⎥
⎢ 1 ⎥⎢ ⎥ = ⎢ ⎥
⎢ 0 0 0 0 ⎥ ⎢ v3 ⎥ ⎢ 0 ⎥
⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎣ 0 0 0 0 ⎦ ⎣ v4 ⎦ ⎣ 0 ⎦
Now add g2 connected between node 2 and ground:
⎡ g1 −g1 0 0 ⎤ ⎡ v1 ⎤ ⎡ 0 ⎤
⎢ −g g1 + g2 0 0 ⎥ ⎢ v2 ⎥ ⎢ 0 ⎥
⎢ 1 ⎥⎢ ⎥ = ⎢ ⎥
⎢ 0 0 0 0 ⎥ ⎢ v3 ⎥ ⎢ 0 ⎥
⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎣ 0 0 0 0 ⎦ ⎣ v4 ⎦ ⎣ 0 ⎦
g3 is connected between nodes 2 and 3:
⎡ g1 −g1 0 0 ⎤ ⎡ v1 ⎤ ⎡ 0 ⎤
⎢ −g g1 + g2 + g3 −g3 0 ⎥ ⎢ v2 ⎥ ⎢ 0 ⎥
⎢ 1 ⎥⎢ ⎥ = ⎢ ⎥
⎢ 0 −g3 g3 0 ⎥ ⎢ v3 ⎥ ⎢ 0 ⎥
⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎣ 0 0 0 0 ⎦ ⎣ v4 ⎦ ⎣ 0 ⎦
Add g4, g5, g6 and g7:
⎡ g1 −g1 0 0 ⎤ ⎡ v1 ⎤ ⎡ 0 ⎤
⎢ −g g1 + g2 + g3 −g3 0 ⎥ ⎢ v2 ⎥ ⎢ 0 ⎥
⎢ 1 ⎥⎢ ⎥ = ⎢ ⎥
⎢ 0 −g3 g3 + g4 0 ⎥ ⎢ v3 ⎥ ⎢ 0 ⎥
⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎣ 0 0 0 0 ⎦ ⎣ v4 ⎦ ⎣ 0 ⎦

⎡ g1 −g1 0 0 ⎤ ⎡ v1 ⎤ ⎡ 0 ⎤
⎢ −g g1 + g2 + g3 −g3 0 ⎥ ⎢ v2 ⎥ ⎢ 0 ⎥
⎢ 1 ⎥⎢ ⎥ = ⎢ ⎥
⎢ 0 −g3 g3 + g4 + g5 −g5 ⎥ ⎢ v3 ⎥ ⎢ 0 ⎥
⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎣ 0 0 −g5 g5 ⎦ ⎣ v4 ⎦ ⎣ 0 ⎦

⎡ g1 −g1 0 0 ⎤ ⎡ v1 ⎤ ⎡ 0 ⎤
⎢ −g g1 + g2 + g3 −g3 0 ⎥ ⎢v ⎥ ⎢0 ⎥
⎢ 1 ⎥⎢ 2 ⎥ = ⎢ ⎥
⎢ 0 −g3 g3 + g4 + g5 −g5 ⎥ ⎢ v3 ⎥ ⎢ 0 ⎥
⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎣ 0 0 −g5 g5 + g6 ⎦ ⎣ v4 ⎦ ⎣ 0 ⎦

⎡ g1 −g1 0 0 ⎤ ⎡ v1 ⎤ ⎡ 0 ⎤
⎢ −g g1 + g2 + g3 + g7 −g3 −g7 ⎥ ⎢v ⎥ ⎢0 ⎥
⎢ 1 ⎥⎢ 2 ⎥ = ⎢ ⎥
⎢ 0 −g3 g3 + g4 + g5 −g5 ⎥ ⎢ v3 ⎥ ⎢ 0 ⎥
⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎣ 0 −g7 −g5 g5 + g6 + g7 ⎦ ⎣ v4 ⎦ ⎣ 0 ⎦
That completes the description of the resistors.
Now add the current sources.

19
 Topic 6 – Nodal Analysis

⎡ g1 −g1 0 0 ⎤ ⎡ v1 ⎤ ⎡ is1 ⎤
⎢ −g g1 + g2 + g3 + g7 −g3 −g7 ⎥ ⎢v ⎥ ⎢ i ⎥
⎢ 1 ⎥ ⎢ 2 ⎥ = ⎢ s2 ⎥
⎢ 0 −g3 g3 + g4 + g5 −g5 ⎥ ⎢ v3 ⎥ ⎢ −is2 ⎥
⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎣ 0 −g7 −g5 g5 + g6 + g7 ⎦ ⎣ v4 ⎦ ⎣ is3 ⎦
The result is the same as that obtained using the node method.
A good policy is to build the matrix using the node method and to use the element method as a
check.

8 SYNTHESIS OF A CIRCUIT FROM NODAL ADMITTANCE EQUATIONS

The very straightforward relationship between a circuit and its nodal admittance equations allows us
to derive a circuit, both topology and element values, given its admittance equations.
This amounts to synthesis of a circuit from a specification.
The method is straightforward and therefore we give only one simple example.
Example
Find the circuit which has the following admittance matrix equations:
⎡ 9 −2 −6 ⎤ ⎡ v1 ⎤ ⎡ 7 ⎤
⎢ −2 9 −4 ⎥ ⎢ v ⎥ = ⎢ −8 ⎥
⎢ ⎥⎢ 2⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ −6 −4 15 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ v3 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 9 ⎥⎦
Solution
Since there are three equations, the circuit has three nodes.
v1 v2 v3

We start by considering the off-diagonal matrix elements –2, –6 and –4.

These matrix elements imply that there are the following resistors in the circuit:
2 S resistor between nodes 1 and 2
6 S resistor between nodes 1 and 3
4 S resistor between nodes 2 and 3
Let's draw these three resistors:
6S

v1 2S v2 4S v3

We can now describe these resistors in the matrix:

20
 Topic 6 – Nodal Analysis

⎡ 2 + 6 −2 −6 ⎤
⎢ −2 2 + 4 −4 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ −6 −4 6 + 4 ⎥⎦
From the diagonal elements in this matrix and the diagonal elements in the required matrix, we can
determine the additional terms needed in the diagonal elements of the matrix:
⎡ 9 −2 −6 ⎤ ⎡ 2 + 6 + 1 −2 −6 ⎤
⎢ −2 9 −4 ⎥ = ⎢ −2 2+4+3 −4 ⎥⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢
⎢⎣ −6 −4 15 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ −6 −4 6 + 4 + 5 ⎥⎦
We now know the grounded resistors:
6S

v1 2S v2 4S v3

1S 3S 5S

Finally, from the given matrix equations:

⎡2 + 6 + 1 −2 −6 ⎤ ⎡ v1 ⎤ ⎡ 7 ⎤
⎢ −2 2+4+3 −4 ⎥⎥ ⎢⎢ v2 ⎥⎥ = ⎢⎢ −8 ⎥⎥
⎢
⎢⎣ −6 −4 6 + 4 + 5 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ v3 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 9 ⎥⎦
We determine the current sources:
6S

v1 2S v2 4S v3

7A 1S 8A 3S 5S 9A

That completes the synthesis of the circuit.

We now consider nodal analysis of circuits containing independent voltage sources.

9 NODAL ANALYSIS OF CIRCUITS WITH VOLTAGE SOURCES

9.1 General
In some books, the method of node classification is used to handle voltage sources.
We will use an alternative method due to Dr C Papavassiliou.
SPICE handles voltage sources and other awkward elements using modified nodal analysis
The method we will use is an abbreviated version of modified nodal analysis which handles voltage
sources in a convenient way.
We will develop the method by means of simple examples and then generalise
21
 Topic 6 – Nodal Analysis

We shall consider separately grounded voltage sources and non-grounded voltage sources.
We start with the case of the non-grounded voltage source.
9.2 Case on non-grounded voltage source
Consider the following example circuit containing one non-grounded voltage source:
6S

v1 2S v2 – 4V + v3

7A 1S 8A 3S 5S 9A

We start by identifying the reference node and indicating it.

We then label the remaining nodes, 1, 2, 3.
In this method, we remove the voltage source with a view to re-introducing it later.
6S

v1 2S v2 v3

7A 1S 8A 3S 5S 9A

Note that this is voltage source removal and the voltage source effectively becomes an open-circuit.
Voltage source removal should not be confused with source de-activation where the voltage source
becomes a short-circuit.
(Source de-activation arises in superposition, determining Req when deriving Thevenin and Norton
equivalent circuits and when determining time-constants in transient circuits.)
The next step is to write the nodal equations for the circuit without the voltage source.
We use the by-inspection method:
6S

v1 2S v2 v3

7A 1S 8A 3S 5S 9A

22
 Topic 6 – Nodal Analysis

⎡ 2 + 6 + 1 −2 −6 ⎤ ⎡ v1 ⎤ ⎡ 7 ⎤
⎢ −2 2+3 0 ⎥⎥ ⎢⎢ v2 ⎥⎥ = ⎢⎢ −8 ⎥⎥
⎢
⎢⎣ −6 0 6 + 5 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ v3 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 9 ⎥⎦
We will eventually need to re-connect the voltage source that we removed between nodes 2 and 3.
Let us from the above equations for the case without the voltage source write the separate equations
for nodes 2 and 3:
2 ( v2 − v1 ) + 3v2 = −8
6 ( v3 − v1 ) + 5v3 = 9
We now introduce the voltage source:
6S

v1 2S v2 – 4V + v3

is
7A 1S 8A 3S 5S 9A

Since we are applying KCL at nodes 2 and 3, we will need to include the current in the current
source; in fact it is unknown, so we have labelled it is.
We can now up-date the node equations for nodes 2 and 3:
2 ( v2 − v1 ) + 3v2 = −8 + is
6 ( v3 − v1 ) + 5v3 = 9 − is
We have introduced another variable, is, but without increasing the number of equations.
Each equation corresponds to applying KCL to a separate node, node 2 and node 3:
6S

v1 2S v2 – 4V + v3

is
7A 1S 8A 3S 5S 9A

Consider now applying KCL to a single contour enclosing both nodes:

23
 Topic 6 – Nodal Analysis

6S

v1 2S v2 – 4V + v3
is

7A 1S 8A 3S 5S 9A

The current is does not cross this contour and so should not appear in the equation.
KCL for the single contour is as follows:
2 ( v2 − v1 ) + 3v2 + 6 ( v3 − v1 ) + 5v3 = −8 + 9
This equation can be considered to be obtained by adding the two equations for nodes 2 and 3:
2 ( v2 − v1 ) + 3v2 = −8 + is
6 ( v3 − v1 ) + 5v3 = 9 − is
2 ( v2 − v1 ) + 3v2 + 6 ( v3 − v1 ) + 5v3 = −8 + 9
So adding the two equations (eqn 2 and eqn 3) corresponding to the nodes between which the
voltage source is connected (nodes 2 and 3) is a good idea.
The single equation can be seen as obtained by applying KCL to a super-node comprising both of
the original nodes of the voltage source. A super-node is defined by a single equation.
However, by adding together two equations, we have effectively lost an equation but still have the
same number of variables, v1, v2 and v3.
However, another equation is available because the voltage source insists that v3 – v2 = 4 V; this
leads to an extra equation:
−v2 + v3 = 4
We now have 3 equations and 3 unknowns and can produce a solution.
Let us go over the solution, laying it out properly:
6S

v1 2S v2 – 4V + v3

7A 1S 8A 3S 5S 9A

9.3 Example of solution for non-grounded voltage source

Remove the voltage source and write the nodal equations for the rest of the circuit:

24
 Topic 6 – Nodal Analysis

⎡ 2 + 6 + 1 −2 −6 ⎤ ⎡ v1 ⎤ ⎡ 7 ⎤
⎢ −2 2+3 0 ⎥⎥ ⎢⎢ v2 ⎥⎥ = ⎢⎢ −8 ⎥⎥
⎢
⎢⎣ −6 0 6 + 5 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ v3 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 9 ⎥⎦

⎡ 9 −2 −6 ⎤ ⎡ v1 ⎤ ⎡ 7 ⎤
⎢ −2 5 0 ⎥⎥ ⎢⎢ v2 ⎥⎥ = ⎢⎢ −8 ⎥⎥
⎢
⎢⎣ −6 0 11 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ v3 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 9 ⎥⎦
Add a link between the rows corresponding to the nodes between which the voltage source is
connected. As the voltage source is connected between nodes 2 and 3, we add a link between rows
2 and 3:
⎡ 9 −2 −6 ⎤ ⎡ v1 ⎤ ⎡ 7 ⎤
⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ −2 5 0 ⎥ ⎢ v2 ⎥ = ⎢ −8 ⎥
⎢⎣ −6 0 11 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ v3 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 9 ⎥⎦

Add the linked rows together, including the currents on the RHS. Since we are going to lose the
relationship between row number and node number, we add the node number to each row:
1⎡ 9 −2 −6 ⎤ ⎡ v1 ⎤ ⎡ 7 ⎤
2 ⎢ −2 − 6 5 + 0 0 + 11⎥⎥ ⎢⎢ v2 ⎥⎥ = ⎢⎢ −8 + 9 ⎥⎥
⎢
3 ⎢⎣ −6 0 11 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ v3 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 9 ⎥⎦

1 ⎡ 9 −2 −6 ⎤ ⎡ v1 ⎤ ⎡ 7 ⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
2, 3 ⎢ −8 5 11 ⎥ ⎢⎢ v2 ⎥⎥ = ⎢ 1 ⎥
⎢0 0 0 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ v3 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 0 ⎥⎦
⎣
The supernode is indicated by two row numbers, 2,3.
The blank bottom row is where we have to introduce the voltage source equation:
−v2 + v3 = 4
We then obtain:

1 ⎡ 9 −2 −6 ⎤ ⎡ v1 ⎤ ⎡ 7 ⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
2, 3 ⎢ −8 5 11 ⎥ ⎢⎢ v2 ⎥⎥ = ⎢ 1 ⎥
⎢ 0 −1 1 ⎥ ⎢ v ⎥ ⎢ 4 ⎥
⎣ ⎦⎣ 3⎦ ⎣ ⎦
Note that the voltage source row is separated from the other ones by means of a partition line.
Below the partition line, the units of the quantities change. '4' on the RHS is a voltage, not a
current. +1 and –1 on the LHS are dimensionless and not conductances. It is a good idea to keep
the partition line to separate this part of the matrix.
We now use the voltage source relation to reduce the equations. We can use the 3rd equation to
eliminate v2 or v3. Let us start by eliminating v3:
Choose the pivot and use Gaussian elimination:

25
 Topic 6 – Nodal Analysis

1 ⎡ 9 −2 −6 ⎤ ⎡ v1 ⎤ ⎡ 7 ⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
2, 3 ⎢ −8 5 11 ⎥ ⎢⎢ v2 ⎥⎥ = ⎢ 1 ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ 0 −1 1 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ v3 ⎥⎦ ⎣ 4 ⎦
⎡ ( −1) ( −6 ) 0 ⎤ ⎡ ( −6 ) 4 ⎤
⎢ 9 −2 − ⎥ ⎢ 7−
1 ⎢ 1
⎥ ⎡ v1 ⎤ ⎢ 1 ⎥
⎥
⎢
2, 3 ⎢ −8 5−
( −1)11 ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ 11 × 4 ⎥
0 ⎥ ⎢ v2 ⎥ = 1 −
1 ⎢ 1 ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢⎣ v3 ⎥⎦ ⎢ ⎥
⎢0 −1 1⎥ ⎢ 1 ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ ⎥⎦

We now have two equations in two unknowns v1 and v2 that may be solved in the usual way:
⎡ 9 −8 ⎤ ⎡ v1 ⎤ ⎡ 31 ⎤
⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ = ⎢ ⎥
⎣ −8 16 ⎦ ⎣ v2 ⎦ ⎣ −43⎦
⎡ 64 ⎤ v ⎡ 8 × 43 ⎤
⎢ 9 − 0 ⎥ ⎡ ⎤ 31 −
=⎢ 16 ⎥
1
⎥ ⎢⎣ v2 ⎥⎦ ⎢
16
⎢ ⎥
⎣ −8 16 ⎦ ⎣ −43 ⎦
31 × 16 − 8 × 43 62 − 43 19
v1 = = = V
9 × 16 − 64 18 − 8 10
1 1⎛ 8 × 19 ⎞
v2 = ( −43 + 8v1 ) = ⎜ −43 + ⎟=
16 16 ⎝ 10 ⎠
Alternatively, we can choose a pivot that eliminates v2 and leaves v3:

1 ⎡9 −6 ⎤ ⎡ v1 ⎤ ⎡ 7 ⎤
−2
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
2, 3 ⎢ −8 11 ⎥ ⎢⎢ v2 ⎥⎥ = ⎢ 1 ⎥
5
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
−1 1 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ v3 ⎥⎦ ⎣ 4 ⎦
⎢⎣ 0
⎡ ( −2 )1 ⎤ ⎡ ( −2 ) 4 ⎤
⎢ 9 0 −6 − −1 ⎥ ⎢ 7 − −1 ⎥
1 ⎢ ⎥ ⎡ v1 ⎤ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ 5 ×1 ⎥⎢ ⎥ ⎢ 5×4 ⎥
2, 3 −8 0 11 − v2 = 1 −
⎢ −1 ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ −1 ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢⎣ v3 ⎥⎦ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ 0 −1 1 ⎥ ⎢ 1 ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎦⎥ ⎣⎢ ⎦⎥
⎡ 9 −8 ⎤ ⎡ v1 ⎤ ⎡ −1⎤
⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ = ⎢ ⎥
⎣ −8 16 ⎦ ⎣ v3 ⎦ ⎣ 21⎦
This may be solved in the usual way.
We now consider a grounded voltage source.
9.4 Case of grounded voltage source
Consider the following circuit:

26
 Topic 6 – Nodal Analysis

6S

v1 2S v2 4S v3

+
7A 1S 8A 3S 9V
–

Remove the voltage source and write the nodal equations for the rest of the circuit:
6S

v1 2S v2 4S v3

7A 1S 8A 3S

⎡2 + 6 + 1 −2 −6 ⎤ ⎡ v1 ⎤ ⎡ 7 ⎤
⎢ −2 2 + 3+ 4 −4 ⎥⎥ ⎢⎢ v2 ⎥⎥ = ⎢⎢ −8 ⎥⎥
⎢
⎢⎣ −6 −4 4 + 6 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ v3 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 0 ⎥⎦

⎡ 9 −2 −6 ⎤ ⎡ v1 ⎤ ⎡ 7 ⎤
⎢ −2 9 −4 ⎥ ⎢ v ⎥ = ⎢ −8 ⎥
⎢ ⎥⎢ 2⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ −6 −4 10 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ v3 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 0 ⎥⎦
Add a link between the rows corresponding to the nodes between which the voltage source is
connected. Since the voltage source is connected between node 3 and ground, we link rows 3 and
ground:
⎡ 9 −2 −6 ⎤ ⎡ v1 ⎤ ⎡ 7 ⎤
⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ −2 9 −4 ⎥ ⎢ v2 ⎥ = ⎢ −8 ⎥
⎢⎣ −6 −4 10 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ v3 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 0 ⎥⎦

A link to ground (the reference node) is represented linking to the space below the bottom row.
Add the linked rows together. Since the link is to ground, row 3 vanishes:

1 ⎡ 9 −2 −6 ⎤ ⎡ v1 ⎤ ⎡ 7 ⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
2 ⎢ −2 9 −4 ⎥ ⎢⎢ v2 ⎥⎥ = ⎢ −8 ⎥
⎢0 0 0 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ v3 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 0 ⎥⎦
⎣
The equation for the voltage source itself is: v3 = 9 V; this goes into the blank row:

1 ⎡ 9 −2 −6 ⎤ ⎡ v1 ⎤ ⎡ 7 ⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
2 ⎢ −2 9 −4 ⎥ ⎢⎢ v2 ⎥⎥ = ⎢ −8 ⎥
⎢0 0 1 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ v3 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 9 ⎥⎦
⎣

27
 Topic 6 – Nodal Analysis

Eliminate v3 by GE:

1 ⎡ 9 −2 −6 ⎤ ⎡ v1 ⎤ ⎡ 7 ⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
2 ⎢ −2 9 −4 ⎥ ⎢⎢ v2 ⎥⎥ = ⎢ −8 ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ 0 0 1 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ v3 ⎥⎦ ⎣ 9 ⎦

⎡ ( −6 ) 9 ⎤
⎢ 7− 1 ⎥
1 ⎡ 9 −2 0 ⎤ ⎡ v1 ⎤ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ ⎢
2 ⎢ −2 9 0 ⎥ ⎢ v2 ⎥ = ⎢ −8 −
( −4 ) 9 ⎥
⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ ⎢ 1 ⎥
0 1 ⎥⎦ ⎣ 3 ⎦
v ⎥
⎢⎣ 0 ⎢ 9 ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎥⎦

We now have two equations in two unknowns which we may solve in the usual way:
1 ⎡ 9 −2 ⎤ ⎡ v1 ⎤ ⎡ 61 ⎤
=
2 ⎢⎣ −2 9 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ v2 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 28 ⎥⎦
These equations may be solved for v1 and v2 in the usual way.
9.5 Procedure for nodal analysis of a circuit with voltage sources
1) Decide reference node and number other nodes consecutively
2) Remove voltage sources, noting nodes to which connected, leaving open-circuits
3) Write nodal equations for circuit without voltage sources, either by-inspection or node-by-
node
4) For non-grounded voltage sources connected between nodes i and j, add the equations for
KCL at nodes i and j; for grounded voltage source at node k, remove equation for KCL at
node k
5) For each voltage source, introduce a voltage source equation that relates the voltage of the
voltage source to node voltages
6) For each voltage source, use a voltage source equation to eliminate a node voltage
7) Solve the remaining equations
9.6 Example with grounded and non-grounded voltage source
Consider the following example; the reference node has been chosen and the node voltages
labelled:
6S

v1 + 2V – v2 4S v3

+
7A 1S 8A 3S 9V
–

Now remove the two voltage sources:

28
 Topic 6 – Nodal Analysis

6S

v1 v2 4S v3

7A 1S 8A 3S

Write the nodal equations for the v-source-less circuit:

⎡1 + 6 0 −6 ⎤ ⎡ v1 ⎤ ⎡ 7 ⎤
⎢ 0 3 + 4 −4 ⎥⎥ ⎢⎢ v2 ⎥⎥ = ⎢⎢ −8 ⎥⎥
⎢
⎢⎣ −6 −4 4 + 6 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ v3 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 0 ⎥⎦
⎡ 7 0 −6 ⎤ ⎡ v1 ⎤ ⎡ 7 ⎤
⎢0 7 −4 ⎥⎥ ⎢⎢ v2 ⎥⎥ = ⎢⎢ −8 ⎥⎥
⎢
⎢⎣ −6 −4 10 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ v3 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 0 ⎥⎦

Mark the rows corresponding to the nodes of the two voltage sources:
⎡7 0 −6 ⎤ ⎡ v1 ⎤ ⎡ 7 ⎤
⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢0 7 −4 ⎥ ⎢ v2 ⎥ = ⎢ −8 ⎥
⎢⎣ −6 −4 10 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ v 3 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 0 ⎥⎦

Add rows 1 and 2; discard row 3:

1, 2 ⎡ 7 + 0 0 + 7 −6 − 4 ⎤ ⎡ v1 ⎤ ⎡ 7 − 8 ⎤
⎢ 0 7 −4 ⎥⎥ ⎢⎢ v2 ⎥⎥ = ⎢⎢ −8 ⎥⎥
⎢
⎢⎣ −6 −4 10 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ v3 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 0 ⎥⎦

1, 2 ⎡ 7 7 −10 ⎤ ⎡ v1 ⎤ ⎡ −1⎤
⎢0 0 0 ⎥ ⎢v ⎥ = ⎢ 0 ⎥
⎢ ⎥⎢ 2⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ 0 0 0 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ v3 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 0 ⎥⎦

The voltage source equations are:

v1 − v2 = 2
v3 = 9
Introduce the voltage source equations into the matrix:
1, 2 ⎡ 7 7 −10 ⎤ ⎡ v1 ⎤ ⎡ −1⎤
⎢ 1 −1 0 ⎥ ⎢ v ⎥ = ⎢ 2 ⎥
⎢ ⎥⎢ 2⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎣⎢ 0 0 1 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ v3 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 9 ⎥⎦
Eliminate v3:

29
 Topic 6 – Nodal Analysis

1, 2 ⎡ 7 7 −10 ⎤ ⎡ v1 ⎤ ⎡ −1⎤
⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ 1 −1 0 ⎥ ⎢ v2 ⎥ = ⎢ 2 ⎥
⎢0 0 1 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ v3 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 9 ⎥⎦
⎣
⎡
−1 −
( −10 ) 9 ⎤
1, 2 ⎡ 7 7 0 ⎤ ⎡ v1 ⎤ ⎢ 1 ⎥
⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ 1 −1 0 ⎥ ⎢ v2 ⎥ = ⎢ 2 ⎥
⎢0 0 ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎣ 1 ⎦⎣ 3⎦ ⎢
v 9
⎥
⎣ ⎦
1, 2 ⎡ 7 7 ⎤ ⎡ v1 ⎤ ⎡ 89 ⎤
⎢ 1 −1⎥ ⎢ ⎥ = ⎢ 2 ⎥
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ v2 ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
Now eliminate v2:
1, 2 ⎡ 7 7 ⎤ ⎡ v1 ⎤ ⎡ 89 ⎤
⎢ ⎥ =⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ 1 −1 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ v2 ⎥⎦ ⎣ 2 ⎦

⎡ 1× 7 ⎤ 7 × 2⎤
1, 2 ⎢ 7 − 0 ⎥ ⎡ v1 ⎤ ⎡ 89 −
−1 ⎢ −1 ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢v ⎥ = ⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ 1 −1 ⎥⎦ ⎣ 2 ⎦ ⎢⎣ 2 ⎥⎦

Hence, we obtain:
−89 − 14 103
v1 = =
−7 − 7 14
From the voltage source relations, we have:
103 75
v2 = v1 − 2 = −2= V
14 14
v3 = 9 V

10 CONCLUSIONS
This completes our present study of nodal analysis. Nodal analysis is systematic and hence reduces
very much the chance of making errors. It also provides a basis on which circuit analysis programs,
such as SPICE, may be constructed.
Ideally, we would like to perform nodal analysis not just of circuits with resistors but of circuits
containing inductors and capacitors too. Before we can do this, we have to introduce a totally new
approach to circuit analysis called phasor analysis.

30