Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
DATA:- Raw facts and figures which do not convey any proper meaning is called data.
For example, ‘C++’, ’in’, ‘will’, 11, ‘class’, ‘we’, ‘learn’.
A computer follows an Input – Process – Output cycle. It needs certain input, carries
out a process and produces the output.
STORAGE DEVICE
INPUT UNIT:- The input unit is formed by the input devices attached to the computer.
The input unit is responsible for taking input and converting it into computer
understandable form (the binary code).
Examples of input devices- keyboard, mouse, joystick, scanner, mic, barcode reader etc.
CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT:- The CPU is responsible for controlling the
operations of a computer. It is the brain of the computer. The CPU has two components
which are responsible for different functions i.e Control Unit(CU) and Arithmetic Logic
Unit(ALU), and a limited fast memory (REGISTERS).
ARITHMETIC LOGIC UNIT:- The ALU is divided into parts Arithmetic Unit(AU)
and Logic Unit (LU).
ARITHMETIC UNIT:- AU performs all the four arithmetical (+,-,*,/) operators. When
two numbers are required to be added these numbers are sent from memory to AU where
addition takes place and the result is put back in the memory.
LOGIC UNIT:- When the numbers are to be compared, they are sent from memory to
LU where the comparison takes place and the result is returned to the memory. The Logic
Unit performs Logical Functions - >, <, <=, >=, !=, = = etc.
CONTROL UNIT:- The CU controls the working of the computer and ascertains
whether the computer is functioning as per the commands given to it by the user or not.
The CU also controls the flow of data from input devices to memory and from memory to
output devices. That is the CU monitors the flow of information to, from and inside the
CU. The CU performs the following processing cycle –
CACHE MEMORY:- Cache Memory is external from the CPU. It is a limited memory
that stores some information frequently required by the CPU. This data is usually on the
storage device, but since the storage device is mechanical device, requesting information
time and again from the storage device by the CPU, slows down the Processing speed, so
a Cache Memory is utilized. Cache Memory is of two types –
• Level 1 Cache: This is closer to the CPU, infact it is present on the CPU Chip.
• Level 2 Cache: This is further away from the CPU.
REGISTERS:- Registers are extremely high speed but limited memory locations in the
CPU. The CPU uses these for temporary storage of data. There are various types of
Registers –
1. Data Register (DR) – This register holds the operand on which the operation is to
take place.
2. Memory Address Register (MAR) – Holds the memory address of variables,
during a computer program execution.
3. Accumulator (AC) – Is used to store intermediate answers, generated when an
expression is being calculated.
4. Instruction Register (IR) – The program statement currently being executed is
placed in the Instruction register.
5. Temporary Register (TR) – The temporary register is used to hold temporary
results generated during program execution.
6. Program Counter (PC) – The program counter hold the memory address of the
next instruction to be executed.
7. Input Register (INPR) – Stores the character that has been input through the input
device.
8. Output Register (OUTR) – Stores the character that is to be sent to the output
device.
Serial Bus
Parallel Bus
1. Data Bus – A data bus carries information to and from the memory.
2. Address Bus – The address bus carries the memory addresses.
3. Control Bus – Carries the control signal between the various devices, such as
when the control unit needs to read from the hard disk, the control bus will inform
the control unit as to whether the hard disk is available or whether it is busy with
some other task.
OUTPUT UNIT:- The output unit is formed by the output devices attached to the
computer. The output comes from the CPU and is in the form of electronic binary signals
which needs conversion in some form which is understood by human beings i.e.
characters, graphical or audio visual. Output units perform this function of conversion.
Some popular output devices are Printers, Plotters, Speech synthesizer and bar code
printer etc. Output devices are divided into two categories-
Temporary Basis output Devices – These devices display the output on a temporary
basis, since the output is displayed (visible) only when the device is on, when the device
is switched off, such as a monitor can only display information while it is on, or a speaker
can only produce sound when on.
Monitor, Speakers
CRT – Cathode Ray Tube – Monitor. Displays the output on a TV like screen. Monitors
come in various sizes from 15” upwards. Nowadays monitors are multifunctional, i.e.
they can perform the functions of a computer monitor as well as a normal Television. A
monitor displays colour images in a mixture of three standard colours Red, Green & Blue
(RGB). Now a days LCD monitors (LCD Panels) have also become popular.
Permanent Basis Output Devices – These output devices display the output on a
permanent basis, since the output is displayed on paper and can be stored for future
reference. The output on paper is also referred to as a Hardcopy. The various types of
Permanent Basis Output Devices are-
Printers, Plotters
Printers – Dot Matrix Printers, Laser Printers, Inkjet / Deskjet Printer, Thermal Printers,
Line Printers etc.
Terminology
Memory is divided into cells called locations. Each of these locations hold different
information at different instants. But they have a fixed identification called address.
A memory cell is a location that can store a symbol. Each of these cells store
information in the form of bits. A bit means a binary digit i.e., either 0 or 1. A number of
bits together are used to store data instructions by their combination.
A group of 4 bits is called a nibble, a group of 8 bits is called a byte and a group of 16
bits or more is called a word.
One byte is the smallest unit that can represent a data item or a character. Other units of
memory are KB, MB, GB and TB.
4 Bits = 1 Nibble
8 Bits = 1 Byte
The storage system of a computer can be classified into three groups of memories. These
are:
• Internal Processor memory: These consist of small set of high speed registers,
which are internal to a processor and are used as temporary locations where actual
processing is done.
• Primary Memory or Main Memory: It is a large memory that is fast but not as
fast as internal processor memory. This memory is accessed directly by the
processor. It is based mainly on integrated circuits.
• Secondary Memory / Auxiliary Memory / Backing Store: Auxiliary memory,
larger in size than main memory, is slower than main memory. A processor does
not directly access secondary memories. First, the information of these memories
is transferred to the main memory and then the information can be accessed.
Types of ROM
There are many types of ROM available for microcomputers like Mask ROM, PROM,
EPROM, EEPROM, EAPROM.
• Mask ROM: It is the basic ROM chip. In this type of ROM, the information is
stored at the time of manufacturing. So, it cannot be altered or erased later on.
• PROM: It stands for Programmable Read Only Memory. In this type of ROM,
the information is stored after its manufacturing. It also cannot be altered or
erased later on.
• EPROM: It stands for Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory. It is similar
to PROM, but its information can be erased later on by ultra-violet light and it can
be reprogrammed.
• EEPROM: It stands for Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory.
It is similar to EPROM, but using a high voltage current can erase its information.
• EAPROM: It stands for Electrically Alterable Read Only Memory. As compared
to EPROM and EEPROM, The information stored in EAPROM can be altered
later.
Types of RAM
There are two types of RAM used in PC’s – Dynamic and Static RAM
• DYNAMIC RAM(DRAM): The information stored in Dynamic RAM has to be
refreshed after every few milliseconds, otherwise it is erased. DRAM has higher
storage capacity and is cheaper than Static RAM.
• STATIC RAM(STAM): The information stored in Static RAM need not be
refreshed, but it remains stable as long as the power supply is provided. SRAM is
costlier but has higher speed than DRAM.
Types of RAM –
FD – Floppy Disk – Size – 5¼” and 3½” – Capacity 1.2MB and 1.44MB respectively
Computer Systems are categorized into various types on the basis of working, storage and
data addressing and applications –
WORKING –
Analog Systems – These systems work on the basis of comparing values rather than on
counting. They provide graphical and comparative outputs, since they only compare they
are considered to be faster. They answer the question how much.
Digital Systems – These systems work on the basis of counting quantities and are
therefore more accurate as compared to Analog Systems. The answer the question how
much.
Hybrid Systems – These systems use quality of both analog and digital computer
systems, they compare quantities to work faster but provide a counted output which is
more accurate.
APPLICATIONS –
General Purpose – These types of computers can be used for a variety of tasks. The
desktop PC that we use at home, is a general purpose computer.
Special Purpose – These computers are designed and manufactured for a single purpose.
They cannot perform any other task other than which they are designed for.
TYPES OF COMPUTERS
COMPUTER GENERATIONS
1st Generation – Large sized computers, used vaccum tubes as primary components,
generated a lot of heat. Years 1949 - 1955. Output not very accurate.
e.g.
ENIAC – Electronic Numeric Integrator & Calculator
3rd Generation – Further reduction in size, primary components Integrated Chips (ICs).
Computers became more powerful with increase in usage and the development of HLLs.
E.g. LILLIAC IV. Years 1966 – 1975.
Computer CPU
5th Generation: The concept of 5th generation computers has already started and is
being implemented slowly and steadily. These concepts involve – nanotechnology,
artificial intelligence, speech processing, etc. Years 1995 onwards.
PERIPHERALS:-The peripherals are the devices that surround the system unit e.g., the
keyboard, mouse, speakers, printers, monitors etc.
SYSTEM SOFTWARE:- Software that are required to control the working of hardware
and aid in effective execution of a general user’s applications are called System Software.
Sometimes a third step is also performed, in this step the object code is Linked
and converted to an Executable file.
1. Middle Level Language – Some people also categorize a third type called the
MLL, these language have the power of LLL and the simplicity in use of the
HLL. The C and C++ languages fall under this category.
2. 4GLs – 4th Generation Languages – Primarily 4th Generation Languages are
mainly packages and technologies (specifically Database) that are application
packages which provide the facility of programming. E.g. dBASE, Foxpro etc.
3. Utility Programs: These programs are used for maintenance of the computer system
and performing routine tasks, such as backup, de-fragmentation, file deleting and un-
deleting services, anti-virus program, formatting etc. Utility programs may be inbuilt
within the operating systems or as separate proprietary or third-party software.
CVT: Constant Voltage Transformer. The function of the CVT is to provide a constant
and smooth voltage and electric current to a computer system.
SERVO STABILIZER: A servo stabilizer has the same function as that of a CVT/CVR,
but it uses a motor to step up or step down the voltage.
SMPS: Switched Mode Power Supply. An SMPS is used to switch (breakup) volts of
voltage input to a computer to acceptable computer voltage of 5volts and 10volts.
HEAT SINK: Computer Chips get heated very quickly because of high speed electric
current that flows through them. They need to be cooled down and the heat needs to be
dissipated into the atmosphere so that the chips don’t get burnt out. A heat sink is device
which is used to dissipate the heat. It is made of a highly conducive alloys such as
aluminium or copper or a combination of both. A heat sink has fins through which the
heat is dissipated (lost to the atmosphere). The heat sink is placed directly over the chip.
Heat Sinks are of two types Passive and Active.
1. Passive Heat Sinks, do not use any external device or current to dissipate the
heat, they use their fins and the natural heat conductive property of the alloy
which they are made from. These are used for chips that do not get very highly
heated.
2. Active Heat Sinks, use external devices, such as cooling fans, which use an
external power source to keep the heat sink cooled and allow greater heat
dissipation. These are used for chips that get heated to very high temperatures.
1. Offline UPS: In this type of UPS, the electric current is filtered and passed to the
computer system directly when the electric supply is present. At the time of power
failure the batteries take over and supply the current for the computer system.
These are relatively cheaper than online ups systems.
2. 2. Online UPS: In this type of UPS the electric current (AC) is converted to
(DC – Direct Current) and passed onto the batteries which provide the current to
the computer system. The AC current is also used to continuously recharge the
batteries. During power failure the batteries which are already supplying the
current continue to do so. These are more expensive as compared to Offline UPS.
PC – Personal Computer
OPERATING SYSTEMS
An operating system acts as an interface between the user and the computer system. It
also manages and coordinates all hardware devices and makes them available as and
when required. The primary functions of an operating systems are –
The last option is for multi-user operating systems, where the operation systems needs to
control accounts (users), with respect to their permissions, the time they’re allowed,
manage and maintain their ids and passwords.
Character User Interface (CUI) – The CUI operating system, uses commands and
procedures for performing operations. These are single user and single tasking, which
means that only one user can work on a computer system at one time and only one
program can be executed at a time. If a user wishes to execute another program he/she
must quit the program that is running and then execute the other program. E.g. Microsoft
Disk Operating System (MS-DOS).
Graphic User Interface (GUI) – In a GUI OS, the user uses symbols and pictures to
perform a task or a procedure, each symbol or picture represents a particular process,
these symbols are called icons. E.g. Microsoft Windows.
Multiuser – A multiuser OS allows more than user to work simultaneously using one
processor at the same time.
Time Sharing – In this type of OS several users use a single computer but from their
terminals, all the processes are handled by 1 computer system (server), which assigns
time limits for each user. These time slots are so small (in micro/milli seconds) that each
users feels as if he/she is the only one using the computer.
Batch Processing – A batch means a group. In this type of OS all data is collected in a
group and processed together as a batch.
CISC & RISC ARCHITECTURE
1. A large and varied instruction set that includes simple, fast instructions that may
be single or multi-cycle, performing complex operations.
2. Support for HLL is done in Hardware.
3. Memory to Memory addressing modes.
4. Microcode Control Unit.
5. Single register.
6. e.g. Intel, AMD, Cyrix
Text components:
List
PopupMenu
Icons
Desktop
Taskbar
System Tray
Questions –
Q3. Write a short note on Control Unit. What are its functions?
Q4. What is a BUS? Name and define the various types of Buses.
Q5. Name the various types of Temporary and Permanent Basis Output Devices.
Q6. Differentiate between ROM and RAM. Also name their various types.
Q7. (a) What are secondary memory storage devices? Name any 5 types of secondary
storage devices.
(b) What do you understand by sequential and random access? Which storage
devices have sequential access and which have random access?
Q8. Write short notes on Analog, Digital & Hybrid Computers.
Q9. Draw a chart showing the various types of computers on the basis of working,
storage and applications.
Q11. Briefly describe the features of the various computer generations (year,
components, introduced languages).
iv) High Level Languages v) Low Level Languages vi) Middle Level
Languages